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authorLuis F. Uceta <uzluisf@users.noreply.github.com>2019-12-07 13:03:36 -0500
committerven <vendethiel@hotmail.fr>2019-12-07 19:03:36 +0100
commit6688d18f61fd0e54ef2513cc2c9f0c7b336cf799 (patch)
treeba93861a5d79f6cedb812fbc675a970dce8c63f4 /raku.html.markdown
parent7b8042992513386cc77008cb38bc5682243e4759 (diff)
Add changes regarding rename and more: (#3758)
- Replace mentions of Perl 6 with Raku (See https://github.com/perl6/problem-solving/blob/master/solutions/language/Path-to-Raku.md) - Document's sections is now part of the resulting raku file - The resulting Raku file can now be executed without runtime/compile-time errors - Some examples had minor updates or fixes - Update links, extensions and commands.
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+---
+category: language
+language: Raku
+filename: learnraku.raku
+contributors:
+ - ["vendethiel", "http://github.com/vendethiel"]
+ - ["Samantha McVey", "https://cry.nu"]
+---
+
+Raku (formerly Perl 6) is a highly capable, feature-rich programming language
+made for at least the next hundred years.
+
+The primary Raku compiler is called [Rakudo](http://rakudo.org), which runs on
+the JVM and the [MoarVM](http://moarvm.com).
+
+Meta-note:
+
+* Although the pound sign (`#`) is used for sentences and notes, Pod-styled
+ comments (more below about them) are used whenever it's convenient.
+* `# OUTPUT:` is used to represent the output of a command to any standard
+ stream. If the output has a newline, it's represented by the `␤` symbol.
+ The output is always enclosed by angle brackets (`«` and `»`).
+* `#=>` represents the value of an expression, return value of a sub, etc.
+ In some cases, the value is accompanied by a comment.
+* Backticks are used to distinguish and highlight the language constructs
+ from the text.
+
+```perl6
+####################################################
+# 0. Comments
+####################################################
+
+# Single line comments start with a pound sign.
+
+#`( Multiline comments use #` and a quoting construct.
+ (), [], {}, 「」, etc, will work.
+)
+
+=for comment
+Use the same syntax for multiline comments to embed comments.
+for #`(each element in) @array {
+ put #`(or print element) $_ #`(with newline);
+}
+
+# You can also use Pod-styled comments. For example:
+
+=comment This is a comment that extends until an empty
+newline is found.
+
+=comment
+The comment doesn't need to start in the same line as the directive.
+
+=begin comment
+This comment is multiline.
+
+Empty newlines can exist here too!
+=end comment
+
+####################################################
+# 1. Variables
+####################################################
+
+# In Raku, you declare a lexical variable using the `my` keyword:
+my $variable;
+
+# Raku has 3 basic types of variables: scalars, arrays, and hashes.
+
+#
+# 1.1 Scalars
+#
+
+# Scalars represent a single value. They start with the `$` sigil:
+my $str = 'String';
+
+# Double quotes allow for interpolation (which we'll see later):
+my $str2 = "$str";
+
+# Variable names can contain but not end with simple quotes and dashes,
+# and can contain (and end with) underscores:
+my $person's-belongings = 'towel'; # this works!
+
+my $bool = True; # `True` and `False` are Raku's boolean values.
+my $inverse = !$bool; # Invert a bool with the prefix `!` operator.
+my $forced-bool = so $str; # And you can use the prefix `so` operator
+$forced-bool = ?$str; # to turn its operand into a Bool. Or use `?`.
+
+#
+# 1.2 Arrays and Lists
+#
+
+# Arrays represent multiple values. An array variable starts with the `@`
+# sigil. Unlike lists, from which arrays inherit, arrays are mutable.
+
+my @array = 'a', 'b', 'c';
+# equivalent to:
+my @letters = <a b c>;
+# In the previous statement, we use the quote-words (`<>`) term for array
+# of words, delimited by space. Similar to perl5's qw, or Ruby's %w.
+
+@array = 1, 2, 4;
+
+# Array indices start at 0. Here the third element is being accessed.
+say @array[2]; # OUTPUT: «4␤»
+
+say "Interpolate an array using []: @array[]";
+# OUTPUT: «Interpolate an array using []: 1 2 3␤»
+
+@array[0] = -1; # Assigning a new value to an array index
+@array[0, 1] = 5, 6; # Assigning multiple values
+
+my @keys = 0, 2;
+@array[@keys] = @letters; # Assignment using an array containing index values
+say @array; # OUTPUT: «a 6 b␤»
+
+#
+# 1.3 Hashes, or key-value Pairs.
+#
+
+=begin comment
+Hashes are pairs of keys and values. You can construct a `Pair` object
+using the syntax `key => value`. Hash tables are very fast for lookup,
+and are stored unordered. Keep in mind that keys get "flattened" in hash
+context, and any duplicated keys are deduplicated.
+=end comment
+my %hash = 'a' => 1, 'b' => 2;
+
+# Keys get auto-quoted when the fat comman (`=>`) is used. Trailing commas are
+# okay.
+%hash = a => 1, b => 2, ;
+
+# Even though hashes are internally stored differently than arrays,
+# Raku allows you to easily create a hash from an even numbered array:
+%hash = <key1 value1 key2 value2>; # Or:
+%hash = "key1", "value1", "key2", "value2";
+
+%hash = key1 => 'value1', key2 => 'value2'; # same result as above
+
+# You can also use the "colon pair" syntax. This syntax is especially
+# handy for named parameters that you'll see later.
+%hash = :n(2), # equivalent to `n => 2`
+ :is-even, # equivalent to `:is-even(True)` or `is-even => True`
+ :!is-odd, # equivalent to `:is-odd(False)` or `is-odd => False`
+;
+# The `:` (as in `:is-even`) and `:!` (as `:!is-odd`) constructs are known
+# as the `True` and `False` shortcuts respectively.
+
+=begin comment
+As demonstrated in the example below, you can use {} to get the value from a key.
+If it's a string without spaces, you can actually use the quote-words operator
+(`<>`). Since Raku doesn't have barewords, as Perl does, `{key1}` doesn't work
+though.
+=end comment
+say %hash{'n'}; # OUTPUT: «2␤», gets value associated to key 'n'
+say %hash<is-even>; # OUTPUT: «True␤», gets value associated to key 'is-even'
+
+####################################################
+# 2. Subroutines
+####################################################
+
+# Subroutines, or functions as most other languages call them, are
+# created with the `sub` keyword.
+sub say-hello { say "Hello, world" }
+
+# You can provide (typed) arguments. If specified, the type will be checked
+# at compile-time if possible, otherwise at runtime.
+sub say-hello-to( Str $name ) {
+ say "Hello, $name !";
+}
+
+# A sub returns the last value of the block. Similarly, the semicolon in
+# the last expression can be omitted.
+sub return-value { 5 }
+say return-value; # OUTPUT: «5␤»
+
+sub return-empty { }
+say return-empty; # OUTPUT: «Nil␤»
+
+# Some control flow structures produce a value, for instance `if`:
+sub return-if {
+ if True { "Truthy" }
+}
+say return-if; # OUTPUT: «Truthy␤»
+
+# Some don't, like `for`:
+sub return-for {
+ for 1, 2, 3 { 'Hi' }
+}
+say return-for; # OUTPUT: «Nil␤»
+
+=begin comment
+Positional arguments are required by default. To make them optional, use
+the `?` after the parameters' names.
+
+In the following example, the sub `with-optional` returns `(Any)` (Perl's
+null-like value) if no argument is passed. Otherwise, it returns its argument.
+=end comment
+sub with-optional( $arg? ) {
+ $arg;
+}
+with-optional; # returns Any
+with-optional(); # returns Any
+with-optional(1); # returns 1
+
+=begin comment
+You can also give provide a default value when they're not passed. Doing
+this make said parameter optional. Required parameters must come before
+optional ones.
+
+In the sub `greeting`, the parameter `$type` is optional.
+=end comment
+sub greeting( $name, $type = "Hello" ) {
+ say "$type, $name!";
+}
+
+greeting("Althea"); # OUTPUT: «Hello, Althea!␤»
+greeting("Arthur", "Good morning"); # OUTPUT: «Good morning, Arthur!␤»
+
+=begin comment
+You can also, by using a syntax akin to the one of hashes (yay unified syntax!),
+declared named parameters and thus pass named arguments to a subroutine.
+By default, named parameter are optional and will default to `Any`.
+=end comment
+sub with-named( $normal-arg, :$named ) {
+ say $normal-arg + $named;
+}
+with-named(1, named => 6); # OUTPUT: «7␤»
+
+=begin comment
+There's one gotcha to be aware of, here: If you quote your key, Raku
+won't be able to see it at compile time, and you'll have a single `Pair`
+object as a positional parameter, which means the function subroutine
+`with-named(1, 'named' => 6);` fails.
+=end comment
+with-named(2, :named(5)); # OUTPUT: «7␤»
+
+# Similar to positional parameters, you can provide your named arguments with
+# default values.
+sub named-def( :$def = 5 ) {
+ say $def;
+}
+named-def; # OUTPUT: «5»
+named-def(def => 15); # OUTPUT: «15»
+
+=begin comment
+In order to make a named parameter mandatory, you can append `!` to the
+parameter. This is the inverse of `?`, which makes a required parameter
+optional.
+=end comment
+
+sub with-mandatory-named( :$str! ) {
+ say "$str!";
+}
+with-mandatory-named(str => "My String"); # OUTPUT: «My String!␤»
+# with-mandatory-named; # runtime error: "Required named parameter not passed"
+# with-mandatory-named(3);# runtime error: "Too many positional parameters passed"
+
+=begin comment
+If a sub takes a named boolean argument, you can use the same "short boolean"
+hash syntax we discussed earlier.
+=end comment
+sub takes-a-bool( $name, :$bool ) {
+ say "$name takes $bool";
+}
+takes-a-bool('config', :bool); # OUTPUT: «config takes True␤»
+takes-a-bool('config', :!bool); # OUTPUT: «config takes False␤»
+
+=begin comment
+Since paranthesis can be omitted when calling a subroutine, you need to use
+`&` in order to distinguish between a call to a sub with no arguments and
+the code object.
+
+For instance, in this example we must use `&` to store the sub `say-hello`
+(i.e., the sub's code object) in a variable, not a subroutine call.
+=end comment
+my &s = &say-hello;
+my &other-s = sub { say "Anonymous function!" }
+
+=begin comment
+A sub can have a "slurpy" parameter, or what one'd call a
+"doesn't-matter-how-many" parameter. This is Raku's way of supporting variadic
+functions. For this, you must use `*@` (slurpy) which will "take everything
+else". You can have as many parameters *before* a slurpy one, but not *after*.
+=end comment
+sub as-many($head, *@rest) {
+ @rest.join(' / ') ~ " !";
+}
+say as-many('Happy', 'Happy', 'Birthday'); # OUTPUT: «Happy / Birthday !␤»
+say 'Happy', ['Happy', 'Birthday'], 'Day'; # OUTPUT: «Happy / Birthday / Day !␤»
+
+# Note that the splat (the *) did not consume the parameter before it.
+
+=begin comment
+There are other two variations of slurpy parameters in Raku. The previous one
+(namely, `*@`), known as flattened slurpy, flattens passed arguments. The other
+two are `**@` and `+@` known as unflattened slurpy and "single argument rule"
+slurpy respectively. The unflattened slurpy doesn't flatten its listy
+arguments (or Iterable ones).
+=end comment
+sub b(**@arr) { @arr.perl.say };
+b(['a', 'b', 'c']); # OUTPUT: «[["a", "b", "c"],]»
+b(1, $('d', 'e', 'f'), [2, 3]); # OUTPUT: «[1, ("d", "e", "f"), [2, 3]]»
+b(1, [1, 2], ([3, 4], 5)); # OUTPUT: «[1, [1, 2], ([3, 4], 5)]␤»
+
+=begin comment
+On the other hand, the "single argument rule" slurpy follows the "single argument
+rule" which dictates how to handle the slurpy argument based upon context and
+roughly states that if only a single argument is passed and that argument is
+Iterable, that argument is used to fill the slurpy parameter array. In any
+other case, `+@` works like `**@`.
+=end comment
+sub c(+@arr) { @arr.perl.say };
+c(['a', 'b', 'c']); # OUTPUT: «["a", "b", "c"]␤»
+c(1, $('d', 'e', 'f'), [2, 3]); # OUTPUT: «[1, ("d", "e", "f"), [2, 3]]␤»
+c(1, [1, 2], ([3, 4], 5)); # OUTPUT: «[1, [1, 2], ([3, 4], 5)]␤»
+
+=begin comment
+You can call a function with an array using the "argument list flattening"
+operator `|` (it's not actually the only role of this operator,
+but it's one of them).
+=end comment
+sub concat3($a, $b, $c) {
+ say "$a, $b, $c";
+}
+concat3(|@array); # OUTPUT: «a, b, c␤»
+ # `@array` got "flattened" as a part of the argument list
+
+####################################################
+# 3. Containers
+####################################################
+
+=begin comment
+In Raku, values are actually stored in "containers". The assignment
+operator asks the container on the left to store the value on its right.
+When passed around, containers are marked as immutable which means that,
+in a function, you'll get an error if you try to mutate one of your
+arguments. If you really need to, you can ask for a mutable container by
+using the `is rw` trait.
+=end comment
+sub mutate( $n is rw ) {
+ $n++; # postfix ++ operator increments its argument but returns its old value
+}
+my $m = 42;
+mutate $m; #=> 42, the value is incremented but the old value is returned
+say $m; # OUTPUT: «43␤»
+
+=begin comment
+This works because we are passing the container $m to the `mutate` sub.
+If we try to just pass a number instead of passing a variable, it won't work
+because there is no container being passed and integers are immutable by
+themselves:
+
+mutate 42; # Parameter '$n' expected a writable container, but got Int value
+=end comment
+
+=begin comment
+Similar error would be obtained, if a bound variable is passed to
+to the subroutine. In Raku, you bind a value to a variable using the binding
+operator `:=`.
+=end comment
+my $v := 50; # binding 50 to the variable $v
+# mutate $v; # Parameter '$n' expected a writable container, but got Int value
+
+=begin comment
+If what you want is a copy instead, use the `is copy` trait which will
+cause the argument to be copied and allow you to modify the argument
+inside the routine without modifying the passed argument.
+
+A sub itself returns a container, which means it can be marked as `rw`.
+Alternatively, you can explicitly mark the returned container as mutable
+by using `return-rw` instead of `return`.
+=end comment
+my $x = 42;
+my $y = 45;
+sub x-store is rw { $x }
+sub y-store { return-rw $y }
+
+# In this case, the parentheses are mandatory or else Raku thinks that
+# `x-store` and `y-store` are identifiers.
+x-store() = 52;
+y-store() *= 2;
+
+say $x; # OUTPUT: «52␤»
+say $y; # OUTPUT: «90␤»
+
+####################################################
+# 4.Control Flow Structures
+####################################################
+
+#
+# 4.1 if/if-else/if-elsif-else/unless
+#
+
+=begin comment
+Before talking about `if`, we need to know which values are "truthy"
+(represent `True`), and which are "falsey" (represent `False`). Only these
+values are falsey: 0, (), {}, "", Nil, a type (like `Str`, `Int`, etc.) and
+of course, `False` itself. Any other value is truthy.
+=end comment
+my $number = 5;
+if $number < 5 {
+ say "Number is less than 5"
+}
+elsif $number == 5 {
+ say "Number is equal to 5"
+}
+else {
+ say "Number is greater than 5"
+}
+
+unless False {
+ say "It's not false!";
+}
+
+# `unless` is the equivalent of `if not (X)` which inverts the sense of a
+# conditional statement. However, you cannot use `else` or `elsif` with it.
+
+# As you can see, you don't need parentheses around conditions. However, you
+# do need the curly braces around the "body" block. For example,
+# `if (True) say 'It's true';` doesn't work.
+
+# You can also use their statement modifier (postfix) versions:
+say "Quite truthy" if True; # OUTPUT: «Quite truthy␤»
+say "Quite falsey" unless False; # OUTPUT: «Quite falsey␤»
+
+=begin comment
+The ternary operator (`??..!!`) is structured as follows `condition ??
+expression1 !! expression2` and it returns expression1 if the condition is
+true. Otherwise, it returns expression2.
+=end comment
+my $age = 30;
+say $age > 18 ?? "You are an adult" !! "You are under 18";
+# OUTPUT: «You are an adult␤»
+
+#
+# 4.2 with/with-else/with-orwith-else/without
+#
+
+=begin comment
+The `with` statement is like `if`, but it tests for definedness rather than
+truth, and it topicalizes on the condition, much like `given` which will
+be discussed later.
+=end comment
+my $s = "raku";
+with $s.index("r") { say "Found a at $_" }
+orwith $s.index("k") { say "Found c at $_" }
+else { say "Didn't find r or k" }
+
+# Similar to `unless` that checks un-truthiness, you can use `without` to
+# check for undefined-ness.
+my $input01;
+without $input01 {
+ say "No input given."
+}
+# OUTPUT: «No input given.␤»
+
+# There are also statement modifier versions for both `with` and `without`.
+my $input02 = 'Hello';
+say $input02 with $input02; # OUTPUT: «Hello␤»
+say "No input given." without $input02;
+
+#
+# 4.3 given/when, or Raku's switch construct
+#
+
+=begin comment
+`given...when` looks like other languages' `switch`, but is much more
+powerful thanks to smart matching and Raku's "topic variable", `$_`.
+
+The topic variable `$_ `contains the default argument of a block, a loop's
+current iteration (unless explicitly named), etc.
+
+`given` simply puts its argument into `$_` (like a block would do),
+ and `when` compares it using the "smart matching" (`~~`) operator.
+
+Since other Raku constructs use this variable (as said before, like `for`,
+blocks, `with` statement etc), this means the powerful `when` is not only
+applicable along with a `given`, but instead anywhere a `$_` exists.
+=end comment
+
+given "foo bar" {
+ say $_; # OUTPUT: «foo bar␤»
+
+ # Don't worry about smart matching yet. Just know `when` uses it. This is
+ # equivalent to `if $_ ~~ /foo/`.
+ when /foo/ {
+ say "Yay !";
+ }
+
+ # smart matching anything with `True` is `True`, i.e. (`$a ~~ True`)
+ # so you can also put "normal" conditionals. For example, this `when` is
+ # equivalent to this `if`: `if $_ ~~ ($_.chars > 50) {...}`
+ # which means: `if $_.chars > 50 {...}`
+ when $_.chars > 50 {
+ say "Quite a long string !";
+ }
+
+ # same as `when *` (using the Whatever Star)
+ default {
+ say "Something else"
+ }
+}
+
+#
+# 4.4 Looping constructs
+#
+
+# The `loop` construct is an infinite loop if you don't pass it arguments, but
+# can also be a C-style `for` loop:
+loop {
+ say "This is an infinite loop !";
+ last;
+}
+# In the previous example, `last` breaks out of the loop very much
+# like the `break` keyword in other languages.
+
+# The `next` keyword skips to the next iteration, like `continue` in other
+# languages. Note that you can also use postfix conditionals, loops, etc.
+loop (my $i = 0; $i < 5; $i++) {
+ next if $i == 3;
+ say "This is a C-style for loop!";
+}
+
+# The `for` constructs iterates over a list of elements.
+my @odd-array = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9;
+
+# Accessing the array's elements with the topic variable $_.
+for @odd-array {
+ say "I've got $_ !";
+}
+
+# Accessing the array's elements with a "pointy block", `->`.
+# Here each element is read-only.
+for @odd-array -> $variable {
+ say "I've got $variable !";
+}
+
+# Accessing the array's elements with a "doubly pointy block", `<->`.
+# Here each element is read-write so mutating `$variable` mutates
+# that element in the array.
+for @odd-array <-> $variable {
+ say "I've got $variable !";
+}
+
+# As we saw with `given`, a `for` loop's default "current iteration" variable
+# is `$_`. That means you can use `when` in a `for`loop just like you were
+# able to in a `given`.
+for @odd-array {
+ say "I've got $_";
+
+ # This is also allowed. A dot call with no "topic" (receiver) is sent to
+ # `$_` (topic variable) by default.
+ .say;
+
+ # This is equivalent to the above statement.
+ $_.say;
+}
+
+for @odd-array {
+ # You can...
+ next if $_ == 3; # Skip to the next iteration (`continue` in C-like lang.)
+ redo if $_ == 4; # Re-do iteration, keeping the same topic variable (`$_`)
+ last if $_ == 5; # Or break out of loop (like `break` in C-like lang.)
+}
+
+# The "pointy block" syntax isn't specific to the `for` loop. It's just a way
+# to express a block in Raku.
+sub long-computation { "Finding factors of large primes" }
+if long-computation() -> $result {
+ say "The result is $result.";
+}
+
+####################################################
+# 5. Operators
+####################################################
+
+=begin comment
+Since Perl languages are very much operator-based languages, Raku
+operators are actually just funny-looking subroutines, in syntactic
+categories, like infix:<+> (addition) or prefix:<!> (bool not).
+
+The categories are:
+ - "prefix": before (like `!` in `!True`).
+ - "postfix": after (like `++` in `$a++`).
+ - "infix": in between (like `*` in `4 * 3`).
+ - "circumfix": around (like `[`-`]` in `[1, 2]`).
+ - "post-circumfix": around, after another term (like `{`-`}` in
+ `%hash{'key'}`)
+
+The associativity and precedence list are explained below.
+
+Alright, you're set to go!
+=end comment
+
+#
+# 5.1 Equality Checking
+#
+
+# `==` is numeric comparison
+say 3 == 4; # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+say 3 != 4; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+
+# `eq` is string comparison
+say 'a' eq 'b'; # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+say 'a' ne 'b'; # OUTPUT: «True␤», not equal
+say 'a' !eq 'b'; # OUTPUT: «True␤», same as above
+
+# `eqv` is canonical equivalence (or "deep equality")
+say (1, 2) eqv (1, 3); # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+say (1, 2) eqv (1, 2); # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+say Int === Int; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+
+# `~~` is the smart match operator which aliases the left hand side to $_ and
+# then evaluates the right hand side.
+# Here are some common comparison semantics:
+
+# String or numeric equality
+say 'Foo' ~~ 'Foo'; # OUTPU: «True␤», if strings are equal.
+say 12.5 ~~ 12.50; # OUTPU: «True␤», if numbers are equal.
+
+# Regex - For matching a regular expression against the left side.
+# Returns a `Match` object, which evaluates as True if regexp matches.
+my $obj = 'abc' ~~ /a/;
+say $obj; # OUTPUT: «「a」␤»
+say $obj.WHAT; # OUTPUT: «(Match)␤»
+
+# Hashes
+say 'key' ~~ %hash; # OUTPUT:«True␤», if key exists in hash.
+
+# Type - Checks if left side "is of type" (can check superclasses and roles).
+say 1 ~~ Int; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+
+# Smart-matching against a boolean always returns that boolean (and will warn).
+say 1 ~~ True; # OUTPUT: «True␤», smartmatch against True always matches
+say False.so ~~ True; # OUTPUT: «True␤», use .so for truthiness
+
+# General syntax is `$arg ~~ &bool-returning-function;`. For a complete list
+# of combinations, refer to the table at:
+# https://docs.raku.org/language/operators#index-entry-smartmatch_operator
+
+# Of course, you also use `<`, `<=`, `>`, `>=` for numeric comparison.
+# Their string equivalent are also available: `lt`, `le`, `gt`, `ge`.
+say 3 > 4; # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+say 3 >= 4; # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+say 3 < 4; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+say 3 <= 4; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+say 'a' gt 'b'; # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+say 'a' ge 'b'; # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+say 'a' lt 'b'; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+say 'a' le 'b'; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+
+#
+# 5.2 Range constructor
+#
+
+say 3 .. 7; # OUTPUT: «3..7␤», both included.
+say 3 ..^ 7; # OUTPUT: «3..^7␤», exclude right endpoint.
+say 3 ^.. 7; # OUTPUT: «3^..7␤», exclude left endpoint.
+say 3 ^..^ 7; # OUTPUT: «3^..^7␤», exclude both endpoints.
+
+# The range 3 ^.. 7 is similar like 4 .. 7 when we only consider integers.
+# But when we consider decimals:
+
+say 3.5 ~~ 4 .. 7; # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+say 3.5 ~~ 3 ^.. 7; # OUTPUT: «True␤»,
+
+# This is because the range `3 ^.. 7` only excludes anything strictly
+# equal to 3. Hence, it contains decimals greater than 3. This could
+# mathematically be described as 3.5 ∈ (3,7] or in set notation,
+# 3.5 ∈ { x | 3 < x ≤ 7 }.
+
+say 3 ^.. 7 ~~ 4 .. 7; # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+
+# This also works as a shortcut for `0..^N`:
+say ^10; # OUTPUT: «^10␤», which means 0..^10
+
+# This also allows us to demonstrate that Raku has lazy/infinite arrays,
+# using the Whatever Star:
+my @natural = 1..*; # 1 to Infinite! Equivalent to `1..Inf`.
+
+# You can pass ranges as subscripts and it'll return an array of results.
+say @natural[^10]; # OUTPUT: «1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10␤», doesn't run out of memory!
+
+=begin comment
+NOTE: when reading an infinite list, Raku will "reify" the elements
+it needs, then keep them in memory. They won't be calculated more than once.
+It also will never calculate more elements that are needed.
+=end comment
+
+# An array subscript can also be a closure. It'll be called with the array's
+# length as the argument. The following two examples are equivalent:
+say join(' ', @array[15..*]); # OUTPUT: «15 16 17 18 19␤»
+say join(' ', @array[-> $n { 15..$n }]); # OUTPUT: «15 16 17 18 19␤»
+
+# NOTE: if you try to do either of those with an infinite array, you'll
+# trigger an infinite loop (your program won't finish).
+
+# You can use that in most places you'd expect, even when assigning to an array:
+my @numbers = ^20;
+
+# Here the numbers increase by 6, like an arithmetic sequence; more on the
+# sequence (`...`) operator later.
+my @seq = 3, 9 ... * > 95; # 3 9 15 21 27 [...] 81 87 93 99;
+
+# In this example, even though the sequence is infinite, only the 15
+# needed values will be calculated.
+@numbers[5..*] = 3, 9 ... *;
+say @numbers; # OUTPUT: «0 1 2 3 4 3 9 15 21 [...] 81 87␤», only 20 values
+
+#
+# 5.3 and (&&), or (||)
+#
+
+# Here `and` calls `.Bool` on both 3 and 4 and gets `True` so it returns
+# 4 since both are `True`.
+say (3 and 4); # OUTPUT: «4␤», which is truthy.
+say (3 and 0); # OUTPUT: «0␤»
+say (0 and 4); # OUTPUT: «0␤»
+
+# Here `or` calls `.Bool` on `0` and `False` which are both `False`
+# so it returns `False` since both are `False`.
+say (0 or False); # OUTPUT: «False␤».
+
+# Both `and` and `or` have tighter versions which also shortcut circuits.
+# They're `&&` and `||` respectively.
+
+# `&&` returns the first operand that evaluates to `False`. Otherwise,
+# it returns the last operand.
+my ($a, $b, $c, $d, $e) = 1, 0, False, True, 'pi';
+say $a && $b && $c; # OUTPUT: «0␤», the first falsey value
+say $a && $b && $c; # OUTPUT: «False␤», the first falsey value
+say $a && $d && $e; # OUTPUT: «pi␤», last operand since everthing before is truthy
+
+# `||` returns the first argument that evaluates to `True`.
+say $b || $a || $d; # OUTPUT: «1␤»
+say $e || $d || $a; # OUTPUT: «pi␤»
+
+# And because you're going to want them, you also have compound assignment
+# operators:
+$a *= 2; # multiply and assignment. Equivalent to $a = $a * 2;
+$b %%= 5; # divisible by and assignment. Equivalent to $b = $b %% 2;
+$c div= 3; # return divisor and assignment. Equivalent to $c = $c div 3;
+$d mod= 4; # return remainder and assignment. Equivalent to $d = $d mod 4;
+@array .= sort; # calls the `sort` method and assigns the result back
+
+####################################################
+# 6. More on subs!
+####################################################
+
+# As we said before, Raku has *really* powerful subs. We're going
+# to see a few more key concepts that make them better than in any
+# other language :-).
+
+#
+# 6.1 Unpacking!
+#
+
+# Unpacking is the ability to "extract" arrays and keys
+# (AKA "destructuring"). It'll work in `my`s and in parameter lists.
+my ($f, $g) = 1, 2;
+say $f; # OUTPUT: «1␤»
+my ($, $, $h) = 1, 2, 3; # keep the non-interesting values anonymous (`$`)
+say $h; # OUTPUT: «3␤»
+
+my ($head, *@tail) = 1, 2, 3; # Yes, it's the same as with "slurpy subs"
+my (*@small) = 1;
+
+sub unpack_array( @array [$fst, $snd] ) {
+ say "My first is $fst, my second is $snd! All in all, I'm @array[].";
+ # (^ remember the `[]` to interpolate the array)
+}
+unpack_array(@tail);
+# OUTPUT: «My first is 3, my second is 3! All in all, I'm 2 3.␤»
+
+# If you're not using the array itself, you can also keep it anonymous,
+# much like a scalar:
+sub first-of-array( @ [$fst] ) { $fst }
+first-of-array(@small); #=> 1
+
+# However calling `first-of-array(@tail);` will throw an error ("Too many
+# positional parameters passed"), which means the `@tail` has too many
+# elements.
+
+# You can also use a slurpy parameter. You could keep `*@rest` anonymous
+# Here, `@rest` is `(3,)`, since `$fst` holds the `2`. This results
+# since the length (.elems) of `@rest` is 1.
+sub slurp-in-array(@ [$fst, *@rest]) {
+ say $fst + @rest.elems;
+}
+slurp-in-array(@tail); # OUTPUT: «3␤»
+
+# You could even extract on a slurpy (but it's pretty useless ;-).)
+sub fst(*@ [$fst]) { # or simply: `sub fst($fst) { ... }`
+ say $fst;
+}
+fst(1); # OUTPUT: «1␤»
+
+# Calling `fst(1, 2);` will throw an error ("Too many positional parameters
+# passed") though. After all, the `fst` sub declares only a single positional
+# parameter.
+
+=begin comment
+You can also destructure hashes (and classes, which you'll learn about later).
+The syntax is basically the same as
+`%hash-name (:key($variable-to-store-value-in))`.
+The hash can stay anonymous if you only need the values you extracted.
+
+In order to call the function, you must supply a hash wither created with
+curly braces or with `%()` (recommended). Alternatively, you can pass
+a variable that contains a hash.
+=end comment
+
+sub key-of( % (:value($val), :qua($qua)) ) {
+ say "Got value $val, $qua time" ~~
+ $qua == 1 ?? '' !! 's';
+}
+
+my %foo-once = %(value => 'foo', qua => 1);
+key-of({value => 'foo', qua => 2}); # OUTPUT: «Got val foo, 2 times.␤»
+key-of(%(value => 'foo', qua => 0)); # OUTPUT: «Got val foo, 0 times.␤»
+key-of(%foo-once); # OUTPUT: «Got val foo, 1 time.␤»
+
+# The last expression of a sub is returned automatically (though you may
+# indicate explicitly by using the `return` keyword, of course):
+sub next-index( $n ) {
+ $n + 1;
+}
+my $new-n = next-index(3); # $new-n is now 4
+
+=begin comment
+This is true for everything, except for the looping constructs (due to
+performance reasons): there's no reason to build a list if we're just going to
+discard all the results. If you still want to build one, you can use the
+`do` statement prefix or the `gather` prefix, which we'll see later:
+=end comment
+
+sub list-of( $n ) {
+ do for ^$n { $_ }
+}
+my @list3 = list-of(3); #=> (0, 1, 2)
+
+#
+# 6.2 Lambdas (or anonymous subroutines)
+#
+
+# You can create a lambda by using a pointy block (`-> {}`), a
+# block (`{}`) or creating a `sub` without a name.
+
+my &lambda1 = -> $argument {
+ "The argument passed to this lambda is $argument"
+}
+
+my &lambda2 = {
+ "The argument passed to this lambda is $_"
+}
+
+my &lambda3 = sub ($argument) {
+ "The argument passed to this lambda is $argument"
+}
+
+=begin comment
+Both pointy blocks and blocks are pretty much the same thing, except that
+the former can take arguments, and that the latter can be mistaken as
+a hash by the parser. That being said, blocks can declare what's known
+as placeholders parameters through the twigils `$^` (for positional
+parameters) and `$:` (for named parameters). More on them latern on.
+=end comment
+
+my &mult = { $^numbers * $:times }
+say mult 4, :times(6); #=> «24␤»
+
+# Both pointy blocks and blocks are quite versatile when working with functions
+# that accepts other functions such as `map`, `grep`, etc. For example,
+# we add 3 to each value of an array using the `map` function with a lambda:
+my @nums = 1..4;
+my @res1 = map -> $v { $v + 3 }, @nums; # pointy block, explicit parameter
+my @res2 = map { $_ + 3 }, @nums; # block using an implicit parameter
+my @res3 = map { $^val + 3 }, @nums; # block with placeholder parameter
+
+=begin comment
+A sub (`sub {}`) has different semantics than a block (`{}` or `-> {}`):
+A block doesn't have a "function context" (though it can have arguments),
+which means that if you return from it, you're going to return from the
+parent function.
+=end comment
+
+# Compare:
+sub is-in( @array, $elem ) {
+ say map({ return True if $_ == $elem }, @array);
+ say 'Hi';
+}
+
+# with:
+sub truthy-array( @array ) {
+ say map sub ($i) { $i ?? return True !! return False }, @array;
+ say 'Hi';
+}
+
+=begin comment
+In the `is-in` sub, the block will `return` out of the `is-in` sub once the
+condition evaluates to `True`, the loop won't be run anymore and the
+following statement won't be executed. The last statement is only executed
+if the block never returns.
+
+On the contrary, the `truthy-array` sub will produce an array of `True` and
+`False`, which will printed, and always execute the last execute statement.
+Thus, the `return` only returns from the anonymous `sub`
+=end comment
+
+=begin comment
+The `anon` declarator can be used to create an anonymous sub from a
+regular subroutine. The regular sub knows its name but its symbol is
+prevented from getting installed in the lexical scope, the method table
+and everywhere else.
+=end comment
+my $anon-sum = anon sub summation(*@a) { [+] @a }
+say $anon-sum.name; # OUTPUT: «summation␤»
+say $anon-sum(2, 3, 5); # OUTPUT: «10␤»
+#say summation; # Error: Undeclared routine: ...
+
+# You can also use the Whatever Star to create an anonymous subroutine.
+# (it'll stop at the furthest operator in the current expression).
+# The following is the same as `{$_ + 3 }`, `-> { $a + 3 }`,
+# `sub ($a) { $a + 3 }`, or even `{$^a + 3}` (more on this later).
+my @arrayplus3v0 = map * + 3, @nums;
+
+# The following is the same as `-> $a, $b { $a + $b + 3 }`,
+# `sub ($a, $b) { $a + $b + 3 }`, or `{ $^a + $^b + 3 }` (more on this later).
+my @arrayplus3v1 = map * + * + 3, @nums;
+
+say (*/2)(4); # OUTPUT: «2␤», immediately execute the Whatever function created.
+say ((*+3)/5)(5); # OUTPUT: «1.6␤», it works even in parens!
+
+# But if you need to have more than one argument (`$_`) in a block (without
+# wanting to resort to `-> {}`), you can also either `$^` and `$:` which
+# declared placeholder parameters or self-declared positional/named parameters.
+say map { $^a + $^b + 3 }, @nums;
+
+# which is equivalent to the following which uses a `sub`:
+map sub ($a, $b) { $a + $b + 3 }, @nums;
+
+# Placeholder parameters are sorted lexicographically so the following two
+# statements are equivalent:
+say sort { $^b <=> $^a }, @nums;
+say sort -> $a, $b { $b <=> $a }, @nums;
+
+#
+# 6.3 Multiple Dispatch
+#
+
+# Raku can decide which variant of a `sub` to call based on the type of the
+# arguments, or on arbitrary preconditions, like with a type or `where`:
+
+# with types:
+multi sub sayit( Int $n ) { # note the `multi` keyword here
+ say "Number: $n";
+}
+multi sayit( Str $s ) { # a multi is a `sub` by default
+ say "String: $s";
+}
+sayit "foo"; # OUTPUT: «String: foo␤»
+sayit 25; # OUTPUT: «Number: 25␤»
+sayit True; # fails at *compile time* with "calling 'sayit' will never
+ # work with arguments of types ..."
+
+# with arbitrary preconditions (remember subsets?):
+multi is-big(Int $n where * > 50) { "Yes!" } # using a closure
+multi is-big(Int $n where {$_ > 50}) { "Yes!" } # similar to above
+multi is-big(Int $ where 10..50) { "Quite." } # Using smart-matching
+multi is-big(Int $) { "No" }
+
+subset Even of Int where * %% 2;
+multi odd-or-even(Even) { "Even" } # Using the type. We don't name the argument.
+multi odd-or-even($) { "Odd" } # "everything else" hence the $ variable
+
+# You can even dispatch based on the presence of positional and named arguments:
+multi with-or-without-you($with) {
+ say "I wish I could but I can't";
+}
+multi with-or-without-you(:$with) {
+ say "I can live! Actually, I can't.";
+}
+multi with-or-without-you {
+ say "Definitely can't live.";
+}
+
+=begin comment
+This is very, very useful for many purposes, like `MAIN` subs (covered
+later), and even the language itself uses it in several places.
+
+For example, the `is` trait is actually a `multi sub` named `trait_mod:<is>`,
+and it works off that. Thus, `is rw`, is simply a dispatch to a function with
+this signature `sub trait_mod:<is>(Routine $r, :$rw!) {}`
+=end comment
+
+####################################################
+# 7. About types...
+####################################################
+
+=begin comment
+Raku is gradually typed. This means you can specify the type of your
+variables/arguments/return types, or you can omit the type annotations in
+in which case they'll default to `Any`. Obviously you get access to a few
+base types, like `Int` and `Str`. The constructs for declaring types are
+`subset`, `class`, `role`, etc. which you'll see later.
+
+For now, let us examine `subset` which is a "sub-type" with additional
+checks. For example, "a very big integer is an `Int` that's greater than 500".
+You can specify the type you're subtyping (by default, `Any`), and add
+additional checks with the `where` clause.
+=end comment
+subset VeryBigInteger of Int where * > 500;
+
+# Or the set of the whole numbers:
+subset WholeNumber of Int where * >= 0;
+my WholeNumber $whole-six = 6; # OK
+#my WholeNumber $nonwhole-one = -1; # Error: type check failed...
+
+# Or the set of Positive Even Numbers whose Mod 5 is 1. Notice we're
+# using the previously defined WholeNumber subset.
+subset PENFO of WholeNumber where { $_ %% 2 and $_ mod 5 == 1 };
+my PENFO $yes-penfo = 36; # OK
+#my PENFO $no-penfo = 2; # Error: type check failed...
+
+####################################################
+# 8. Scoping
+####################################################
+
+=begin comment
+In Raku, unlike many scripting languages, (such as Python, Ruby, PHP),
+you must declare your variables before using them. The `my` declarator
+we've used so far uses "lexical scoping". There are a few other declarators,
+(`our`, `state`, ..., ) which we'll see later. This is called
+"lexical scoping", where in inner blocks, you can access variables from
+outer blocks.
+=end comment
+
+my $file_scoped = 'Foo';
+sub outer {
+ my $outer_scoped = 'Bar';
+ sub inner {
+ say "$file_scoped $outer_scoped";
+ }
+ &inner; # return the function
+}
+outer()(); # OUTPUT: «Foo Bar␤»
+
+# As you can see, `$file_scoped` and `$outer_scoped` were captured.
+# But if we were to try and use `$outer_scoped` outside the `outer` sub,
+# the variable would be undefined (and you'd get a compile time error).
+
+####################################################
+# 9. Twigils
+####################################################
+
+=begin comment
+There are many special `twigils` (composed sigils) in Raku. Twigils
+define a variable's scope.
+The `*` and `?` twigils work on standard variables:
+ * for dynamic variables
+ ? for compile-time variables
+
+The `!` and the `.` twigils are used with Raku's objects:
+ ! for attributes (instance attribute)
+ . for methods (not really a variable)
+=end comment
+
+#
+# `*` twigil: Dynamic Scope
+#
+
+# These variables use the `*` twigil to mark dynamically-scoped variables.
+# Dynamically-scoped variables are looked up through the caller, not through
+# the outer scope.
+
+my $*dyn_scoped_1 = 1;
+my $*dyn_scoped_2 = 10;
+
+sub say_dyn {
+ say "$*dyn_scoped_1 $*dyn_scoped_2";
+}
+
+sub call_say_dyn {
+ # Defines $*dyn_scoped_1 only for this sub.
+ my $*dyn_scoped_1 = 25;
+
+ # Will change the value of the file scoped variable.
+ $*dyn_scoped_2 = 100;
+
+ # $*dyn_scoped 1 and 2 will be looked for in the call.
+ say_dyn(); # OUTPUT: «25 100␤»
+
+ # The call to `say_dyn` uses the value of $*dyn_scoped_1 from inside
+ # this sub's lexical scope even though the blocks aren't nested (they're
+ # call-nested).
+}
+say_dyn(); # OUTPUT: «1 10␤»
+
+# Uses $*dyn_scoped_1 as defined in `call_say_dyn` even though we are calling it
+# from outside.
+call_say_dyn(); # OUTPUT: «25 100␤»
+
+# We changed the value of $*dyn_scoped_2 in `call_say_dyn` so now its
+# value has changed.
+say_dyn(); # OUTPUT: «1 100␤»
+
+# TODO: Add information about remaining twigils
+
+####################################################
+# 10. Object Model
+####################################################
+
+=begin comment
+To call a method on an object, add a dot followed by the method name:
+`$object.method`
+
+Classes are declared with the `class` keyword. Attributes are declared
+with the `has` keyword, and methods declared with the `method` keyword.
+
+Every attribute that is private uses the `!` twigil. For example: `$!attr`.
+Immutable public attributes use the `.` twigil which creates a read-only
+method named after the attribute. In fact, declaring an attribute with `.`
+is equivalent to declaring the same attribute with `!` and then creating
+a read-only method with the attribute's name. However, this is done for us
+by Raku automatically. The easiest way to remember the `$.` twigil is
+by comparing it to how methods are called.
+
+Raku's object model ("SixModel") is very flexible, and allows you to
+dynamically add methods, change semantics, etc... Unfortunately, these will
+not all be covered here, and you should refer to:
+https://docs.raku.org/language/objects.html.
+=end comment
+
+class Human {
+ has Str $.name; # `$.name` is immutable but with an accessor method.
+ has Str $.bcountry; # Use `$!bcountry` to modify it inside the class.
+ has Str $.ccountry is rw; # This attribute can be modified from outside.
+ has Int $!age = 0; # A private attribute with default value.
+
+ method birthday {
+ $!age += 1; # Add a year to human's age
+ }
+
+ method get-age {
+ return $!age;
+ }
+
+ # This method is private to the class. Note the `!` before the
+ # method's name.
+ method !do-decoration {
+ return "$!name born in $!bcountry and now lives in $!ccountry."
+ }
+
+ # This method is public, just like `birthday` and `get-age`.
+ method get-info {
+ # Invoking a method on `self` inside the class.
+ # Use `self!priv-method` for private method.
+ say self!do-decoration;
+
+ # Use `self.public-method` for public method.
+ say "Age: ", self.get-age;
+ }
+};
+
+# Create a new instance of Human class.
+# NOTE: Only attributes declared with the `.` twigil can be set via the
+# default constructor (more later on). This constructor only accepts named
+# arguments.
+my $person1 = Human.new(
+ name => "Jord",
+ bcountry => "Togo",
+ ccountry => "Togo"
+);
+
+# Make human 10 years old.
+$person1.birthday for 1..10;
+
+say $person1.name; # OUTPUT: «Jord␤»
+say $person1.bcountry; # OUTPUT: «Togo␤»
+say $person1.ccountry; # OUTPUT: «Togo␤»
+say $person1.get-age; # OUTPUT: «10␤»
+
+# This fails, because the `has $.bcountry`is immutable. Jord can't change
+# his birthplace.
+# $person1.bcountry = "Mali";
+
+# This works because the `$.ccountry` is mutable (`is rw`). Now Jord's
+# current country is France.
+$person1.ccountry = "France";
+
+# Calling methods on the instance objects.
+$person1.birthday; #=> 1
+$person1.get-info; #=> Jord born in Togo and now lives in France. Age: 10
+# $person1.do-decoration; # This fails since the method `do-decoration` is private.
+
+#
+# 10.1 Object Inheritance
+#
+
+=begin comment
+Raku also has inheritance (along with multiple inheritance). While
+methods are inherited, submethods are not. Submethods are useful for
+object construction and destruction tasks, such as `BUILD`, or methods that
+must be overridden by subtypes. We will learn about `BUILD` later on.
+=end comment
+
+class Parent {
+ has $.age;
+ has $.name;
+
+ # This submethod won't be inherited by the Child class.
+ submethod favorite-color {
+ say "My favorite color is Blue";
+ }
+
+ # This method is inherited
+ method talk { say "Hi, my name is $!name" }
+}
+
+# Inheritance uses the `is` keyword
+class Child is Parent {
+ method talk { say "Goo goo ga ga" }
+ # This shadows Parent's `talk` method.
+ # This child hasn't learned to speak yet!
+}
+
+my Parent $Richard .= new(age => 40, name => 'Richard');
+$Richard.favorite-color; # OUTPUT: «My favorite color is Blue␤»
+$Richard.talk; # OUTPUT: «Hi, my name is Richard␤»
+# $Richard is able to access the submethod and he knows how to say his name.
+
+my Child $Madison .= new(age => 1, name => 'Madison');
+$Madison.talk; # OUTPUT: «Goo goo ga ga␤», due to the overridden method.
+# $Madison.favorite-color # does not work since it is not inherited.
+
+=begin comment
+When you use `my T $var`, `$var` starts off with `T` itself in it, so you can
+call `new` on it. (`.=` is just the dot-call and the assignment operator).
+Thus, `$a .= b` is the same as `$a = $a.b`. Also note that `BUILD` (the method
+called inside `new`) will set parent's properties too, so you can pass `val =>
+5`.
+=end comment
+
+#
+# 10.2 Roles, or Mixins
+#
+
+# Roles are supported too (which are called Mixins in other languages)
+role PrintableVal {
+ has $!counter = 0;
+ method print {
+ say $.val;
+ }
+}
+
+# you "apply" a role (or mixin) with the `does` keyword:
+class Item does PrintableVal {
+ has $.val;
+
+ =begin comment
+ When `does`-ed, a `role` literally "mixes in" the class:
+ the methods and attributes are put together, which means a class
+ can access the private attributes/methods of its roles (but
+ not the inverse!):
+ =end comment
+ method access {
+ say $!counter++;
+ }
+
+ =begin comment
+ However, this: method print {} is ONLY valid when `print` isn't a `multi`
+ with the same dispatch. This means a parent class can shadow a child class's
+ `multi print() {}`, but it's an error if a role does)
+
+ NOTE: You can use a role as a class (with `is ROLE`). In this case,
+ methods will be shadowed, since the compiler will consider `ROLE`
+ to be a class.
+ =end comment
+}
+
+####################################################
+# 11. Exceptions
+####################################################
+
+=begin comment
+Exceptions are built on top of classes, in the package `X` (like `X::IO`).
+In Raku, exceptions are automatically 'thrown':
+
+open 'foo'; # OUTPUT: «Failed to open file foo: no such file or directory␤»
+
+It will also print out what line the error was thrown at
+and other error info.
+=end comment
+
+# You can throw an exception using `die`. Here it's been commented out to
+# avoid stopping the program's execution:
+# die 'Error!'; # OUTPUT: «Error!␤»
+
+# Or more explicitly (commented out too):
+# X::AdHoc.new(payload => 'Error!').throw; # OUTPUT: «Error!␤»
+
+=begin comment
+In Raku, `orelse` is similar to the `or` operator, except it only matches
+undefined variables instead of anything evaluating as `False`.
+Undefined values include: `Nil`, `Mu` and `Failure` as well as `Int`, `Str`
+and other types that have not been initialized to any value yet.
+You can check if something is defined or not using the defined method:
+=end comment
+my $uninitialized;
+say $uninitialized.defined; # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+
+=begin comment
+When using `orelse` it will disarm the exception and alias $_ to that
+failure. This will prevent it to being automatically handled and printing
+lots of scary error messages to the screen. We can use the `exception`
+method on the `$_` variable to access the exception
+=end comment
+open 'foo' orelse say "Something happened {.exception}";
+
+# This also works:
+open 'foo' orelse say "Something happened $_";
+# OUTPUT: «Something happened Failed to open file foo: no such file or directory␤»
+
+=begin comment
+Both of those above work but in case we get an object from the left side
+that is not a failure we will probably get a warning. We see below how we
+can use try` and `CATCH` to be more specific with the exceptions we catch.
+=end comment
+
+#
+# 11.1 Using `try` and `CATCH`
+#
+
+=begin comment
+By using `try` and `CATCH` you can contain and handle exceptions without
+disrupting the rest of the program. The `try` block will set the last
+exception to the special variable `$!` (known as the error variable).
+NOTE: This has no relation to $!variables seen inside class definitions.
+=end comment
+
+try open 'foo';
+say "Well, I tried! $!" if defined $!;
+# OUTPUT: «Well, I tried! Failed to open file foo: no such file or directory␤»
+
+=begin comment
+Now, what if we want more control over handling the exception?
+Unlike many other languages, in Raku, you put the `CATCH` block *within*
+the block to `try`. Similar to how the `$_` variable was set when we
+'disarmed' the exception with `orelse`, we also use `$_` in the CATCH block.
+NOTE: The `$!` variable is only set *after* the `try` block has caught an
+exception. By default, a `try` block has a `CATCH` block of its own that
+catches any exception (`CATCH { default {} }`).
+=end comment
+
+try {
+ my $a = (0 %% 0);
+ CATCH {
+ default { say "Something happened: $_" }
+ }
+}
+# OUTPUT: «Something happened: Attempt to divide by zero using infix:<%%>␤»
+
+# You can redefine it using `when`s (and `default`) to handle the exceptions
+# you want to catch explicitly:
+
+try {
+ open 'foo';
+ CATCH {
+ # In the `CATCH` block, the exception is set to the $_ variable.
+ when X::AdHoc {
+ say "Error: $_"
+ }
+ when X::Numeric::DivideByZero {
+ say "Error: $_";
+ }
+
+ =begin comment
+ Any other exceptions will be re-raised, since we don't have a `default`.
+ Basically, if a `when` matches (or there's a `default`), the
+ exception is marked as "handled" so as to prevent its re-throw
+ from the `CATCH` block. You still can re-throw the exception
+ (see below) by hand.
+ =end comment
+ default {
+ say "Any other error: $_"
+ }
+ }
+}
+# OUTPUT: «Failed to open file /dir/foo: no such file or directory␤»
+
+=begin comment
+There are also some subtleties to exceptions. Some Raku subs return a
+`Failure`, which is a wrapper around an `Exception` object which is
+"unthrown". They're not thrown until you try to use the variables containing
+them unless you call `.Bool`/`.defined` on them - then they're handled.
+(the `.handled` method is `rw`, so you can mark it as `False` back yourself)
+You can throw a `Failure` using `fail`. Note that if the pragma `use fatal`
+is on, `fail` will throw an exception (like `die`).
+=end comment
+
+my $value = 0/0; # We're not trying to access the value, so no problem.
+try {
+ say 'Value: ', $value; # Trying to use the value
+ CATCH {
+ default {
+ say "It threw because we tried to get the fail's value!"
+ }
+ }
+}
+
+=begin comment
+There is also another kind of exception: Control exceptions. Those are "good"
+exceptions, which happen when you change your program's flow, using operators
+like `return`, `next` or `last`. You can "catch" those with `CONTROL` (not 100%
+working in Rakudo yet).
+=end comment
+
+####################################################
+# 12. Packages
+####################################################
+
+=begin comment
+Packages are a way to reuse code. Packages are like "namespaces", and any
+element of the six model (`module`, `role`, `class`, `grammar`, `subset` and
+`enum`) are actually packages. (Packages are the lowest common denominator)
+Packages are important - especially as Perl is well-known for CPAN,
+the Comprehensive Perl Archive Network.
+=end comment
+
+# You can use a module (bring its declarations into scope) with `use`:
+use JSON::Tiny; # if you installed Rakudo* or Panda, you'll have this module
+say from-json('[1]').perl; # OUTPUT: «[1]␤»
+
+=begin comment
+You should not declare packages using the `package` keyword (unlike Perl 5).
+Instead, use `class Package::Name::Here;` to declare a class, or if you only
+want to export variables/subs, you can use `module` instead.
+=end comment
+
+# If `Hello` doesn't exist yet, it'll just be a "stub", that can be redeclared
+# as something else later.
+module Hello::World { # bracketed form
+ # declarations here
+}
+
+# The file-scoped form which extends until the end of the file. For
+# instance, `unit module Parse::Text;` will extend until of the file.
+
+# A grammar is a package, which you could `use`. You will learn more about
+# grammars in the regex section.
+grammar Parse::Text::Grammar {
+}
+
+# As said before, any part of the six model is also a package.
+# Since `JSON::Tiny` uses its own `JSON::Tiny::Actions` class, you can use it:
+my $actions = JSON::Tiny::Actions.new;
+
+# We'll see how to export variables and subs in the next part.
+
+####################################################
+# 13. Declarators
+####################################################
+
+=begin comment
+In Raku, you get different behaviors based on how you declare a variable.
+You've already seen `my` and `has`, we'll now explore the others.
+
+`our` - these declarations happen at `INIT` time -- (see "Phasers" below).
+It's like `my`, but it also creates a package variable. All packagish
+things such as `class`, `role`, etc. are `our` by default.
+=end comment
+
+module Var::Increment {
+ # NOTE: `our`-declared variables cannot be typed.
+ our $our-var = 1;
+ my $my-var = 22;
+
+ our sub Inc {
+ our sub available { # If you try to make inner `sub`s `our`...
+ # ... Better know what you're doing (Don't !).
+ say "Don't do that. Seriously. You'll get burned.";
+ }
+
+ my sub unavailable { # `sub`s are `my`-declared by default
+ say "Can't access me from outside, I'm 'my'!";
+ }
+ say ++$our-var; # Increment the package variable and output its value
+ }
+
+}
+
+say $Var::Increment::our-var; # OUTPUT: «1␤», this works!
+say $Var::Increment::my-var; # OUTPUT: «(Any)␤», this will not work!
+
+say Var::Increment::Inc; # OUTPUT: «2␤»
+say Var::Increment::Inc; # OUTPUT: «3␤», notice how the value of $our-var was retained.
+
+# Var::Increment::unavailable; # OUTPUT: «Could not find symbol '&unavailable'␤»
+
+# `constant` - these declarations happen at `BEGIN` time. You can use
+# the `constant` keyword to declare a compile-time variable/symbol:
+constant Pi = 3.14;
+constant $var = 1;
+
+# And if you're wondering, yes, it can also contain infinite lists.
+constant why-not = 5, 15 ... *;
+say why-not[^5]; # OUTPUT: «5 15 25 35 45␤»
+
+# `state` - these declarations happen at run time, but only once. State
+# variables are only initialized one time. In other languages such as C
+# they exist as `static` variables.
+sub fixed-rand {
+ state $val = rand;
+ say $val;
+}
+fixed-rand for ^10; # will print the same number 10 times
+
+# Note, however, that they exist separately in different enclosing contexts.
+# If you declare a function with a `state` within a loop, it'll re-create the
+# variable for each iteration of the loop. See:
+for ^5 -> $a {
+ sub foo {
+ # This will be a different value for every value of `$a`
+ state $val = rand;
+ }
+ for ^5 -> $b {
+ # This will print the same value 5 times, but only 5. Next iteration
+ # will re-run `rand`.
+ say foo;
+ }
+}
+
+####################################################
+# 14. Phasers
+####################################################
+
+=begin comment
+Phasers in Raku are blocks that happen at determined points of time in
+your program. They are called phasers because they mark a change in the
+phase of a program. For example, when the program is compiled, a for loop
+runs, you leave a block, or an exception gets thrown (The `CATCH` block is
+actually a phaser!). Some of them can be used for their return values,
+some of them can't (those that can have a "[*]" in the beginning of their
+explanation text). Let's have a look!
+=end comment
+
+#
+# 14.1 Compile-time phasers
+#
+BEGIN { say "[*] Runs at compile time, as soon as possible, only once" }
+CHECK { say "[*] Runs at compile time, as late as possible, only once" }
+
+#
+# 14.2 Run-time phasers
+#
+INIT { say "[*] Runs at run time, as soon as possible, only once" }
+END { say "Runs at run time, as late as possible, only once" }
+
+#
+# 14.3 Block phasers
+#
+ENTER { say "[*] Runs everytime you enter a block, repeats on loop blocks" }
+LEAVE {
+ say "Runs everytime you leave a block, even when an exception
+ happened. Repeats on loop blocks."
+}
+
+PRE {
+ say "Asserts a precondition at every block entry,
+ before ENTER (especially useful for loops)";
+ say "If this block doesn't return a truthy value,
+ an exception of type X::Phaser::PrePost is thrown.";
+}
+
+# Example (commented out):
+for 0..2 {
+ # PRE { $_ > 1 } # OUTPUT: «Precondition '{ $_ > 1 }' failed
+}
+
+POST {
+ say "Asserts a postcondition at every block exit,
+ after LEAVE (especially useful for loops)";
+ say "If this block doesn't return a truthy value,
+ an exception of type X::Phaser::PrePost is thrown, like PRE.";
+}
+
+# Example (commented out):
+for 0..2 {
+ # POST { $_ < 1 } # OUTPUT: «Postcondition '{ $_ < 1 }' failed
+}
+
+#
+# 14.4 Block/exceptions phasers
+#
+{
+ KEEP { say "Runs when you exit a block successfully
+ (without throwing an exception)" }
+ UNDO { say "Runs when you exit a block unsuccessfully
+ (by throwing an exception)" }
+}
+
+#
+# 14.5 Loop phasers
+#
+for ^5 {
+ FIRST { say "[*] The first time the loop is run, before ENTER" }
+ NEXT { say "At loop continuation time, before LEAVE" }
+ LAST { say "At loop termination time, after LEAVE" }
+}
+
+#
+# 14.6 Role/class phasers
+#
+COMPOSE {
+ say "When a role is composed into a class. /!\ NOT YET IMPLEMENTED"
+}
+
+# They allow for cute tricks or clever code...:
+say "This code took " ~ (time - CHECK time) ~ "s to compile";
+
+# ... or clever organization:
+class DB {
+ method start-transaction { say "Starting transation!" }
+ method commit { say "Commiting transaction..." }
+ method rollback { say "Something went wrong. Rollingback!" }
+}
+
+sub do-db-stuff {
+ my DB $db .= new;
+ $db.start-transaction; # start a new transaction
+ KEEP $db.commit; # commit the transaction if all went well
+ UNDO $db.rollback; # or rollback if all hell broke loose
+}
+
+do-db-stuff();
+
+####################################################
+# 15. Statement prefixes
+####################################################
+
+=begin comment
+Those act a bit like phasers: they affect the behavior of the following
+code. Though, they run in-line with the executable code, so they're in
+lowercase. (`try` and `start` are theoretically in that list, but explained
+elsewhere) NOTE: all of these (except start) don't need explicit curly
+braces `{` and `}`.
+
+=end comment
+
+#
+# 15.1 `do` - It runs a block or a statement as a term.
+#
+
+# Normally you cannot use a statement as a value (or "term"). `do` helps
+# us do it. With `do`, an `if`, for example, becomes a term returning a value.
+=for comment :reason<this fails since `if` is a statement>
+my $value = if True { 1 }
+
+# this works!
+my $get-five = do if True { 5 }
+
+#
+# 15.1 `once` - makes sure a piece of code only runs once.
+#
+for ^5 {
+ once say 1
+};
+# OUTPUT: «1␤», only prints ... once
+
+# Similar to `state`, they're cloned per-scope.
+for ^5 {
+ sub { once say 1 }()
+};
+# OUTPUT: «1 1 1 1 1␤», prints once per lexical scope.
+
+#
+# 15.2 `gather` - co-routine thread.
+#
+
+# The `gather` constructs allows us to `take` several values from an array/list,
+# much like `do`.
+say gather for ^5 {
+ take $_ * 3 - 1;
+ take $_ * 3 + 1;
+}
+# OUTPUT: «-1 1 2 4 5 7 8 10 11 13␤»
+
+say join ',', gather if False {
+ take 1;
+ take 2;
+ take 3;
+}
+# Doesn't print anything.
+
+#
+# 15.3 `eager` - evaluates a statement eagerly (forces eager context).
+
+# Don't try this at home. This will probably hang for a while (and might crash)
+# so commented out.
+# eager 1..*;
+
+# But consider, this version which doesn't print anything
+constant thricev0 = gather for ^3 { say take $_ };
+# to:
+constant thricev1 = eager gather for ^3 { say take $_ }; # OUTPUT: «0 1 2␤»
+
+####################################################
+# 16. Iterables
+####################################################
+
+# Iterables are objects that can be iterated over for things such as
+# the `for` construct.
+
+#
+# 16.1 `flat` - flattens iterables.
+#
+say (1, 10, (20, 10) ); # OUTPUT: «(1 10 (20 10))␤», notice how nested
+ # lists are preserved
+say (1, 10, (20, 10) ).flat; # OUTPUT: «(1 10 20 10)␤», now the iterable is flat
+
+#
+# 16.2 `lazy` - defers actual evaluation until value is fetched by forcing lazy context.
+#
+my @lazy-array = (1..100).lazy;
+say @lazy-array.is-lazy; # OUTPUT: «True␤», check for laziness with the `is-lazy` method.
+
+say @lazy-array; # OUTPUT: «[...]␤», List has not been iterated on!
+
+# This works and will only do as much work as is needed.
+for @lazy-array { .print };
+
+# (**TODO** explain that gather/take and map are all lazy)
+
+#
+# 16.3 `sink` - an `eager` that discards the results by forcing sink context.
+#
+constant nilthingie = sink for ^3 { .say } #=> 0 1 2
+say nilthingie.perl; # OUTPUT: «Nil␤»
+
+#
+# 16.4 `quietly` - suppresses warnings in blocks.
+#
+quietly { warn 'This is a warning!' }; # No output
+
+####################################################
+# 17. More operators thingies!
+####################################################
+
+# Everybody loves operators! Let's get more of them.
+
+# The precedence list can be found here:
+# https://docs.raku.org/language/operators#Operator_Precedence
+# But first, we need a little explanation about associativity:
+
+#
+# 17.1 Binary operators
+#
+
+my ($p, $q, $r) = (1, 2, 3);
+
+=begin comment
+Given some binary operator § (not a Raku-supported operator), then:
+
+$p § $q § $r; # with a left-associative §, this is ($p § $q) § $r
+$p § $q § $r; # with a right-associative §, this is $p § ($q § $r)
+$p § $q § $r; # with a non-associative §, this is illegal
+$p § $q § $r; # with a chain-associative §, this is ($p § $q) and ($q § $r)§
+$p § $q § $r; # with a list-associative §, this is `infix:<>`
+=end comment
+
+#
+# 17.2 Unary operators
+#
+
+=begin comment
+Given some unary operator § (not a Raku-supported operator), then:
+§$p§ # with left-associative §, this is (§$p)§
+§$p§ # with right-associative §, this is §($p§)
+§$p§ # with non-associative §, this is illegal
+=end comment
+
+#
+# 17.3 Create your own operators!
+#
+
+=begin comment
+Okay, you've been reading all of that, so you might want to try something
+more exciting?! I'll tell you a little secret (or not-so-secret):
+In Raku, all operators are actually just funny-looking subroutines.
+
+You can declare an operator just like you declare a sub. In the following
+example, `prefix` refers to the operator categories (prefix, infix, postfix,
+circumfix, and post-circumfix).
+=end comment
+sub prefix:<win>( $winner ) {
+ say "$winner Won!";
+}
+win "The King"; # OUTPUT: «The King Won!␤»
+
+# you can still call the sub with its "full name":
+say prefix:<!>(True); # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+prefix:<win>("The Queen"); # OUTPUT: «The Queen Won!␤»
+
+sub postfix:<!>( Int $n ) {
+ [*] 2..$n; # using the reduce meta-operator... See below ;-)!
+}
+say 5!; # OUTPUT: «120␤»
+
+# Postfix operators ('after') have to come *directly* after the term.
+# No whitespace. You can use parentheses to disambiguate, i.e. `(5!)!`
+
+sub infix:<times>( Int $n, Block $r ) { # infix ('between')
+ for ^$n {
+ # You need the explicit parentheses to call the function in `$r`,
+ # else you'd be referring at the code object itself, like with `&r`.
+ $r();
+ }
+}
+3 times -> { say "hello" }; # OUTPUT: «hello␤hello␤hello␤»
+
+# It's recommended to put spaces around your infix operator calls.
+
+# For circumfix and post-circumfix ones
+multi circumfix:<[ ]>( Int $n ) {
+ $n ** $n
+}
+say [5]; # OUTPUT: «3125␤»
+
+# Circumfix means 'around'. Again, no whitespace.
+
+multi postcircumfix:<{ }>( Str $s, Int $idx ) {
+ $s.substr($idx, 1);
+}
+say "abc"{1}; # OUTPUT: «b␤», after the term `"abc"`, and around the index (1)
+
+# Post-circumfix is 'after a term, around something'
+
+=begin comment
+This really means a lot -- because everything in Raku uses this.
+For example, to delete a key from a hash, you use the `:delete` adverb
+(a simple named argument underneath). For instance, the following statements
+are equivalent.
+=end comment
+my %person-stans =
+ 'Giorno Giovanna' => 'Gold Experience',
+ 'Bruno Bucciarati' => 'Sticky Fingers';
+my $key = 'Bruno Bucciarati';
+%person-stans{$key}:delete;
+postcircumfix:<{ }>( %person-stans, 'Giorno Giovanna', :delete );
+# (you can call operators like this)
+
+=begin comment
+It's *all* using the same building blocks! Syntactic categories
+(prefix infix ...), named arguments (adverbs), ..., etc. used to build
+the language - are available to you. Obviously, you're advised against
+making an operator out of *everything* -- with great power comes great
+responsibility.
+=end comment
+
+#
+# 17.4 Meta operators!
+#
+
+=begin comment
+Oh boy, get ready!. Get ready, because we're delving deep into the rabbit's
+hole, and you probably won't want to go back to other languages after
+reading this. (I'm guessing you don't want to go back at this point but
+let's continue, for the journey is long and enjoyable!).
+
+Meta-operators, as their name suggests, are *composed* operators. Basically,
+they're operators that act on another operators.
+
+The reduce meta-operator is a prefix meta-operator that takes a binary
+function and one or many lists. If it doesn't get passed any argument,
+it either returns a "default value" for this operator (a meaningless value)
+or `Any` if there's none (examples below). Otherwise, it pops an element
+from the list(s) one at a time, and applies the binary function to the last
+result (or the first element of a list) and the popped element.
+=end comment
+
+# To sum a list, you could use the reduce meta-operator with `+`, i.e.:
+say [+] 1, 2, 3; # OUTPUT: «6␤», equivalent to (1+2)+3.
+
+# To multiply a list
+say [*] 1..5; # OUTPUT: «120␤», equivalent to ((((1*2)*3)*4)*5).
+
+# You can reduce with any operator, not just with mathematical ones.
+# For example, you could reduce with `//` to get first defined element
+# of a list:
+say [//] Nil, Any, False, 1, 5; # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+ # (Falsey, but still defined)
+# Or with relational operators, i.e., `>` to check elements of a list
+# are ordered accordingly:
+say [>] 234, 156, 6, 3, -20; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+
+# Default value examples:
+say [*] (); # OUTPUT: «1␤», empty product
+say [+] (); # OUTPUT: «0␤», empty sum
+say [//]; # OUTPUT: «(Any)␤»
+ # There's no "default value" for `//`.
+
+# You can also use it with a function you made up,
+# You can also surround using double brackets:
+sub add($a, $b) { $a + $b }
+say [[&add]] 1, 2, 3; # OUTPUT: «6␤»
+
+=begin comment
+The zip meta-operator is an infix meta-operator that also can be used as a
+"normal" operator. It takes an optional binary function (by default, it
+just creates a pair), and will pop one value off of each array and call
+its binary function on these until it runs out of elements. It returns an
+array with all of these new elements.
+=end comment
+say (1, 2) Z (3, 4); # OUTPUT: «((1, 3), (2, 4))␤»
+say 1..3 Z+ 4..6; # OUTPUT: «(5, 7, 9)␤»
+
+# Since `Z` is list-associative (see the list above), you can use it on more
+# than one list.
+(True, False) Z|| (False, False) Z|| (False, False); # (True, False)
+
+# And, as it turns out, you can also use the reduce meta-operator with it:
+[Z||] (True, False), (False, False), (False, False); # (True, False)
+
+# And to end the operator list:
+
+=begin comment
+The sequence operator (`...`) is one of Raku's most powerful features:
+It's composed by the list (which might include a closure) you want Raku to
+deduce from on the left and a value (or either a predicate or a Whatever Star
+for a lazy infinite list) on the right that states when to stop.
+=end comment
+
+# Basic arithmetic sequence
+my @listv0 = 1, 2, 3...10;
+
+# This dies because Raku can't figure out the end
+# my @list = 1, 3, 6...10;
+
+# As with ranges, you can exclude the last element (the iteration ends when
+# the predicate matches).
+my @listv1 = 1, 2, 3...^10;
+
+# You can use a predicate (with the Whatever Star).
+my @listv2 = 1, 3, 9...* > 30;
+
+# Equivalent to the example above but using a block here.
+my @listv3 = 1, 3, 9 ... { $_ > 30 };
+
+# Lazy infinite list of fibonacci sequence, computed using a closure!
+my @fibv0 = 1, 1, *+* ... *;
+
+# Equivalent to the above example but using a pointy block.
+my @fibv1 = 1, 1, -> $a, $b { $a + $b } ... *;
+
+# Equivalent to the above example but using a block with placeholder parameters.
+my @fibv2 = 1, 1, { $^a + $^b } ... *;
+
+=begin comment
+In the examples with explicit parameters (i.e., $a and $b), $a and $b
+will always take the previous values, meaning that for the Fibonacci sequence,
+they'll start with $a = 1 and $b = 1 (values we set by hand), then $a = 1
+and $b = 2 (result from previous $a + $b), and so on.
+=end comment
+
+=begin comment
+# In the example we use a range as an index to access the sequence. However,
+# it's worth noting that for ranges, once reified, elements aren't re-calculated.
+# That's why, for instance, `@primes[^100]` will take a long time the first
+# time you print it but then it will be instateneous.
+=end comment
+say @fibv0[^10]; # OUTPUT: «1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55␤»
+
+####################################################
+# 18. Regular Expressions
+####################################################
+
+=begin comment
+I'm sure a lot of you have been waiting for this one. Well, now that you know
+a good deal of Raku already, we can get started. First off, you'll have to
+forget about "PCRE regexps" (perl-compatible regexps).
+
+IMPORTANT: Don't skip them because you know PCRE. They're different. Some
+things are the same (like `?`, `+`, and `*`), but sometimes the semantics
+change (`|`). Make sure you read carefully, because you might trip over a
+new behavior.
+
+Raku has many features related to RegExps. After all, Rakudo parses itself.
+We're first going to look at the syntax itself, then talk about grammars
+(PEG-like), differences between `token`, `regex` and `rule` declarators,
+and some more. Side note: you still have access to PCRE regexps using the
+`:P5` modifier which we won't be discussing this in this tutorial, though.
+
+In essence, Raku natively implements PEG ("Parsing Expression Grammars").
+The pecking order for ambiguous parses is determined by a multi-level
+tie-breaking test:
+ - Longest token matching: `foo\s+` beats `foo` (by 2 or more positions)
+ - Longest literal prefix: `food\w*` beats `foo\w*` (by 1)
+ - Declaration from most-derived to less derived grammars
+ (grammars are actually classes)
+ - Earliest declaration wins
+=end comment
+say so 'a' ~~ /a/; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+say so 'a' ~~ / a /; # OUTPUT: «True␤», more readable with some spaces!
+
+=begin comment
+In all our examples, we're going to use the smart-matching operator against
+a regexp. We're converting the result using `so` to a Boolean value because,
+in fact, it's returning a `Match` object. They know how to respond to list
+indexing, hash indexing, and return the matched string. The results of the
+match are available in the `$/` variable (implicitly lexically-scoped). You
+can also use the capture variables which start at 0: `$0`, `$1', `$2`...
+
+You can also note that `~~` does not perform start/end checking, meaning
+the regexp can be matched with just one character of the string. We'll
+explain later how you can do it.
+
+In Raku, you can have any alphanumeric as a literal, everything else has
+to be escaped by using a backslash or quotes.
+=end comment
+say so 'a|b' ~~ / a '|' b /; # OUTPUT: «True␤», it wouldn't mean the same
+ # thing if `|` wasn't escaped.
+say so 'a|b' ~~ / a \| b /; # OUTPUT: «True␤», another way to escape it.
+
+# The whitespace in a regex is actually not significant, unless you use the
+# `:s` (`:sigspace`, significant space) adverb.
+say so 'a b c' ~~ / a b c /; #=> `False`, space is not significant here!
+say so 'a b c' ~~ /:s a b c /; #=> `True`, we added the modifier `:s` here.
+
+# If we use only one space between strings in a regex, Raku will warn us
+# about space being not signicant in the regex:
+say so 'a b c' ~~ / a b c /; # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+say so 'a b c' ~~ / a b c /; # OUTPUT: «False»
+
+=begin comment
+NOTE: Please use quotes or `:s` (`:sigspace`) modifier (or, to suppress this
+warning, omit the space, or otherwise change the spacing). To fix this and make
+the spaces less ambiguous, either use at least two spaces between strings
+or use the `:s` adverb.
+=end comment
+
+# As we saw before, we can embed the `:s` inside the slash delimiters, but we
+# can also put it outside of them if we specify `m` for 'match':
+say so 'a b c' ~~ m:s/a b c/; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+
+# By using `m` to specify 'match', we can also use other delimiters:
+say so 'abc' ~~ m{a b c}; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+say so 'abc' ~~ m[a b c]; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+
+# `m/.../` is equivalent to `/.../`:
+say 'raku' ~~ m/raku/; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+say 'raku' ~~ /raku/; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+
+# Use the `:i` adverb to specify case insensitivity:
+say so 'ABC' ~~ m:i{a b c}; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+
+# However, whitespace is important as for how modifiers are applied
+# (which you'll see just below) ...
+
+#
+# 18.1 Quantifiers - `?`, `+`, `*` and `**`.
+#
+
+# `?` - zero or one match
+say so 'ac' ~~ / a b c /; # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+say so 'ac' ~~ / a b? c /; # OUTPUT: «True␤», the "b" matched 0 times.
+say so 'abc' ~~ / a b? c /; # OUTPUT: «True␤», the "b" matched 1 time.
+
+# ... As you read before, whitespace is important because it determines which
+# part of the regex is the target of the modifier:
+say so 'def' ~~ / a b c? /; # OUTPUT: «False␤», only the "c" is optional
+say so 'def' ~~ / a b? c /; # OUTPUT: «False␤», whitespace is not significant
+say so 'def' ~~ / 'abc'? /; # OUTPUT: «True␤», the whole "abc" group is optional
+
+# Here (and below) the quantifier applies only to the "b"
+
+# `+` - one or more matches
+say so 'ac' ~~ / a b+ c /; # OUTPUT: «False␤», `+` wants at least one 'b'
+say so 'abc' ~~ / a b+ c /; # OUTPUT: «True␤», one is enough
+say so 'abbbbc' ~~ / a b+ c /; # OUTPUT: «True␤», matched 4 "b"s
+
+# `*` - zero or more matches
+say so 'ac' ~~ / a b* c /; # OUTPU: «True␤», they're all optional
+say so 'abc' ~~ / a b* c /; # OUTPU: «True␤»
+say so 'abbbbc' ~~ / a b* c /; # OUTPU: «True␤»
+say so 'aec' ~~ / a b* c /; # OUTPU: «False␤», "b"(s) are optional, not replaceable.
+
+# `**` - (Unbound) Quantifier
+# If you squint hard enough, you might understand why exponentation is used
+# for quantity.
+say so 'abc' ~~ / a b**1 c /; # OUTPU: «True␤», exactly one time
+say so 'abc' ~~ / a b**1..3 c /; # OUTPU: «True␤», one to three times
+say so 'abbbc' ~~ / a b**1..3 c /; # OUTPU: «True␤»
+say so 'abbbbbbc' ~~ / a b**1..3 c /; # OUTPU: «Fals␤», too much
+say so 'abbbbbbc' ~~ / a b**3..* c /; # OUTPU: «True␤», infinite ranges are ok
+
+#
+# 18.2 `<[]>` - Character classes
+#
+
+# Character classes are the equivalent of PCRE's `[]` classes, but they use a
+# more raku-ish syntax:
+say 'fooa' ~~ / f <[ o a ]>+ /; # OUTPUT: «fooa␤»
+
+# You can use ranges (`..`):
+say 'aeiou' ~~ / a <[ e..w ]> /; # OUTPUT: «ae␤»
+
+# Just like in normal regexes, if you want to use a special character, escape
+# it (the last one is escaping a space which would be equivalent to using
+# ' '):
+say 'he-he !' ~~ / 'he-' <[ a..z \! \ ]> + /; # OUTPUT: «he-he !␤»
+
+# You'll get a warning if you put duplicate names (which has the nice effect
+# of catching the raw quoting):
+'he he' ~~ / <[ h e ' ' ]> /;
+# Warns "Repeated character (') unexpectedly found in character class"
+
+# You can also negate character classes... (`<-[]>` equivalent to `[^]` in PCRE)
+say so 'foo' ~~ / <-[ f o ]> + /; # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+
+# ... and compose them:
+# any letter except "f" and "o"
+say so 'foo' ~~ / <[ a..z ] - [ f o ]> + /; # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+
+# no letter except "f" and "o"
+say so 'foo' ~~ / <-[ a..z ] + [ f o ]> + /; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+
+# the + doesn't replace the left part
+say so 'foo!' ~~ / <-[ a..z ] + [ f o ]> + /; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+
+#
+# 18.3 Grouping and capturing
+#
+
+# Group: you can group parts of your regexp with `[]`. Unlike PCRE's `(?:)`,
+# these groups are *not* captured.
+say so 'abc' ~~ / a [ b ] c /; # OUTPUT: «True␤», the grouping does nothing
+say so 'foo012012bar' ~~ / foo [ '01' <[0..9]> ] + bar /; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+
+# The previous line returns `True`. The regex matches "012" one or more time
+# (achieved by the the `+` applied to the group).
+
+# But this does not go far enough, because we can't actually get back what
+# we matched.
+
+# Capture: The results of a regexp can be *captured* by using parentheses.
+say so 'fooABCABCbar' ~~ / foo ( 'A' <[A..Z]> 'C' ) + bar /; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+# (using `so` here, see `$/` below)
+
+# So, starting with the grouping explanations. As we said before, our `Match`
+# object is stored inside the `$/` variable:
+say $/; # Will either print the matched object or `Nil` if nothing matched.
+
+# As we also said before, it has array indexing:
+say $/[0]; # OUTPUT: «「ABC」 「ABC」␤»,
+
+# The corner brackets (「..」) represent (and are) `Match` objects. In the
+# previous example, we have an array of them.
+
+say $0; # The same as above.
+
+=begin comment
+Our capture is `$0` because it's the first and only one capture in the
+regexp. You might be wondering why it's an array, and the answer is simple:
+Some captures (indexed using `$0`, `$/[0]` or a named one) will be an array
+if and only if they can have more than one element. Thus any capture with
+`*`, `+` and `**` (whatever the operands), but not with `?`.
+Let's use examples to see that:
+
+NOTE: We quoted A B C to demonstrate that the whitespace between them isn't
+significant. If we want the whitespace to *be* significant there, we can use the
+`:sigspace` modifier.
+=end comment
+say so 'fooABCbar' ~~ / foo ( "A" "B" "C" )? bar /; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+say $/[0]; # OUTPUT: «「ABC」␤»
+say $0.WHAT; # OUTPUT: «(Match)␤»
+ # There can't be more than one, so it's only a single match object.
+
+say so 'foobar' ~~ / foo ( "A" "B" "C" )? bar /; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+say $0.WHAT; # OUTPUT: «(Any)␤», this capture did not match, so it's empty.
+
+say so 'foobar' ~~ / foo ( "A" "B" "C" ) ** 0..1 bar /; #=> OUTPUT: «True␤»
+say $0.WHAT; # OUTPUT: «(Array)␤», A specific quantifier will always capture
+ # an Array, be a range or a specific value (even 1).
+
+# The captures are indexed per nesting. This means a group in a group will be
+# nested under its parent group: `$/[0][0]`, for this code:
+'hello-~-world' ~~ / ( 'hello' ( <[ \- \~ ]> + ) ) 'world' /;
+say $/[0].Str; # OUTPUT: «hello~␤»
+say $/[0][0].Str; # OUTPUT: «~␤»
+
+=begin comment
+This stems from a very simple fact: `$/` does not contain strings, integers
+or arrays, it only contains `Match` objects. These contain the `.list`, `.hash`
+and `.Str` methods but you can also just use `match<key>` for hash access
+and `match[idx]` for array access.
+
+In the following example, we can see `$_` is a list of `Match` objects.
+Each of them contain a wealth of information: where the match started/ended,
+the "ast" (see actions later), etc. You'll see named capture below with
+grammars.
+=end comment
+say $/[0].list.perl; # OUTPUT: «(Match.new(...),).list␤»
+
+# Alternation - the `or` of regexes
+# WARNING: They are DIFFERENT from PCRE regexps.
+say so 'abc' ~~ / a [ b | y ] c /; # OUTPU: «True␤», Either "b" or "y".
+say so 'ayc' ~~ / a [ b | y ] c /; # OUTPU: «True␤», Obviously enough...
+
+# The difference between this `|` and the one you're used to is
+# LTM ("Longest Token Matching") strategy. This means that the engine will
+# always try to match as much as possible in the string.
+say 'foo' ~~ / fo | foo /; # OUTPUT: «foo», instead of `fo`, because it's longer.
+
+=begin comment
+To decide which part is the "longest", it first splits the regex in two parts:
+
+ * The "declarative prefix" (the part that can be statically analyzed)
+ which includes alternations (`|`), conjunctions (`&`), sub-rule calls (not
+ yet introduced), literals, characters classes and quantifiers.
+
+ * The "procedural part" includes everything else: back-references,
+ code assertions, and other things that can't traditionnaly be represented
+ by normal regexps.
+
+Then, all the alternatives are tried at once, and the longest wins.
+=end comment
+
+# Examples:
+# DECLARATIVE | PROCEDURAL
+/ 'foo' \d+ [ <subrule1> || <subrule2> ] /;
+
+# DECLARATIVE (nested groups are not a problem)
+/ \s* [ \w & b ] [ c | d ] /;
+
+# However, closures and recursion (of named regexes) are procedural.
+# There are also more complicated rules, like specificity (literals win
+# over character classes).
+
+# NOTE: The alternation in which all the branches are tried in order
+# until the first one matches still exists, but is now spelled `||`.
+say 'foo' ~~ / fo || foo /; # OUTPUT: «fo␤», in this case.
+
+####################################################
+# 19. Extra: the MAIN subroutine
+####################################################
+
+=begin comment
+The `MAIN` subroutine is called when you run a Raku file directly. It's
+very powerful, because Raku actually parses the arguments and pass them
+as such to the sub. It also handles named argument (`--foo`) and will even
+go as far as to autogenerate a `--help` flag.
+=end comment
+
+sub MAIN($name) {
+ say "Hello, $name!";
+}
+=begin comment
+Supposing the code above is in file named cli.raku, then running in the command
+line (e.g., $ raku cli.raku) produces:
+Usage:
+ cli.raku <name>
+=end comment
+
+=begin comment
+And since MAIN is a regular Raku sub, you can have multi-dispatch:
+(using a `Bool` for the named argument so that we can do `--replace`
+instead of `--replace=1`. The presence of `--replace` indicates truthness
+while its absence falseness). For example:
+
+ # convert to IO object to check the file exists
+ subset File of Str where *.IO.d;
+
+ multi MAIN('add', $key, $value, Bool :$replace) { ... }
+ multi MAIN('remove', $key) { ... }
+ multi MAIN('import', File, Str :$as) { ... } # omitting parameter name
+
+Thus $ raku cli.raku produces:
+Usage:
+ cli.raku [--replace] add <key> <value>
+ cli.raku remove <key>
+ cli.raku [--as=<Str>] import <File>
+
+As you can see, this is *very* powerful. It even went as far as to show inline
+the constants (the type is only displayed if the argument is `$`/is named).
+=end comment
+
+####################################################
+# 20. APPENDIX A:
+####################################################
+
+=begin comment
+It's assumed by now you know the Raku basics. This section is just here to
+list some common operations, but which are not in the "main part" of the
+tutorial to avoid bloating it up.
+=end comment
+
+#
+# 20.1 Operators
+#
+
+# Sort comparison - they return one value of the `Order` enum: `Less`, `Same`
+# and `More` (which numerify to -1, 0 or +1 respectively).
+say 1 <=> 4; # OUTPUT: «More␤», sort comparison for numerics
+say 'a' leg 'b'; # OUTPUT: «Lessre␤», sort comparison for string
+say 1 eqv 1; # OUTPUT: «Truere␤», sort comparison using eqv semantics
+say 1 eqv 1.0; # OUTPUT: «False␤»
+
+# Generic ordering
+say 3 before 4; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+say 'b' after 'a'; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+
+# Short-circuit default operator - similar to `or` and `||`, but instead
+# returns the first *defined* value:
+say Any // Nil // 0 // 5; # OUTPUT: «0␤»
+
+# Short-circuit exclusive or (XOR) - returns `True` if one (and only one) of
+# its arguments is true
+say True ^^ False; # OUTPUT: «True␤»
+
+=begin comment
+Flip flops. These operators (`ff` and `fff`, equivalent to P5's `..`
+and `...`) are operators that take two predicates to test: They are `False`
+until their left side returns `True`, then are `True` until their right
+side returns `True`. Similar to ranges, you can exclude the iteration when
+it become `True`/`False` by using `^` on either side. Let's start with an
+example :
+=end comment
+
+for <well met young hero we shall meet later> {
+ # by default, `ff`/`fff` smart-match (`~~`) against `$_`:
+ if 'met' ^ff 'meet' { # Won't enter the if for "met"
+ .say # (explained in details below).
+ }
+
+ if rand == 0 ff rand == 1 { # compare variables other than `$_`
+ say "This ... probably will never run ...";
+ }
+}
+
+=begin comment
+This will print "young hero we shall meet" (excluding "met"): the flip-flop
+will start returning `True` when it first encounters "met" (but will still
+return `False` for "met" itself, due to the leading `^` on `ff`), until it
+sees "meet", which is when it'll start returning `False`.
+=end comment
+
+=begin comment
+The difference between `ff` (awk-style) and `fff` (sed-style) is that `ff`
+will test its right side right when its left side changes to `True`, and can
+get back to `False` right away (*except* it'll be `True` for the iteration
+that matched) while `fff` will wait for the next iteration to try its right
+side, once its left side changed:
+=end comment
+
+# The output is due to the right-hand-side being tested directly (and returning
+# `True`). "B"s are printed since it matched that time (it just went back to
+# `False` right away).
+.say if 'B' ff 'B' for <A B C B A>; # OUTPUT: «B B␤»,
+
+# In this case the right-hand-side wasn't tested until `$_` became "C"
+# (and thus did not match instantly).
+.say if 'B' fff 'B' for <A B C B A>; #=> «B C B␤»,
+
+# A flip-flop can change state as many times as needed:
+for <test start print it stop not printing start print again stop not anymore> {
+ # exclude both "start" and "stop",
+ .say if $_ eq 'start' ^ff^ $_ eq 'stop'; # OUTPUT: «print it print again␤»
+}
+
+# You might also use a Whatever Star, which is equivalent to `True` for the
+# left side or `False` for the right, as shown in this example.
+# NOTE: the parenthesis are superfluous here (sometimes called "superstitious
+# parentheses"). Once the flip-flop reaches a number greater than 50, it'll
+# never go back to `False`.
+for (1, 3, 60, 3, 40, 60) {
+ .say if $_ > 50 ff *; # OUTPUT: «60␤3␤40␤60␤»
+}
+
+# You can also use this property to create an `if` that'll not go through the
+# first time. In this case, the flip-flop is `True` and never goes back to
+# `False`, but the `^` makes it *not run* on the first iteration
+for <a b c> { .say if * ^ff *; } # OUTPUT: «b␤c␤»
+
+# The `===` operator, which uses `.WHICH` on the objects to be compared, is
+# the value identity operator whereas the `=:=` operator, which uses `VAR()` on
+# the objects to compare them, is the container identity operator.
+```
+
+If you want to go further and learn more about Raku, you can:
+
+- Read the [Raku Docs](https://docs.raku.org/). This is a great
+resource on Raku. If you are looking for something, use the search bar.
+This will give you a dropdown menu of all the pages referencing your search
+term (Much better than using Google to find Raku documents!).
+
+- Read the [Raku Advent Calendar](http://perl6advent.wordpress.com/). This
+is a great source of Raku snippets and explanations. If the docs don't
+describe something well enough, you may find more detailed information here.
+This information may be a bit older but there are many great examples and
+explanations. Posts stopped at the end of 2015 when the language was declared
+stable and Raku 6.c was released.
+
+- Come along on `#raku` at `irc.freenode.net`. The folks here are
+always helpful.
+
+- Check the [source of Raku's functions and
+classes](https://github.com/rakudo/rakudo/tree/nom/src/core). Rakudo is
+mainly written in Raku (with a lot of NQP, "Not Quite Perl", a Raku subset
+easier to implement and optimize).
+
+- Read [the language design documents](https://design.raku.org/). They explain
+Raku from an implementor point-of-view, but it's still very interesting.
+