Merge pull request #90 from astrieanna/master

Add Entry for Julia Language

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+---
+language: julia
+author: Leah Hanson
+author_url: http://leahhanson.us
+---
+
+Julia is a new homoiconic functional language focused on technical computing.
+While having the full power of homoiconic macros, first-class functions, and low-level control, Julia is as easy to learn and use as Python.
+
+This is based on the current development version of Julia, as of June 29th, 2013.
+
+```julia
+# Single line comments start with a hash.
+
+####################################################
+## 1. Primitive Datatypes and Operators
+####################################################
+
+# Everything in Julia is a expression.
+
+# You have numbers
+3 #=> 3 (Int64)
+3.2 #=> 3.2 (Float64)
+2 + 1im #=> 2 + 1im (Complex{Int64})
+2//3 #=> 2//3 (Rational{Int64})
+
+# Math is what you would expect
+1 + 1 #=> 2
+8 - 1 #=> 7
+10 * 2 #=> 20
+35 / 5 #=> 7.0
+5 \ 35 #=> 7.0
+5 / 2 #=> 2.5
+div(5, 2) #=> 2
+2 ^ 2 #=> 4 # power, not bitwise xor
+12 % 10 #=> 2
+
+# Enforce precedence with parentheses
+(1 + 3) * 2 #=> 8
+
+# Bitwise Operators
+~2 #=> -3   # bitwise not
+3 & 5 #=> 1 # bitwise and
+2 | 4 #=> 6 # bitwise or
+2 $ 4 #=> 6 # bitwise xor
+2 >>> 1 #=> 1 # logical shift right
+2 >> 1  #=> 1 # arithmetic shift right
+2 << 1  #=> 4 # logical/arithmetic shift left
+
+# You can use the bits function to see the binary representation of a number.
+bits(12345)   #=> "0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011000000111001"
+bits(12345.0) #=> "0100000011001000000111001000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
+
+# Boolean values are primitives
+true
+false
+
+# Boolean operators
+!true #=> false
+!false #=> true
+1 == 1 #=> true
+2 == 1 #=> false
+1 != 1 #=> false
+2 != 1 #=> true
+1 < 10 #=> true
+1 > 10 #=> false
+2 <= 2 #=> true
+2 >= 2 #=> true
+# Comparisons can be chained
+1 < 2 < 3 #=> true
+2 < 3 < 2 #=> false
+
+# Strings are created with "
+"This is a string."
+
+# Character literals written with '
+'a'
+
+# A string can be treated like a list of characters
+"This is a string"[1] #=> 'T' # Julia indexes from 1
+
+# $ can be used for string interpolation:
+"2 + 2 = $(2 + 2)" #=> "2 + 2 = 4"
+# You can put any Julia expression inside the parenthesis.
+
+# Another way to format strings is the printf macro.
+@printf "%d is less than %f" 4.5 5.3 # 5 is less than 5.300000
+
+####################################################
+## 2. Variables and Collections
+####################################################
+
+# Printing is pretty easy
+println("I'm Julia. Nice to meet you!")
+
+# No need to declare variables before assigning to them.
+some_var = 5 #=> 5 
+some_var #=> 5
+# Accessing a previously unassigned variable is an error
+some_other_var #=> ERROR: some_other_var not defined
+
+# Variable Names:
+SomeOtherVar123! = 6 #=> 6 # You can use uppercase letters, digits, and exclamation points as well after the initial alphabetic character.
+☃ = 8 #=> 8 # You can also use unicode characters
+
+# A note on naming conventions in Julia:
+# * Names of variables are in lower case, with word separation indicated by underscores ('\_').
+# * Names of Types begin with a capital letter and word separation is shown with CamelCase instead of underscores.
+# * Names of functions and macros are in lower case, without underscores.
+# * Functions that modify their inputs have names that end in !. These functions are sometimes called mutating functions or in-place functions.
+
+# Arrays store a sequence of values indexed by integers 1 through n:
+a = Int64[] #=> 0-element Int64 Array
+# 1-dimensional array literals can be written with comma-separated values.
+b = [4, 5, 6] #=> 3-element Int64 Array: [4, 5, 6]
+b[1] #=> 4
+b[end] #=> 6
+# 2-dimentional arrays use space-separated values and semicolon-separated rows.
+matrix = [1 2; 3 4] #=> 2x2 Int64 Array: [1 2; 3 4]
+
+# Add stuff to the end of a list with push! and append!
+push!(a,1)     #=> [1]
+push!(a,2)     #=> [1,2]
+push!(a,4)     #=> [1,2,4]
+push!(a,3)     #=> [1,2,4,3]
+append!(a,b) #=> [1,2,4,3,4,5,6]
+# Remove from the end with pop
+pop!(a)        #=> 6 and b is now [4,5]
+# Let's put it back
+push!(b,6)   # b is now [4,5,6] again.
+
+a[1] #=> 1 # remember that Julia indexes from 1, not 0!
+a[end] #=> 6 # end is a shorthand for the last index; it can be used in any indexing expression.
+
+# Function names that end in exclamations points indicate that they modify their argument.
+arr = [5,4,6] #=> 3-element Int64 Array: [5,4,6]
+sort(arr) #=> [4,5,6]; arr is still [5,4,6]
+sort!(arr) #=> [4,5,6]; arr is now [4,5,6]
+
+# Looking out of bounds is a BoundsError
+a[0] #=> ERROR: BoundsError() in getindex at array.jl:270
+a[end+1] #=> ERROR: BoundsError() in getindex at array.jl:270
+# Errors list the line and file they came from, even if it's in the standard library.
+# If you built Julia from source, you can look in the folder base inside the julia folder to find these files.
+
+# You can initialize arrays from ranges
+a = [1:5] #=> 5-element Int64 Array: [1,2,3,4,5]
+
+# You can look at ranges with slice syntax.
+a[1:3] #=> [1, 2, 3]
+# Omit the beginning
+a[2:] #=> [2, 3, 4, 5]
+
+# Remove arbitrary elements from a list with splice!
+arr = [3,4,5]
+splice!(arr,2) #=> 4 ; arr is now [3,5]
+
+# Concatenate lists with append! 
+b = [1,2,3]
+append!(a,b) # Now a is [1, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3]
+
+# Check for existence in a list with contains 
+contains(a,1) #=> true
+
+# Examine the length with length
+length(a) #=> 7
+
+# Tuples are immutable.
+tup = (1, 2, 3) #=>(1,2,3) # an (Int64,Int64,Int64) tuple.
+tup[1] #=> 1
+tup[0] = 3 #=> ERROR: no method setindex!((Int64,Int64,Int64),Int64,Int64)
+
+# Many list functions also work on tuples
+length(tup) #=> 3
+tup[1:2] #=> (1,2)
+contains(tup,2) #=> true
+
+# You can unpack tuples into variables
+a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) #=> (1,2,3)  # a is now 1, b is now 2 and c is now 3
+# Tuples are created by default if you leave out the parentheses
+d, e, f = 4, 5, 6 #=> (4,5,6)
+# Now look how easy it is to swap two values
+e, d = d, e  #=> (5,4) # d is now 5 and e is now 4
+
+
+# Dictionaries store mappings
+empty_dict = Dict() #=> Dict{Any,Any}()
+# Here is a prefilled dictionary
+filled_dict = ["one"=> 1, "two"=> 2, "three"=> 3] #=> ["one"=> 1, "two"=> 2, "three"=> 3] # Dict{ASCIIString,Int64}
+
+# Look up values with []
+filled_dict["one"] #=> 1
+
+# Get all keys
+keys(filled_dict) #=> KeyIterator{Dict{ASCIIString,Int64}}(["three"=>3,"one"=>1,"two"=>2])
+# Note - dictionary keys are not sorted or in the order you inserted them.
+
+# Get all values 
+values(d) #=> ValueIterator{Dict{ASCIIString,Int64}}(["three"=>3,"one"=>1,"two"=>2])
+# Note - Same as above regarding key ordering.
+
+# Check for existence of keys in a dictionary with contains, haskey
+contains(filled_dict,("one",1)) #=> true
+contains(filled_dict,("two",3)) #=> false
+haskey(filled_dict,"one") #=> true
+haskey(filled_dict,1) #=> false
+
+# Trying to look up a non-existing key will raise an error
+filled_dict["four"] #=> ERROR: key not found: four in getindex at dict.jl:489
+
+# Use get method to avoid the error
+# get(dictionary,key,default_value)
+get(filled_dict,"one",4) #=> 1
+get(filled_dict,"four",4) #=> 4
+
+# Sets store sets
+empty_set = Set() #=> Set{Any}()
+# Initialize a set with a bunch of values
+filled_set = Set(1,2,2,3,4) #=> Set{Int64}(1,2,3,4)
+
+# Add more items to a set
+add!(filled_set,5) #=> Set{Int64}(5,4,2,3,1)
+
+# There are functions for set intersection, union, and difference.
+other_set = Set(3, 4, 5, 6) #=> Set{Int64}(6,4,5,3)
+intersect(filled_set, other_set) #=> Set{Int64}(3,4,5)
+union(filled_set, other_set) #=> Set{Int64}(1,2,3,4,5,6)
+setdiff(Set(1,2,3,4),Set(2,3,5)) #=> Set{Int64}(1,4)
+
+# Check for existence in a set with contains 
+contains(filled_set,2) #=> true
+contains(filled_set,10) #=> false
+
+
+####################################################
+## 3. Control Flow
+####################################################
+
+# Let's make a variable
+some_var = 5
+
+# Here is an if statement. Indentation is NOT meaningful in Julia.
+# prints "some var is smaller than 10"
+if some_var > 10
+    println("some_var is totally bigger than 10.")
+elseif some_var < 10    # This elseif clause is optional.
+    println("some_var is smaller than 10.")
+else                    # The else clause is optional too.
+    println("some_var is indeed 10.")
+end
+
+
+# For loops iterate over iterable things, such as ranges, lists, sets, dicts, strings. 
+# prints:
+#    dog is a mammal
+#    cat is a mammal
+#    mouse is a mammal
+
+for animal=["dog", "cat", "mouse"]
+    # You can use $ to interpolate into strings
+    println("$animal is a mammal")
+end
+
+# You can use in instead of =, if you want.
+for animal in ["dog", "cat", "mouse"]
+    println("$animal is a mammal")
+end
+
+for a in ["dog"=>"mammal","cat"=>"mammal","mouse"=>"mammal"]
+    println("$(a[1]) is $(a[2])")
+end
+
+for (k,v) in ["dog"=>"mammal","cat"=>"mammal","mouse"=>"mammal"]
+    println("$k is $v")
+end
+
+
+# While loops go until a condition is no longer met.
+# prints:
+#   0
+#   1
+#   2
+#   3
+x = 0
+while x < 4
+    println(x)
+    x += 1  # Shorthand for x = x + 1
+end
+
+# Handle exceptions with a try/except block
+
+error("help") # ERROR: help in error at error.jl:21
+
+try
+   error("help")
+catch e
+   println("caught it $e")
+end             
+#=> caught it ErrorException("help")
+
+
+####################################################
+## 4. Functions
+####################################################
+
+# Use the keyword function to create new functions
+function add(x, y)
+    println("x is $x and y is $y")
+    x + y    # or equivalently: return x + y
+end
+
+add(5, 6) #=> 11 after printing out "x is 5 and y is 6"
+
+# You can define functions that take a variable number of
+# positional arguments
+function varargs(args...)
+    return args
+end
+
+varargs(1,2,3) #=> (1,2,3)
+
+# The ... is called a splat.
+# It can also be used in a fuction call
+# to splat a list or tuple out to be the arguments
+Set([1,2,3])    #=> Set{Array{Int64,1}}([1,2,3]) # no ..., produces a Set of Arrays
+Set([1,2,3]...) #=> Set{Int64}(1,2,3) # this is equivalent to Set(1,2,3)
+
+x = (1,2,3)     #=> (1,2,3)
+Set(x)          #=> Set{(Int64,Int64,Int64)}((1,2,3)) # a Set of Tuples
+Set(x...)       #=> Set{Int64}(2,3,1)
+
+
+# You can define functions with optional positional arguments
+function defaults(a,b,x=5,y=6)
+    return "$a $b and $x $y"
+end
+
+defaults('h','g') #=> "h g and 5 6"
+defaults('h','g','j') #=> "h g and j 6"
+defaults('h','g','j','k') #=> "h g and j k"
+defaults('h') #=> ERROR: no method defaults(Char,)
+defaults() #=> ERROR: no methods defaults()
+
+# You can define functions that take keyword arguments
+function keyword_args(;k1=4,name2="hello") # note the ;
+    return ["k1"=>k1,"name2"=>name2]
+end 
+
+keyword_args(name2="ness") #=> ["name2"=>"ness","k1"=>4]
+keyword_args(k1="mine") #=> ["k1"=>"mine","name2"=>"hello"]
+keyword_args() #=> ["name2"=>"hello","k2"=>4]
+
+# You can also do both at once
+function all_the_args(normal_arg, optional_positional_arg=2; keyword_arg="foo")
+    println("normal arg: $normal_arg")
+    println("optional arg: $optional_positional_arg")
+    println("keyword arg: $keyword_arg")
+end
+
+all_the_args(1, 3, keyword_arg=4)
+# prints:
+#   normal arg: 1
+#   optional arg: 3
+#   keyword arg: 4
+
+# Julia has first class functions
+function create_adder(x)
+    adder = function (y)
+        return x + y
+    end
+    return adder
+end
+
+# or equivalently
+function create_adder(x)
+    y -> x + y
+end
+
+# you can also name the internal function, if you want
+function create_adder(x)
+    function adder(y)
+        x + y
+    end
+    adder
+end
+
+add_10 = create_adder(10)
+add_10(3) #=> 13
+
+# The first two inner functions above are anonymous functions
+(x -> x > 2)(3) #=> true
+
+# There are built-in higher order functions
+map(add_10, [1,2,3]) #=> [11, 12, 13]
+filter(x -> x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) #=> [6, 7]
+
+# We can use list comprehensions for nice maps and filters
+[add_10(i) for i=[1, 2, 3]] #=> [11, 12, 13]
+[add_10(i) for i in [1, 2, 3]] #=> [11, 12, 13]
+
+####################################################
+## 5. Types and Multiple-Dispatch 
+####################################################
+
+# Type definition
+type Tiger
+  taillength::Float64
+  coatcolor # no type annotation is implicitly Any
+end
+# default constructor is the properties in order
+# so, Tiger(taillength,coatcolor)
+
+# Type instantiation
+tigger = Tiger(3.5,"orange") # the type doubles as the constructor function
+
+# Abtract Types
+abstract Cat # just a name and point in the type hierarchy
+
+# types defined with the type keyword are concrete types; they can be instantiated
+# types defined with the abstract keyword are abstract types; they can have subtypes
+# each type has one supertype; a supertype can have zero or more subtypes.
+
+type Lion <: Cat # Lion is a subtype of Cat
+  mane_color
+  roar::String
+end
+
+type Panther <: Cat # Panther is also a subtype of Cat
+  eye_color
+  Panther() = new("green") # Panthers will only have this constructor, and no default constructor.
+end
+
+# Multiple Dispatch
+
+# In Julia, all named functions are generic functions
+# This means that they are built up from many small methods
+# For example, let's make a function meow:
+function meow(cat::Lion)
+  cat.roar # access properties using dot notation
+end
+
+function meow(cat::Panther)
+  "grrr"
+end
+
+function meow(cat::Tiger)
+  "rawwwr"
+end
+
+meow(tigger) #=> "rawwr"
+meow(Lion("brown","ROAAR")) #=> "ROAAR"
+meow(Panther()) #=> "grrr"
+
+function pet_cat(cat::Cat)
+  println("The cat says $(meow(cat))")
+end
+
+pet_cat(tigger) #=> ERROR: no method pet_cat(Tiger,)
+pet_cat(Lion(Panther(),"42")) #=> prints "The cat says 42"
+
+
+## Further Reading
+
+You can get a lot more detail from [The Julia Manual](http://docs.julialang.org/en/latest/manual/)
+