diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | README.markdown | 1 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | c.html.markdown | 13 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | clojure.html.markdown | 102 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | dart.html.markdown | 7 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | elixir.html.markdown | 398 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | erlang.html.markdown | 239 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | file.erb | 1 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | fsharp.html.markdown | 256 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | haskell.html.markdown | 183 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | java.html.markdown | 367 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | julia.html.markdown | 525 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | lua.html.markdown | 5 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | pets.csv | 4 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | php.html.markdown | 649 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | python.html.markdown | 133 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | r.html.markdown | 350 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | ruby.html.markdown | 309 |
17 files changed, 3127 insertions, 415 deletions
diff --git a/README.markdown b/README.markdown index 3223a2bd..77e09abd 100644 --- a/README.markdown +++ b/README.markdown @@ -17,7 +17,6 @@ properly! The most requested languages are: * Scala -* Python * Javascript ... but there are many more requests to do "every language", so don't let that stop you. diff --git a/c.html.markdown b/c.html.markdown index f5b6245d..8786aa85 100644 --- a/c.html.markdown +++ b/c.html.markdown @@ -1,7 +1,8 @@ --- language: c -author: Adam Bard -author_url: http://adambard.com/ +filename: learnc.c +contributors: + - ["Adam Bard", "http://adambard.com/"] --- Ah, C. Still the language of modern high-performance computing. @@ -12,6 +13,7 @@ memory management and C will take you as far as you need to go. ```c // Single-line comments start with // + /* Multi-line comments look like this. */ @@ -19,6 +21,7 @@ Multi-line comments look like this. // Import headers with #include #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> +#include <string.h> // Declare function signatures in advance in a .h file, or at the top of // your .c file. @@ -75,7 +78,7 @@ unsigned long long ux_long_long; // on your machine. sizeof(T) gives you the size of a variable with type T in // bytes so you can express the size of these types in a portable way. // For example, -printf("%d\n", sizeof(int)); // => 4 (on machines with 4-byte words) +printf("%lu\n", sizeof(int)); // => 4 (on machines with 4-byte words) // Arrays must be initialized with a concrete size. char my_char_array[20]; // This array occupies 1 * 20 = 20 bytes @@ -107,7 +110,7 @@ Char #17 is the NUL byte. Chars #18, 19 and 20 have undefined values. */ -printf("%d\n", a_string[16]); => 0 +printf("%d\n", a_string[16]); // => 0 /////////////////////////////////////// // Operators @@ -293,7 +296,7 @@ function_1(); // <return type> <function name>(<args>) int add_two_ints(int x1, int x2){ - return x1 + x2; // Use return a return a value + return x1 + x2; // Use return to return a value } /* diff --git a/clojure.html.markdown b/clojure.html.markdown index 24250a87..6baae0ce 100644 --- a/clojure.html.markdown +++ b/clojure.html.markdown @@ -1,10 +1,11 @@ --- language: clojure -author: Adam Bard -author_url: http://adambard.com/ +filename: learnclojure.clj +contributors: + - ["Adam Bard", "http://adambard.com/"] --- -Clojure is a variant of LISP developed for the Java Virtual Machine. It has +Clojure is a Lisp family language developed for the Java Virtual Machine. It has a much stronger emphasis on pure [functional programming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming) than Common Lisp, but includes several [STM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_transactional_memory) utilities to handle state as it comes up. @@ -23,9 +24,9 @@ and often automatically. ; ; The clojure reader assumes that the first thing is a ; function or macro to call, and the rest are arguments. -; -; Here's a function that sets the current namespace: -(ns test) + +; The first call in a file should be ns, to set the namespace +(ns learnclojure) ; More basic examples: @@ -59,15 +60,18 @@ and often automatically. (class false) ; Booleans are java.lang.Boolean (class nil); The "null" value is called nil -; If you want to create a literal list of data, use ' to make a "symbol" +; If you want to create a literal list of data, use ' to stop it from +; being evaluated '(+ 1 2) ; => (+ 1 2) +; (shorthand for (quote (+ 1 2)) -; You can eval symbols. +; You can eval a quoted list (eval '(+ 1 2)) ; => 3 ; Collections & Sequences ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; +; Lists are linked-list data structures, while Vectors are array-backed. ; Vectors and Lists are java classes too! (class [1 2 3]); => clojure.lang.PersistentVector (class '(1 2 3)); => clojure.lang.PersistentList @@ -76,16 +80,18 @@ and often automatically. ; it to stop the reader thinking it's a function. ; Also, (list 1 2 3) is the same as '(1 2 3) +; "Collections" are just groups of data ; Both lists and vectors are collections: (coll? '(1 2 3)) ; => true (coll? [1 2 3]) ; => true +; "Sequences" (seqs) are abstract descriptions of lists of data. ; Only lists are seqs. (seq? '(1 2 3)) ; => true (seq? [1 2 3]) ; => false -; Seqs are an interface for logical lists, which can be lazy. -; "Lazy" means that a seq can define an infinite series, like so: +; A seq need only provide an entry when it is accessed. +; So, seqs which can be lazy -- they can define infinite series: (range 4) ; => (0 1 2 3) (range) ; => (0 1 2 3 4 ...) (an infinite series) (take 4 (range)) ; (0 1 2 3) @@ -94,8 +100,8 @@ and often automatically. (cons 4 [1 2 3]) ; => (4 1 2 3) (cons 4 '(1 2 3)) ; => (4 1 2 3) -; Use conj to add an item to the beginning of a list, -; or the end of a vector +; Conj will add an item to a collection in the most efficient way. +; For lists, they insert at the beginning. For vectors, they insert at the end. (conj [1 2 3] 4) ; => [1 2 3 4] (conj '(1 2 3) 4) ; => (4 1 2 3) @@ -165,20 +171,26 @@ x ; => 1 ; => "Hello Finn, you passed 3 extra args" -; Hashmaps +; Maps ;;;;;;;;;; +; Hash maps and array maps share an interface. Hash maps have faster lookups +; but don't retain key order. (class {:a 1 :b 2 :c 3}) ; => clojure.lang.PersistentArrayMap +(class (hash-map :a 1 :b 2 :c 3)) ; => clojure.lang.PersistentHashMap + +; Arraymaps will automatically become hashmaps through most operations +; if they get big enough, so you don't need to worry. +; Maps can use any hashable type as a key, but usually keywords are best ; Keywords are like strings with some efficiency bonuses (class :a) ; => clojure.lang.Keyword -; Maps can use any type as a key, but usually keywords are best -(def stringmap (hash-map "a" 1, "b" 2, "c" 3)) +(def stringmap {"a" 1, "b" 2, "c" 3}) stringmap ; => {"a" 1, "b" 2, "c" 3} -(def keymap (hash-map :a 1 :b 2 :c 3)) -keymap ; => {:a 1, :c 3, :b 2} (order is not guaranteed) +(def keymap {:a 1, :b 2, :c 3}) +keymap ; => {:a 1, :c 3, :b 2} ; By the way, commas are always treated as whitespace and do nothing. @@ -197,7 +209,8 @@ keymap ; => {:a 1, :c 3, :b 2} (order is not guaranteed) (stringmap "d") ; => nil ; Use assoc to add new keys to hash-maps -(assoc keymap :d 4) ; => {:a 1, :b 2, :c 3, :d 4} +(def newkeymap (assoc keymap :d 4)) +newkeymap ; => {:a 1, :b 2, :c 3, :d 4} ; But remember, clojure types are immutable! keymap ; => {:a 1, :b 2, :c 3} @@ -268,6 +281,7 @@ keymap ; => {:a 1, :b 2, :c 3} (require 'clojure.string) ; Use / to call functions from a module +; Here, the module is clojure.string and the function is blank? (clojure.string/blank? "") ; => true ; You can give a module a shorter name on import @@ -311,4 +325,56 @@ keymap ; => {:a 1, :b 2, :c 3} (doto (Calendar/getInstance) (.set 2000 1 1 0 0 0) .getTime) ; => A Date. set to 2000-01-01 00:00:00 + +; STM +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; + +; Software Transactional Memory is the mechanism clojure uses to handle +; persistent state. There are a few constructs in clojure that use this. + +; An atom is the simplest. Pass it an initial value +(def my-atom (atom {})) + +; Update an atom with swap!. +; swap! takes a function and calls it with the current value of the atom +; as the first argument, and any trailing arguments as the second +(swap! my-atom assoc :a 1) ; Sets my-atom to the result of (assoc {} :a 1) +(swap! my-atom assoc :b 2) ; Sets my-atom to the result of (assoc {:a 1} :b 2) + + ; Use '@' to dereference the atom and get the value +my-atom ;=> Atom<#...> (Returns the Atom object) +@my-atom ; => {:a 1 :b 2} + +; Here's a simple counter using an atom +(def counter (atom 0)) +(defn inc-counter [] + (swap! counter inc)) + +(inc-counter) +(inc-counter) +(inc-counter) +(inc-counter) +(inc-counter) + +@counter ; => 5 + +; Other STM constructs are refs and agents. +; Refs: http://clojure.org/refs +; Agents: http://clojure.org/agents ``` + +### Further Reading + +This is far from exhaustive, but hopefully it's enought o get you on your feet. + +Clojure.org has lots of articles: +[http://clojure.org/](http://clojure.org/) + +Clojuredocs.org has documentation with examples for most core functions: +[http://clojuredocs.org/quickref/Clojure%20Core](http://clojuredocs.org/quickref/Clojure%20Core) + +4Clojure is a great way to build your clojure/FP skills: +[http://www.4clojure.com/](http://www.4clojure.com/) + +Clojure-doc.org (yeah, really) has a number of getting started articles: +[http://clojure-doc.org/](http://clojure-doc.org/) diff --git a/dart.html.markdown b/dart.html.markdown index d064dc7d..34d1c6a8 100644 --- a/dart.html.markdown +++ b/dart.html.markdown @@ -1,7 +1,8 @@ --- -language: Dart -author: Joao Pedrosa -author_url: https://github.com/jpedrosa/ +language: dart +filename: learndart.dart +contributors: + - ["Joao Pedrosa", "https://github.com/jpedrosa/"] --- Dart is a newcomer into the realm of programming languages. diff --git a/elixir.html.markdown b/elixir.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3a11ce1f --- /dev/null +++ b/elixir.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,398 @@ +--- +language: elixir +contributors: + - ["Joao Marques", "http://github.com/mrshankly"] +filename: learnelixir.ex +--- + +Elixir is a modern functional language built on top of the Erlang VM. +It's fully compatible with Erlang, but features a more standard syntax +and many more features. + +```ruby + +# Single line comments start with a hashtag. + +# There's no multi-line comment, +# but you can stack multiple comments. + +# To use the elixir shell use the `iex` command. +# Compile your modules with the `elixirc` command. + +# Both should be in your path if you installed elixir correctly. + +## --------------------------- +## -- Basic types +## --------------------------- + +# There are numbers +3 # integer +0x1F # integer +3.0 # float + +# Atoms, that are literals, a constant with name. They start with `:`. +:hello # atom + +# Tuples that are stored contigously in memory. +{1,2,3} # tuple + +# We can access a tuple element with the `elem` function: +elem({1, 2, 3}, 0) #=> 1 + +# Lists that are implemented as linked lists. +[1,2,3] # list + +# We can access the head and tail of a list as follows: +[head | tail] = [1,2,3] +head #=> 1 +tail #=> [2,3] + +# In elixir, just like in erlang, the `=` denotes pattern matching and +# not an assignment. +# +# This means that the left-hand side (pattern) is matched against a +# right-hand side. +# +# This is how the above example of accessing the head and tail of a list works. + +# A pattern match will error when the sides don't match, in this example +# the tuples have different sizes. +# {a, b, c} = {1, 2} #=> ** (MatchError) no match of right hand side value: {1,2} + +# There's also binaries +<<1,2,3>> # binary + +# Strings and char lists +"hello" # string +'hello' # char list + +# Multi-line strings +""" +I'm a multi-line +string. +""" +#=> "I'm a multi-line\nstring.\n" + +# Strings are all encoded in UTF-8: +"héllò" #=> "héllò" + +# Strings are really just binaries, and char lists are just lists. +<<?a, ?b, ?c>> #=> "abc" +[?a, ?b, ?c] #=> 'abc' + +# `?a` in elixir returns the ASCII integer for the letter `a` +?a #=> 97 + +# To concatenate lists use `++`, for binaries use `<>` +[1,2,3] ++ [4,5] #=> [1,2,3,4,5] +'hello ' ++ 'world' #=> 'hello world' + +<<1,2,3>> <> <<4,5>> #=> <<1,2,3,4,5>> +"hello " <> "world" #=> "hello world" + +## --------------------------- +## -- Operators +## --------------------------- + +# Some math +1 + 1 #=> 2 +10 - 5 #=> 5 +5 * 2 #=> 10 +10 / 2 #=> 5.0 + +# In elixir the operator `/` always returns a float. + +# To do integer division use `div` +div(10, 2) #=> 5 + +# To get the division remainder use `rem` +rem(10, 3) #=> 1 + +# There's also boolean operators: `or`, `and` and `not`. +# These operators expect a boolean as their first argument. +true and true #=> true +false or true #=> true +# 1 and true #=> ** (ArgumentError) argument error + +# Elixir also provides `||`, `&&` and `!` which accept arguments of any type. +# All values except `false` and `nil` will evaluate to true. +1 || true #=> 1 +false && 1 #=> false +nil && 20 #=> nil + +!true #=> false + +# For comparisons we have: `==`, `!=`, `===`, `!==`, `<=`, `>=`, `<` and `>` +1 == 1 #=> true +1 != 1 #=> false +1 < 2 #=> true + +# `===` and `!==` are more strict when comparing integers and floats: +1 == 1.0 #=> true +1 === 1.0 #=> false + +# We can also compare two different data types: +1 < :hello #=> true + +# The overall sorting order is defined below: +# number < atom < reference < functions < port < pid < tuple < list < bit string + +# To quote Joe Armstrong on this: "The actual order is not important, +# but that a total ordering is well defined is important." + +## --------------------------- +## -- Control Flow +## --------------------------- + +# `if` expression +if false do + "This will never be seen" +else + "This will" +end + +# There's also `unless` +unless true do + "This will never be seen" +else + "This will" +end + +# Remember pattern matching? Many control-flow structures in elixir rely on it. + +# `case` allows us to compare a value against many patterns: +case {:one, :two} do + {:four, :five} -> + "This won't match" + {:one, x} -> + "This will match and assign `x` to `:two`" + _ -> + "This will match any value" +end + +# It's common practive to assign a value to `_` if we don't need it. +# For example, if only the head of a list matters to us: +[head | _] = [1,2,3] +head #=> 1 + +# For better readability we can do the following: +[head | _tail] = [:a, :b, :c] +head #=> :a + +# `cond` lets us check for many conditions at the same time. +# Use `cond` instead of nesting many `if` expressions. +cond do + 1 + 1 == 3 -> + "I will never be seen" + 2 * 5 == 12 -> + "Me neither" + 1 + 2 == 3 -> + "But I will" +end + +# It is common to see a last condition equal to `true`, which will always match. +cond do + 1 + 1 == 3 -> + "I will never be seen" + 2 * 5 == 12 -> + "Me neither" + true -> + "But I will (this is essentially an else)" +end + +# `try/catch` is used to catch values that are thrown, it also supports an +# `after` clause that is invoked whether or not a value is catched. +try do + throw(:hello) +catch + message -> "Got #{message}." +after + IO.puts("I'm the after clause.") +end +#=> I'm the after clause +# "Got :hello" + +## --------------------------- +## -- Modules and Functions +## --------------------------- + +# Anonymous functions (notice the dot) +square = fn(x) -> x * x end +square.(5) #=> 25 + +# They also accept many clauses and guards. +# Guards let you fine tune pattern matching, +# they are indicated by the `when` keyword: +f = fn + x, y when x > 0 -> x + y + x, y -> x * y +end + +f.(1, 3) #=> 4 +f.(-1, 3) #=> -3 + +# Elixir also provides many built-in functions. +# These are available in the current scope. +is_number(10) #=> true +is_list("hello") #=> false +elem({1,2,3}, 0) #=> 1 + +# You can group several functions into a module. Inside a module use `def` +# to define your functions. +defmodule Math do + def sum(a, b) do + a + b + end + + def square(x) do + x * x + end +end + +Math.sum(1, 2) #=> 3 +Math.square(3) #=> 9 + +# To compile our simple Math module save it as `math.ex` and use `elixirc` +# in your terminal: elixirc math.ex + +# Inside a module we can define functions with `def` and private functions with `defp`. +# A function defined with `def` is available to be invoked from other modules, +# a private function can only be invoked locally. +defmodule PrivateMath do + def sum(a, b) do + do_sum(a, b) + end + + defp do_sum(a, b) do + a + b + end +end + +PrivateMath.sum(1, 2) #=> 3 +# PrivateMath.do_sum(1, 2) #=> ** (UndefinedFunctionError) + +# Function declarations also support guards and multiple clauses: +defmodule Geometry do + def area({:rectangle, w, h}) do + w * h + end + + def area({:circle, r}) when is_number(r) do + 3.14 * r * r + end +end + +Geometry.area({:rectangle, 2, 3}) #=> 6 +Geometry.area({:circle, 3}) #=> 28.25999999999999801048 +# Geometry.area({:circle, "not_a_number"}) +#=> ** (FunctionClauseError) no function clause matching in Geometry.area/1 + +# Due to immutability, recursion is a big part of elixir +defmodule Recursion do + def sum_list([head | tail], acc) do + sum_list(tail, acc + head) + end + + def sum_list([], acc) do + acc + end +end + +Recursion.sum_list([1,2,3], 0) #=> 6 + +# Elixir modules support attributes, there are built-in attributes and you +# may also add custom attributes. +defmodule MyMod do + @moduledoc """ + This is a built-in attribute on a example module. + """ + + @my_data 100 # This is a custom attribute. + IO.inspect(@my_data) #=> 100 +end + +## --------------------------- +## -- Records and Exceptions +## --------------------------- + +# Records are basically structures that allow you to associate a name with +# a particular value. +defrecord Person, name: nil, age: 0, height: 0 + +joe_info = Person.new(name: "Joe", age: 30, height: 180) +#=> Person[name: "Joe", age: 30, height: 180] + +# Access the value of name +joe_info.name #=> "Joe" + +# Update the value of age +joe_info = joe_info.age(31) #=> Person[name: "Joe", age: 31, height: 180] + +# The `try` block with the `rescue` keyword is used to handle exceptions +try do + raise "some error" +rescue + RuntimeError -> "rescued a runtime error" + _error -> "this will rescue any error" +end + +# All exceptions have a message +try do + raise "some error" +rescue + x in [RuntimeError] -> + x.message +end + +## --------------------------- +## -- Concurrency +## --------------------------- + +# Elixir relies on the actor model for concurrency. All we need to write +# concurrent programs in elixir are three primitives: spawning processes, +# sending messages and receiving messages. + +# To start a new process we use the `spawn` function, which takes a function +# as argument. +f = fn -> 2 * 2 end #=> #Function<erl_eval.20.80484245> +spawn(f) #=> #PID<0.40.0> + +# `spawn` returns a pid (process identifier), you can use this pid to send +# messages to the process. To do message passing we use the `<-` operator. +# For all of this to be useful we need to be able to receive messages. This is +# achived with the `receive` mechanism: +defmodule Geometry do + def area_loop do + receive do + {:rectangle, w, h} -> + IO.puts("Area = #{w * h}") + area_loop() + {:circle, r} -> + IO.puts("Area = #{3.14 * r * r}") + area_loop() + end + end +end + +# Compile the module and create a process that evaluates `area_loop` in the shell +pid = spawn(fn -> Geometry.area_loop() end) #=> #PID<0.40.0> + +# Send a message to `pid` that will match a pattern in the receive statement +pid <- {:rectangle, 2, 3} +#=> Area = 6 +# {:rectangle,2,3} + +pid <- {:circle, 2} +#=> Area = 12.56000000000000049738 +# {:circle,2} + +# The shell is also a process, you can use `self` to get the current pid +self() #=> #PID<0.27.0> +``` + +## References + +* [Getting started guide](http://elixir-lang.org/getting_started/1.html) from [elixir webpage](http://elixir-lang.org) +* [Elixir Documentation](http://elixir-lang.org/docs/master/) +* ["Learn You Some Erlang for Great Good!"](http://learnyousomeerlang.com/) by Fred Hebert +* "Programming Erlang: Software for a Concurrent World" by Joe Armstrong diff --git a/erlang.html.markdown b/erlang.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..208f31e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/erlang.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,239 @@ +--- +language: erlang +contributor: + - ["Giovanni Cappellotto", "http://www.focustheweb.com/"] +filename: learnerlang.erl +--- + +```erlang +% Percent sign start a one-line comment. + +%% Two percent characters shall be used to comment functions. + +%%% Three percent characters shall be used to comment modules. + +% We use three types of punctuation in Erlang. +% Commas (`,`) separate arguments in function calls, data constructors, and +% patterns. +% Periods (`.`) (followed by whitespace) separate entire functions and +% expressions in the shell. +% Semicolons (`;`) separate clauses. We find clauses in several contexts: in kn +% function definitions and in `case`, `if`, `try..catch` and `receive` +% expressions. + +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% +%% 1. Variables and pattern matching. +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% + +Num = 42. % All variable names must start with an uppercase letter. +% Erlang has single assignment variables, if you try to assign a different value +% to the variable `Num`, you’ll get an error. + +% In most languages, `=` denotes an assignment statement. In Erlang, however, +% `=` denotes a pattern matching operation. `Lhs = Rhs` really means this: +% evaluate the right side (Rhs), and then match the result against the pattern +% on the left side (Lhs). +Num = 7 * 6. + +% Floating point number. +Pi = 3.14159. + +% Atoms, are used to represent different non-numerical constant values. Atoms +% start with lowercase letters, followed by a sequence of alphanumeric +% characters or the underscore (`_`) or at (`@`) sign. +Hello = hello. + +% Tuples are similar to structs in C. +Point = {point, 10, 45}. + +% If we want to extract some values from a tuple, we use the pattern matching +% operator `=`. +{point, X, Y} = Point. % X = 10, Y = 45 + +% We can use `_` as a placeholder for variables that we’re not interested in. +% The symbol `_` is called an anonymous variable. Unlike regular variables, +% several occurrences of _ in the same pattern don’t have to bind to the same +% value. +Person = {person, {name, {first, joe}, {last, armstrong}}, {footsize, 42}}. +{_, {_, {_, Who}, _}, _} = Person. % Who = joe + +% We create a list by enclosing the list elements in square brackets and +% separating them with commas. +% The individual elements of a list can be of any type. +% The first element of a list the head of the list. If you imagine removing the +% head from the list, what’s left is called the tail of the list. +ThingsToBuy = [{apples, 10}, {pears, 6}, {milk, 3}]. + +% If `T` is a list, then `[H|T]` is also a list, with head H and tail T. +% The vertical bar (`|`) separates the head of a list from its tail. +% `[]` is the empty list. +% We can extract elements from a list with a pattern matching operation. If we +% have the nonempty list `L`, then the expression `[X|Y] = L`, where `X` and `Y` +% are unbound variables, will extract the head of the list into `X` and the tail +% of the list into `Y`. +[FirstThing|OtherThingsToBuy] = ThingsToBuy. +% FirstThing = {apples, 10} +% OtherThingsToBuy = {pears, 6}, {milk, 3} + +% There are no strings in Erlang. Strings are really just lists of integers. +% Strings are enclosed in double quotation marks (`"`). +Name = "Hello". + + +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% +%% 2. Sequential programming. +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% + +% Modules are the basic unit of code in Erlang. All the functions we write are +% stored in modules. Modules are stored in files with `.erl` extensions. +% Modules must be compiled before the code can be run. A compiled module has the +% extension `.beam`. +-module(geometry). +-export([area/1]). + +% The function area consists of two clauses. The clauses are separated by a +% semicolon, and the final clause is terminated by dot-whitespace. +% Each clause has a head and a body; the head consists of a function name +% followed by a pattern (in parentheses), and the body consists of a sequence of +% expressions, which are evaluated if the pattern in the head is successfully +% matched against the calling arguments. The patterns are matched in the order +% they appear in the function definition. +area({rectangle, Width, Ht}) -> Width * Ht; +area({circle, R}) -> 3.14159 * R * R. + +% Compile the code in the file geometry.erl. +c(geometry). % {ok,geometry} + +% We need to include the module name together with the function name in order to +% identify exactly which function we want to call. +geometry:area({rectangle, 10, 5}). % 50 +geometry:area({circle, 1.4}). % 6.15752 + +% In Erlang, two functions with the same name and different arity in the same +% module represent entirely different functions. +-module(lib_misc). +-export([sum/1]). +sum(L) -> sum(L, 0). +sum([], N) -> N; +sum([H|T], N) -> sum(T, H+N). + +% Funs are "anonymous" functions. They are called this because they have no +% name. +Double = fun(X) -> 2*X end. +Double(2). % 4 + +% Functions accept funs as their arguments and can return funs. +Mult = fun(Times) -> ( fun(X) -> X * Times end ) end. +Triple = Mult(3). +Triple(5). % 15 + +% List comprehensions are expressions that create lists without having to use +% funs, maps, or filters. +% The notation `[F(X) || X <- L]` means "the list of `F(X)` where `X` is taken +% from the list `L`." +L = [1,2,3,4,5]. +[2*X || X <- L]. % [2,4,6,8,10] + +% Guards are constructs that we can use to increase the power of pattern +% matching. Using guards, we can perform simple tests and comparisons on the +% variables in a pattern. +% You can use guards in the heads of function definitions where they are +% introduced by the `when` keyword, or you can use them at any place in the +% language where an expression is allowed. +max(X, Y) when X > Y -> X; +max(X, Y) -> Y. + +% A guard is a series of guard expressions, separated by commas (`,`). +% The guard `GuardExpr1, GuardExpr2, ..., GuardExprN` is true if all the guard +% expressions `GuardExpr1, GuardExpr2, ...` evaluate to true. +is_cat(A) when is_atom(A), A =:= cat -> true; +is_cat(A) -> false. +is_dog(A) when is_atom(A), A =:= dog -> true; +is_dog(A) -> false. + +% A `guard sequence` is either a single guard or a series of guards, separated +%by semicolons (`;`). The guard sequence `G1; G2; ...; Gn` is true if at least +% one of the guards `G1, G2, ...` evaluates to true. +is_pet(A) when is_dog(A); is_cat(A) -> true; +is_pet(A) -> false. + +% Records provide a method for associating a name with a particular element in a +% tuple. +% Record definitions can be included in Erlang source code files or put in files +% with the extension `.hrl`, which are then included by Erlang source code +% files. +-record(todo, { + status = reminder, % Default value + who = joe, + text +}). + +% We have to read the record definitions into the shell before we can define a +% record. We use the shell function `rr` (short for read records) to do this. +rr("records.hrl"). % [todo] + +% Creating and updating records: +X = #todo{}. +% #todo{status = reminder, who = joe, text = undefined} +X1 = #todo{status = urgent, text = "Fix errata in book"}. +% #todo{status = urgent, who = joe, text = "Fix errata in book"} +X2 = X1#todo{status = done}. +% #todo{status = done,who = joe,text = "Fix errata in book"} + +% `case` expressions. +% `filter` returns a list of all those elements `X` in `L` for which `P(X)` is +% true. +filter(P, [H|T]) -> + case P(H) of + true -> [H|filter(P, T)]; + false -> filter(P, T) + end; +filter(P, []) -> []. + +% `if` expressions. +max(X, Y) -> + if + X > Y -> X; + X < Y -> Y; + true -> nil; + end. + +% Warning: at least one of the guards in the if expression must evaluate to true; +% otherwise, an exception will be raised. + + +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% +%% 3. Exceptions. +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% + +% Exceptions are raised by the system when internal errors are encountered or +% explicitly in code by calling `throw(Exception)`, `exit(Exception)` or +% `erlang:error(Exception)`. +generate_exception(1) -> a; +generate_exception(2) -> throw(a); +generate_exception(3) -> exit(a); +generate_exception(4) -> {'EXIT', a}; +generate_exception(5) -> erlang:error(a). + +% Erlang has two methods of catching an exception. One is to enclose the call to +% the function, which raised the exception within a `try...catch` expression. +catcher(N) -> + try generate_exception(N) of + Val -> {N, normal, Val} + catch + throw:X -> {N, caught, thrown, X}; + exit:X -> {N, caught, exited, X}; + error:X -> {N, caught, error, X} + end. + +% The other is to enclose the call in a `catch` expression. When you catch an +% exception, it is converted into a tuple that describes the error. +catcher(N) -> catch generate_exception(N). + +``` + +## References + +* "Programming Erlang: Software for a Concurrent World" by Joe Armstrong +* [Erlang - Programming Rules and Conventions](http://www.erlang.se/doc/programming_rules.shtml) +* [Erlang/OTP Documentation](http://www.erlang.org/doc/) diff --git a/file.erb b/file.erb new file mode 100644 index 00000000..5f162aa5 --- /dev/null +++ b/file.erb @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +<%= rawcode %> diff --git a/fsharp.html.markdown b/fsharp.html.markdown index 5c54130d..49951c78 100644 --- a/fsharp.html.markdown +++ b/fsharp.html.markdown @@ -1,16 +1,17 @@ --- language: F# -author: Scott Wlaschin -author_url: http://fsharpforfunandprofit.com/ +contributors: + - ["Scott Wlaschin", "http://fsharpforfunandprofit.com/"] +filename: learnfsharp.fs --- F# is a general purpose functional/OO programming language. It's free and open source, and runs on Linux, Mac, Windows and more. -It has a powerful type system that traps many errors at compile time, but it uses type inference so that it read more like a dynamic language. +It has a powerful type system that traps many errors at compile time, but it uses type inference so that it reads more like a dynamic language. -The syntax of F# is similar to Python: +The syntax of F# is different from C-style languages: -* Curly braces are not used to delimit blocks of code. Instead, indentation is used. +* Curly braces are not used to delimit blocks of code. Instead, indentation is used (like Python). * Whitespace is used to separate parameters rather than commas. If you want to try out the code below, you can go to [tryfsharp.org](http://www.tryfsharp.org/Create) and paste it into an interactive REPL. @@ -123,7 +124,7 @@ printfn "A string %s, and something generic %A" "hello" [1;2;3;4] // Modules are used to group functions together // Indentation is needed for each nested module. -module Addition = +module FunctionExamples = // define a simple adding function let add x y = x + y @@ -132,12 +133,12 @@ module Addition = let a = add 1 2 printfn "1+2 = %i" a - // partial application + // partial application to "bake in" parameters let add42 = add 42 let b = add42 1 printfn "42+1 = %i" b - // composition + // composition to combine functions let add1 = add 1 let add2 = add 2 let add3 = add1 >> add2 @@ -153,40 +154,177 @@ module Addition = printfn "1+2+3+7 = %i" d // ================================================ -// Data Types +// Lists and collection // ================================================ +// There are three types of ordered collection: +// * Lists are most basic immutable collection. +// * Arrays are mutable and more efficient when needed. +// * Sequences are lazy and infinite (e.g. an enumerator). +// +// Other collections include immutable maps and sets +// plus all the standard .NET collections + +module ListExamples = + + // lists use square brackets + let list1 = ["a";"b"] + let list2 = "c" :: list1 // :: is prepending + let list3 = list1 @ list2 // @ is concat + + // list comprehensions (aka generators) + let squares = [for i in 1..10 do yield i*i] + + // prime number generator + let rec sieve = function + | (p::xs) -> p :: sieve [ for x in xs do if x % p > 0 then yield x ] + | [] -> [] + let primes = sieve [2..50] + printfn "%A" primes + + // pattern matching for lists + let listMatcher aList = + match aList with + | [] -> printfn "the list is empty" + | [first] -> printfn "the list has one element %A " first + | [first; second] -> printfn "list is %A and %A" first second + | _ -> printfn "the list has more than two elements" + + listMatcher [1;2;3;4] + listMatcher [1;2] + listMatcher [1] + listMatcher [] + + // recursion using lists + let rec sum aList = + match aList with + | [] -> 0 + | x::xs -> x + sum xs + sum [1..10] + + // ----------------------------------------- + // Standard library functions + // ----------------------------------------- + + // map + let add3 x = x + 3 + [1..10] |> List.map add3 + + // filter + let even x = x % 2 = 0 + [1..10] |> List.filter even + + // many more -- see documentation + +module ArrayExamples = + + // arrays use square brackets with bar + let array1 = [| "a";"b" |] + let first = array1.[0] // indexed access using dot + + // pattern matching for arrays is same as for lists + let arrayMatcher aList = + match aList with + | [| |] -> printfn "the array is empty" + | [| first |] -> printfn "the array has one element %A " first + | [| first; second |] -> printfn "array is %A and %A" first second + | _ -> printfn "the array has more than two elements" + + arrayMatcher [| 1;2;3;4 |] + + // Standard library functions just as for List + + [| 1..10 |] + |> Array.map (fun i -> i+3) + |> Array.filter (fun i -> i%2 = 0) + |> Array.iter (printfn "value is %i. ") + + +module SequenceExamples = + + // sequences use curly braces + let seq1 = seq { yield "a"; yield "b" } + + // sequences can use yield and + // can contain subsequences + let strange = seq { + // "yield! adds one element + yield 1; yield 2; + + // "yield!" adds a whole subsequence + yield! [5..10] + yield! seq { + for i in 1..10 do + if i%2 = 0 then yield i }} + // test + strange |> Seq.toList + + + // Sequences can be created using "unfold" + // Here's the fibonacci series + let fib = Seq.unfold (fun (fst,snd) -> + Some(fst + snd, (snd, fst + snd))) (0,1) + + // test + let fib10 = fib |> Seq.take 10 |> Seq.toList + printf "first 10 fibs are %A" fib10 + + +// ================================================ +// Data Types +// ================================================ module DataTypeExamples = // All data is immutable by default // Tuples are quick 'n easy anonymous types + // -- Use a comma to create a tuple let twoTuple = 1,2 let threeTuple = "a",2,true + + // Pattern match to unpack + let x,y = twoTuple //sets x=1 y=2 - // Record types have named fields + // ------------------------------------ + // Record types have named fields + // ------------------------------------ + + // Use "type" with curly braces to define a record type type Person = {First:string; Last:string} - let person1 = {First="john"; Last="Doe"} + + // Use "let" with curly braces to create a record + let person1 = {First="John"; Last="Doe"} + // Pattern match to unpack + let {First=first} = person1 //sets first="john" + + // ------------------------------------ // Union types (aka variants) have a set of choices // Only case can be valid at a time. + // ------------------------------------ + + // Use "type" with bar/pipe to define a union type type Temp = | DegreesC of float | DegreesF of float + + // Use one of the cases to create one let temp1 = DegreesF 98.6 let temp2 = DegreesC 37.0 - // Union types are great for modelling state without using flags - type EmailAddress = - | ValidEmailAddress of string - | InvalidEmailAddress of string + // Pattern match on all cases to unpack + let printTemp = function + | DegreesC t -> printfn "%f degC" t + | DegreesF t -> printfn "%f degF" t + + printTemp temp1 + printTemp temp2 + + // ------------------------------------ + // Recursive types + // ------------------------------------ - let trySendEmail email = - match email with // use pattern matching - | ValidEmailAddress address -> () // send - | InvalidEmailAddress address -> () // dont send - // Types can be combined recursively in complex ways // without having to create subclasses type Employee = @@ -195,6 +333,20 @@ module DataTypeExamples = let jdoe = {First="John";Last="Doe"} let worker = Worker jdoe + + // ------------------------------------ + // Modelling with types + // ------------------------------------ + + // Union types are great for modelling state without using flags + type EmailAddress = + | ValidEmailAddress of string + | InvalidEmailAddress of string + + let trySendEmail email = + match email with // use pattern matching + | ValidEmailAddress address -> () // send + | InvalidEmailAddress address -> () // dont send // The combination of union types and record types together // provide a great foundation for domain driven design. @@ -211,10 +363,35 @@ module DataTypeExamples = | ActiveCart of ActiveCartData | PaidCart of PaidCartData - // All complex types have pretty printing built in for free + // ------------------------------------ + // Built in behavior for types + // ------------------------------------ + + // Core types have useful "out-of-the-box" behavior, no coding needed. + // * Immutability + // * Pretty printing when debugging + // * Equality and comparison + // * Serialization + + // Pretty printing using %A printfn "twoTuple=%A,\nPerson=%A,\nTemp=%A,\nEmployee=%A" twoTuple person1 temp1 worker - + + // Equality and comparison built in. + // Here's an example with cards. + type Suit = Club | Diamond | Spade | Heart + type Rank = Two | Three | Four | Five | Six | Seven | Eight + | Nine | Ten | Jack | Queen | King | Ace + + let hand = [ Club,Ace; Heart,Three; Heart,Ace; + Spade,Jack; Diamond,Two; Diamond,Ace ] + + // sorting + List.sort hand |> printfn "sorted hand is (low to high) %A" + List.max hand |> printfn "high card is %A" + List.min hand |> printfn "low card is %A" + + // ================================================ // Active patterns // ================================================ @@ -224,6 +401,8 @@ module ActivePatternExamples = // F# has a special type of pattern matching called "active patterns" // where the pattern can be parsed or detected dynamically. + // "banana clips" are the syntax for active patterns + // for example, define an "active" pattern to match character types... let (|Digit|Letter|Whitespace|Other|) ch = if System.Char.IsDigit(ch) then Digit @@ -242,7 +421,26 @@ module ActivePatternExamples = // print a list ['a';'b';'1';' ';'-';'c'] |> List.iter printChar - + // ----------------------------------- + // FizzBuzz using active patterns + // ----------------------------------- + + // You can create partial matching patterns as well + // Just use undercore in the defintion, and return Some if matched. + let (|MultOf3|_|) i = if i % 3 = 0 then Some MultOf3 else None + let (|MultOf5|_|) i = if i % 5 = 0 then Some MultOf5 else None + + // the main function + let fizzBuzz i = + match i with + | MultOf3 & MultOf5 -> printf "FizzBuzz, " + | MultOf3 -> printf "Fizz, " + | MultOf5 -> printf "Buzz, " + | _ -> printf "%i, " i + + // test + [1..20] |> List.iter fizzBuzz + // ================================================ // Conciseness // ================================================ @@ -289,7 +487,7 @@ module AlgorithmExamples = module AsyncExample = - // F# has some built-in features to help with async code + // F# has built-in features to help with async code // without encountering the "pyramid of doom" // // The following example downloads a set of web pages in parallel. @@ -301,10 +499,14 @@ module AsyncExample = // Fetch the contents of a URL asynchronously let fetchUrlAsync url = - async { + async { // "async" keyword and curly braces + // creates an "async" object let req = WebRequest.Create(Uri(url)) - use! resp = req.AsyncGetResponse() + use! resp = req.AsyncGetResponse() + // use! is async assignment use stream = resp.GetResponseStream() + // "use" triggers automatic close() + // on resource at end of scope use reader = new IO.StreamReader(stream) let html = reader.ReadToEnd() printfn "finished downloading %s" url @@ -360,7 +562,7 @@ module NetCompatibilityExamples = // F# is also a fully fledged OO language. // It supports classes, inheritance, virtual methods, etc. - // interface + // interface with generic type type IEnumerator<'a> = abstract member Current : 'a abstract MoveNext : unit -> bool diff --git a/haskell.html.markdown b/haskell.html.markdown index 563674c9..34df4d08 100644 --- a/haskell.html.markdown +++ b/haskell.html.markdown @@ -1,17 +1,17 @@ --- language: haskell -author: Adit Bhargava -author_url: http://adit.io +contributors: + - ["Adit Bhargava", "http://adit.io"] --- Haskell was designed as a practical, purely functional programming language. It's famous for -it's monads and it's type system, but I keep coming back to it because of it's elegance. Haskell +its monads and its type system, but I keep coming back to it because of its elegance. Haskell makes coding a real joy for me. ```haskell -- Single line comments start with two dashes. {- Multiline comments can be enclosed -in a block like this. +en a block like this. -} ---------------------------------------------------- @@ -44,15 +44,21 @@ not False -- True 1 /= 1 -- False 1 < 10 -- True +-- In the above examples, `not` is a function that takes one value. +-- Haskell doesn't need parentheses for function calls...all the arguments +-- are just listed after the function. So the general pattern is: +-- func arg1 arg2 arg3... +-- See the section on functions for information on how to write your own. + -- Strings and characters "This is a string." 'a' -- character 'You cant use single quotes for strings.' -- error! --- Strings can be added too! +-- Strings can be concatenated "Hello " ++ "world!" -- "Hello world!" --- A string can be treated like a list of characters +-- A string is a list of characters "This is a string" !! 0 -- 'T' @@ -68,14 +74,24 @@ not False -- True -- You can also have infinite lists in Haskell! [1..] -- a list of all the natural numbers --- joining two lists +-- Infinite lists work because Haskell has "lazy evaluation". This means +-- that Haskell only evaluates things when it needs to. So you can ask for +-- the 1000th element of your list and Haskell will give it to you: + +[1..] !! 999 -- 1000 + +-- And now Haskell has evaluated elements 1 - 1000 of this list...but the +-- rest of the elements of this "infinite" list don't exist yet! Haskell won't +-- actually evaluate them until it needs to. + + - joining two lists [1..5] ++ [6..10] -- adding to the head of a list 0:[1..5] -- [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] -- indexing into a list -[0..] !! 5 -- 4 +[0..] !! 5 -- 5 -- more list operations head [1..5] -- 1 @@ -104,6 +120,10 @@ snd ("haskell", 1) -- 1 -- A simple function that takes two variables add a b = a + b +-- Note that if you are using ghci (the Haskell interpreter) +-- You'll need to use `let`, i.e. +-- let add a b = a + b + -- Using the function add 1 2 -- 3 @@ -132,19 +152,19 @@ fib x = fib (x - 1) + fib (x - 2) -- Pattern matching on tuples: foo (x, y) = (x + 1, y + 2) --- Pattern matching on arrays. Here `x` is the first element --- in the array, and `xs` is the rest of the array. We can write +-- Pattern matching on lists. Here `x` is the first element +-- in the list, and `xs` is the rest of the list. We can write -- our own map function: -map func [x] = [func x] -map func (x:xs) = func x:(map func xs) +myMap func [] = [] +myMap func (x:xs) = func x:(myMap func xs) -- Anonymous functions are created with a backslash followed by -- all the arguments. -map (\x -> x + 2) [1..5] -- [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] +myMap (\x -> x + 2) [1..5] -- [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] -- using fold (called `inject` in some languages) with an anonymous -- function. foldl1 means fold left, and use the first value in the --- array as the initial value for the accumulator. +-- list as the initial value for the accumulator. foldl1 (\acc x -> acc + x) [1..5] -- 15 ---------------------------------------------------- @@ -179,10 +199,10 @@ foo 5 -- 75 -- of parentheses: -- before -(even (double 7)) -- true +(even (fib 7)) -- true -- after -even . double $ 7 -- true +even . fib $ 7 -- true ---------------------------------------------------- -- 5. Type signatures @@ -197,13 +217,17 @@ True :: Bool -- Functions have types too. -- `not` takes a boolean and returns a boolean: -not :: Bool -> Bool +-- not :: Bool -> Bool -- Here's a function that takes two arguments: -add :: Integer -> Integer -> Integer +-- add :: Integer -> Integer -> Integer + +-- When you define a value, it's good practice to write its type above it: +double :: Integer -> Integer +double x = x * 2 ---------------------------------------------------- --- 6. Control Flow +-- 6. Control Flow and If Statements ---------------------------------------------------- -- if statements @@ -221,7 +245,7 @@ case args of _ -> putStrLn "bad args" -- Haskell doesn't have loops because it uses recursion instead. --- map a function over every element in an array +-- map applies a function over every element in an array map (*2) [1..5] -- [2, 4, 6, 8, 10] @@ -234,6 +258,19 @@ for [0..5] $ \i -> show i -- we could've written that like this too: for [0..5] show +-- You can use foldl or foldr to reduce a list +-- foldl <fn> <initial value> <list> +foldl (\x y -> 2*x + y) 4 [1,2,3] -- 43 + +-- This is the same as +(2 * (2 * (2 * 4 + 1) + 2) + 3) + +-- foldl is left-handed, foldr is right- +foldr (\x y -> 2*x + y) 4 [1,2,3] -- 16 + +-- This is now the same as +(2 * 3 + (2 * 2 + (2 * 1 + 4))) + ---------------------------------------------------- -- 7. Data Types ---------------------------------------------------- @@ -244,22 +281,104 @@ data Color = Red | Blue | Green -- Now you can use it in a function: -say :: Color -> IO String -say Red = putStrLn "You are Red!" -say Blue = putStrLn "You are Blue!" -say Green = putStrLn "You are Green!" + +say :: Color -> String +say Red = "You are Red!" +say Blue = "You are Blue!" +say Green = "You are Green!" -- Your data types can have parameters too: data Maybe a = Nothing | Just a -- These are all of type Maybe -Nothing -Just "hello" -Just 1 +Just "hello" -- of type `Maybe String` +Just 1 -- of type `Maybe Int` +Nothing -- of type `Maybe a` for any `a` ---------------------------------------------------- --- 8. The Haskell REPL +-- 8. Haskell IO +---------------------------------------------------- + +-- While IO can't be explained fully without explaining monads, +-- it is not hard to explain enough to get going. + +-- When a Haskell program is executed, the function `main` is +-- called. It must return a value of type `IO ()`. For example: + +main :: IO () +main = putStrLn $ "Hello, sky! " ++ (say Blue) +-- putStrLn has type String -> IO () + +-- It is easiest to do IO if you can implement your program as +-- a function from String to String. The function +-- interact :: (String -> String) -> IO () +-- inputs some text, runs a function on it, and prints out the +-- output. + +countLines :: String -> String +countLines = show . length . lines + +main' = interact countLines + +-- You can think of a value of type `IO ()` as representing a +-- sequence of actions for the computer to do, much like a +-- computer program written in an imperative language. We can use +-- the `do` notation to chain actions together. For example: + +sayHello :: IO () +sayHello = do + putStrLn "What is your name?" + name <- getLine -- this gets a line and gives it the name "input" + putStrLn $ "Hello, " ++ name + +-- Exercise: write your own version of `interact` that only reads +-- one line of input. + +-- The code in `sayHello` will never be executed, however. The only +-- action that ever gets executed is the value of `main`. +-- To run `sayHello` comment out the above definition of `main` +-- and replace it with: +-- main = sayHello + +-- Let's understand better how the function `getLine` we just +-- used works. Its type is: +-- getLine :: IO String +-- You can think of a value of type `IO a` as representing a +-- computer program that will generate a value of type `a` +-- when executed (in addition to anything else it does). We can +-- store and reuse this value using `<-`. We can also +-- make our own action of type `IO String`: + +action :: IO String +action = do + putStrLn "This is a line. Duh" + input1 <- getLine + input2 <- getLine + -- The type of the `do` statement is that of its last line. + -- `return` is not a keyword, but merely a function + return (input1 ++ "\n" ++ input2) -- return :: String -> IO String + +-- We can use this just like we used `getLine`: + +main'' = do + putStrLn "I will echo two lines!" + result <- action + putStrLn result + putStrLn "This was all, folks!" + +-- The type `IO` is an example of a "monad". The way Haskell uses a monad to +-- do IO allows it to be a purely functional language. Any function that +-- interacts with the outside world (i.e. does IO) gets marked as `IO` in its +-- type signature. This lets us reason about what functions are "pure" (don't +-- interact with the outside world or modify state) and what functions aren't. + +-- This is a powerful feature, because it's easy to run pure functions +-- concurrently; so, concurrency in Haskell is very easy. + + +---------------------------------------------------- +-- 9. The Haskell REPL ---------------------------------------------------- -- Start the repl by typing `ghci`. @@ -272,6 +391,14 @@ let foo = 5 >:t foo foo :: Integer + +-- You can also run any action of type `IO ()` + +> sayHello +What is your name? +Friend! +Hello, Friend! + ``` There's a lot more to Haskell, including typeclasses and monads. These are the big ideas that make Haskell such fun to code in. I'll leave you with one final Haskell example: an implementation of quicksort in Haskell: diff --git a/java.html.markdown b/java.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..785a2cb9 --- /dev/null +++ b/java.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,367 @@ +--- + +language: java +contributors: + - ["Jake Prather", "http://github.com/JakeHP"] +filename: LearnJava.java + +--- + +Java is a general-purpose, concurrent, class-based, object-oriented computer programming language. +[Read more here.](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/index.html) + +```java +// Single-line comments start with // +/* +Multi-line comments look like this. +*/ + +// Import ArrayList class inside of the java.util package +import java.util.ArrayList; +// Import all classes inside of java.security package +import java.security.*; + +// Each .java file contains one public class, with the same name as the file. +public class LearnJava { + + // A program must have a main method as an entry point + public static void main (String[] args) { + + // Use System.out.println to print lines + System.out.println("Hello World!"); + System.out.println( + "Integer: " + 10 + + " Double: " + 3.14 + + " Boolean: " + true); + + // To print without a newline, use System.out.print + System.out.print("Hello "); + System.out.print("World"); + + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Types & Variables + /////////////////////////////////////// + + // Declare a variable using <type> <name> [ + // Byte - 8-bit signed two's complement integer + // (-128 <= byte <= 127) + byte fooByte = 100; + + // Short - 16-bit signed two's complement integer + // (-32,768 <= short <= 32,767) + short fooShort = 10000; + + // Integer - 32-bit signed two's complement integer + // (-2,147,483,648 <= int <= 2,147,483,647) + int fooInt = 1; + + // Long - 64-bit signed two's complement integer + // (-9,223,372,036,854,775,808 <= long <= 9,223,372,036,854,775,807) + long fooLong = 100000L; + + // (Java has no unsigned types) + + // Float - Single-precision 32-bit IEEE 754 Floating Point + float fooFloat = 234.5f; + + // Double - Double-precision 64-bit IEEE 754 Floating Point + double fooDouble = 123.4; + + // Boolean - true & false + boolean fooBoolean = true; + boolean barBoolean = false; + + // Char - A single 16-bit Unicode character + char fooChar = 'A'; + + // Use final to make a variable immutable + final int HOURS_I_WORK_PER_WEEK = 9001; + + // Strings + String fooString = "My String Is Here!"; + + // \n is an escaped character that starts a new line + String barString = "Printing on a new line?\nNo Problem!"; + System.out.println(fooString); + System.out.println(barString); + + // Arrays + //The array size must be decided upon declaration + //The format for declaring an array is follows: + //<datatype> [] <var name> = new <datatype>[<array size>]; + int [] intArray = new int[10]; + String [] stringArray = new String[1]; + boolean [] booleanArray = new boolean[100]; + + // Another way to declare & initialize an array + int [] y = {9000, 1000, 1337}; + + // Indexing an array - Accessing an element + System.out.println("intArray @ 0: " + intArray[0]); + + // Arrays are zero-indexed and mutable. + intArray[1] = 1; + System.out.println("intArray @ 1: " + intArray[1]); // => 1 + + // Others to check out + // ArrayLists - Like arrays except more functionality is offered, + // and the size is mutable + // LinkedLists + // Maps + // HashMaps + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Operators + /////////////////////////////////////// + System.out.println("\n->Operators"); + + int i1 = 1, i2 = 2; // Shorthand for multiple declarations + + // Arithmetic is straightforward + System.out.println("1+2 = " + (i1 + i2)); // => 3 + System.out.println("2-1 = " + (i2 - i1)); // => 1 + System.out.println("2*1 = " + (i2 * i1)); // => 2 + System.out.println("1/2 = " + (i1 / i2)); // => 0 (0.5 truncated down) + + // Modulo + System.out.println("11%3 = "+(11 % 3)); // => 2 + + // Comparison operators + System.out.println("3 == 2? " + (3 == 2)); // => 0 (false) + System.out.println("3 != 2? " + (3 != 2)); // => 1 (true) + System.out.println("3 > 2? " + (3 > 2)); // => 1 + System.out.println("3 < 2? " + (3 < 2)); // => 0 + System.out.println("2 <= 2? " + (2 <= 2)); // => 1 + System.out.println("2 >= 2? " + (2 >= 2)); // => 1 + + // Bitwise operators! + /* + ~ Unary bitwise complement + << Signed left shift + >> Signed right shift + >>> Unsigned right shift + & Bitwise AND + ^ Bitwise exclusive OR + | Bitwise inclusive OR + */ + + // Incrementations + int i=0; + System.out.println("\n->Inc/Dec-rementation"); + System.out.println(i++); //i = 1. Post-Incrementation + System.out.println(++i); //i = 2. Pre-Incrementation + System.out.println(i--); //i = 1. Post-Decrementation + System.out.println(--i); //i = 0. Pre-Decrementation + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Control Structures + /////////////////////////////////////// + System.out.println("\n->Control Structures"); + + // If statements are c-like + if (false){ + System.out.println("I never run"); + }else if (false) { + System.out.println("I am also never run"); + } else { + System.out.println("I print"); + } + + // While loop + int fooWhile = 0; + while(fooWhile < 100) + { + //System.out.println(fooWhile); + //Increment the counter + //Iterated 99 times, fooWhile 0->99 + fooWhile++; + } + System.out.println("fooWhile Value: " + fooWhile); + + // Do While Loop + int fooDoWhile = 0; + do + { + //System.out.println(fooDoWhile); + //Increment the counter + //Iterated 99 times, fooDoWhile 0->99 + fooDoWhile++; + }while(fooDoWhile < 100); + System.out.println("fooDoWhile Value: " + fooDoWhile); + + // For Loop + int fooFor; + //for loop structure => for(<start_statement>; <conditional>; <step>) + for(fooFor=0; fooFor<10; fooFor++){ + //System.out.println(fooFor); + //Iterated 10 times, fooFor 0->9 + } + System.out.println("fooFor Value: " + fooFor); + + // Switch Case + int month = 3; + String monthString; + switch (month){ + case 1: monthString = "January"; + break; + case 2: monthString = "February"; + break; + case 3: monthString = "March"; + break; + default: monthString = "Some other month"; + break; + } + System.out.println("Switch Case Result: " + monthString); + + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Converting Data Types And Typcasting + /////////////////////////////////////// + + // Converting data + + // Convert String To Integer + Integer.parseInt("123");//returns an integer version of "123" + + // Convert Integer To String + Integer.toString(123);//returns a string version of 123 + + // For other conversions check out the following classes: + // Double + // Long + // String + + // Typecasting + // You can also cast java objects, there's a lot of details and + // deals with some more intermediate concepts. + // Feel free to check it out here: + // http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/subclasses.html + + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Classes And Functions + /////////////////////////////////////// + + System.out.println("\n->Classes & Functions"); + + // (definition of the Bicycle class follows) + + // Use new to instantiate a class + Bicycle trek = new Bicycle(); + + // Call object methods + trek.speedUp(3); + trek.setCadence(100); + + // toString is a convention + System.out.println("trek info: " + trek.toString()); + + } // End main method +} // End LearnJava class + + +// You can include other, non-public classes in a .java file + + +// Class Declaration Syntax: +// <public/private/protected> class <class name>{ +// //data fields, constructors, functions all inside +// } + +class Bicycle { + + // Bicycle's Fields/Variables + public int cadence; // Public: Can be accessed from anywhere + private int speed; // Private: Only accessable from within the class + protected int gear; // Protected: Accessible from the class and subclasses + + // Constructors are a way of creating classes + // This is a default constructor + public Bicycle() { + gear = 1; + cadence = 50; + speed = 5; + } + + // This is a specified constructor (it contains arguments) + public Bicycle(int startCadence, int startSpeed, int startGear) { + gear = startGear; + cadence = startCadence; + speed = startSpeed; + } + + // Function Syntax: + // <public/private/protected> <return type> <function name>(<args>) + + // Java classes often implement getters and setters for their fields + + // Method declaration syntax: + // <scope> <return type> <method name>(<args>) + public int getCadence() { + return cadence; + } + + // void methods require no return statement + public void setCadence(int newValue) { + cadence = newValue; + } + + public void setGear(int newValue) { + gear = newValue; + } + + public void speedUp(int increment) { + speed += increment; + } + + public void slowDown(int decrement) { + speed -= decrement; + } + + public String toString() { + return "gear: "+Integer.toString(gear)+ + " cadence: "+Integer.toString(cadence)+ + " speed: "+Integer.toString(speed); + } +} // end class Bicycle + +// PennyFarthing is a subclass of Bicycle +class PennyFarthing extends Bicycle { + // (Penny Farthings are those bicycles with the big front wheel. + // They have no gears.) + + public PennyFarthing(int startCadence, int startSpeed){ + // Call the parent constructor with super + super(startCadence, startSpeed, 0); + } + + // You should mark a method you're overriding with an @annotation + @Override + public void setGear(int gear) { + gear = 0; + } + +} + +``` + +## Further Reading + +Other Topics To Research: + +* [Inheritance](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/subclasses.html) + +* [Polymorphism](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/polymorphism.html) + +* [Abstraction](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/abstract.html) + +* [Exceptions](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/essential/exceptions/index.html) + +* [Interfaces](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/createinterface.html) + +* [Generics](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/generics/index.html) + +* [Java Code Conventions](http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/codeconv-138413.html) + +* The links provided are just to get an understanding of the topic, feel free to google and find specific examples diff --git a/julia.html.markdown b/julia.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..1023e303 --- /dev/null +++ b/julia.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,525 @@ +--- +language: julia +contributors: + - ["Leah Hanson", "http://leahhanson.us"] +filename: learnjulia.jl +--- + +Julia is a new homoiconic functional language focused on technical computing. +While having the full power of homoiconic macros, first-class functions, and low-level control, Julia is as easy to learn and use as Python. + +This is based on the current development version of Julia, as of June 29th, 2013. + +```ruby + +# Single line comments start with a hash. + +#################################################### +## 1. Primitive Datatypes and Operators +#################################################### + +# Everything in Julia is a expression. + +# You have numbers +3 #=> 3 (Int64) +3.2 #=> 3.2 (Float64) +2 + 1im #=> 2 + 1im (Complex{Int64}) +2//3 #=> 2//3 (Rational{Int64}) + +# Math is what you would expect +1 + 1 #=> 2 +8 - 1 #=> 7 +10 * 2 #=> 20 +35 / 5 #=> 7.0 +5 \ 35 #=> 7.0 +5 / 2 #=> 2.5 +div(5, 2) #=> 2 +2 ^ 2 #=> 4 # power, not bitwise xor +12 % 10 #=> 2 + +# Enforce precedence with parentheses +(1 + 3) * 2 #=> 8 + +# Bitwise Operators +~2 #=> -3 # bitwise not +3 & 5 #=> 1 # bitwise and +2 | 4 #=> 6 # bitwise or +2 $ 4 #=> 6 # bitwise xor +2 >>> 1 #=> 1 # logical shift right +2 >> 1 #=> 1 # arithmetic shift right +2 << 1 #=> 4 # logical/arithmetic shift left + +# You can use the bits function to see the binary representation of a number. +bits(12345) +#=> "0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011000000111001" +bits(12345.0) +#=> "0100000011001000000111001000000000000000000000000000000000000000" + +# Boolean values are primitives +true +false + +# Boolean operators +!true #=> false +!false #=> true +1 == 1 #=> true +2 == 1 #=> false +1 != 1 #=> false +2 != 1 #=> true +1 < 10 #=> true +1 > 10 #=> false +2 <= 2 #=> true +2 >= 2 #=> true +# Comparisons can be chained +1 < 2 < 3 #=> true +2 < 3 < 2 #=> false + +# Strings are created with " +"This is a string." + +# Character literals written with ' +'a' + +# A string can be treated like a list of characters +"This is a string"[1] #=> 'T' # Julia indexes from 1 + +# $ can be used for string interpolation: +"2 + 2 = $(2 + 2)" #=> "2 + 2 = 4" +# You can put any Julia expression inside the parenthesis. + +# Another way to format strings is the printf macro. +@printf "%d is less than %f" 4.5 5.3 # 5 is less than 5.300000 + +#################################################### +## 2. Variables and Collections +#################################################### + +# Printing is pretty easy +println("I'm Julia. Nice to meet you!") + +# No need to declare variables before assigning to them. +some_var = 5 #=> 5 +some_var #=> 5 + +# Accessing a previously unassigned variable is an error +try + some_other_var #=> ERROR: some_other_var not defined +catch e + println(e) +end + +# Variable name start with a letter. You can use uppercase letters, digits, +# and exclamation points as well after the initial alphabetic character. +SomeOtherVar123! = 6 #=> 6 + +# You can also use unicode characters +☃ = 8 #=> 8 + +# A note on naming conventions in Julia: +# +# * Names of variables are in lower case, with word separation indicated by +# underscores ('\_'). +# +# * Names of Types begin with a capital letter and word separation is shown +# with CamelCase instead of underscores. +# +# * Names of functions and macros are in lower case, without underscores. +# +# * Functions that modify their inputs have names that end in !. These +# functions are sometimes called mutating functions or in-place functions. + +# Arrays store a sequence of values indexed by integers 1 through n: +a = Int64[] #=> 0-element Int64 Array + +# 1-dimensional array literals can be written with comma-separated values. +b = [4, 5, 6] #=> 3-element Int64 Array: [4, 5, 6] +b[1] #=> 4 +b[end] #=> 6 + +# 2-dimentional arrays use space-separated values and semicolon-separated rows. +matrix = [1 2; 3 4] #=> 2x2 Int64 Array: [1 2; 3 4] + +# Add stuff to the end of a list with push! and append! +push!(a,1) #=> [1] +push!(a,2) #=> [1,2] +push!(a,4) #=> [1,2,4] +push!(a,3) #=> [1,2,4,3] +append!(a,b) #=> [1,2,4,3,4,5,6] + +# Remove from the end with pop +pop!(a) #=> 6 and b is now [4,5] + +# Let's put it back +push!(b,6) # b is now [4,5,6] again. + +a[1] #=> 1 # remember that Julia indexes from 1, not 0! + +# end is a shorthand for the last index. It can be used in any +# indexing expression +a[end] #=> 6 + +# Function names that end in exclamations points indicate that they modify +# their argument. +arr = [5,4,6] #=> 3-element Int64 Array: [5,4,6] +sort(arr) #=> [4,5,6]; arr is still [5,4,6] +sort!(arr) #=> [4,5,6]; arr is now [4,5,6] + +# Looking out of bounds is a BoundsError +try + a[0] #=> ERROR: BoundsError() in getindex at array.jl:270 + a[end+1] #=> ERROR: BoundsError() in getindex at array.jl:270 +catch e + println(e) +end + +# Errors list the line and file they came from, even if it's in the standard +# library. If you built Julia from source, you can look in the folder base +# inside the julia folder to find these files. + +# You can initialize arrays from ranges +a = [1:5] #=> 5-element Int64 Array: [1,2,3,4,5] + +# You can look at ranges with slice syntax. +a[1:3] #=> [1, 2, 3] +a[2:] #=> [2, 3, 4, 5] + +# Remove arbitrary elements from a list with splice! +arr = [3,4,5] +splice!(arr,2) #=> 4 ; arr is now [3,5] + +# Concatenate lists with append! +b = [1,2,3] +append!(a,b) # Now a is [1, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3] + +# Check for existence in a list with contains +contains(a,1) #=> true + +# Examine the length with length +length(a) #=> 7 + +# Tuples are immutable. +tup = (1, 2, 3) #=>(1,2,3) # an (Int64,Int64,Int64) tuple. +tup[1] #=> 1 +try: + tup[0] = 3 #=> ERROR: no method setindex!((Int64,Int64,Int64),Int64,Int64) +catch e + println(e) +end + +# Many list functions also work on tuples +length(tup) #=> 3 +tup[1:2] #=> (1,2) +contains(tup,2) #=> true + +# You can unpack tuples into variables +a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) #=> (1,2,3) # a is now 1, b is now 2 and c is now 3 + +# Tuples are created by default if you leave out the parentheses +d, e, f = 4, 5, 6 #=> (4,5,6) + +# Now look how easy it is to swap two values +e, d = d, e #=> (5,4) # d is now 5 and e is now 4 + + +# Dictionaries store mappings +empty_dict = Dict() #=> Dict{Any,Any}() + +# Here is a prefilled dictionary +filled_dict = ["one"=> 1, "two"=> 2, "three"=> 3] +# => Dict{ASCIIString,Int64} + +# Look up values with [] +filled_dict["one"] #=> 1 + +# Get all keys +keys(filled_dict) +#=> KeyIterator{Dict{ASCIIString,Int64}}(["three"=>3,"one"=>1,"two"=>2]) +# Note - dictionary keys are not sorted or in the order you inserted them. + +# Get all values +values(filled_dict) +#=> ValueIterator{Dict{ASCIIString,Int64}}(["three"=>3,"one"=>1,"two"=>2]) +# Note - Same as above regarding key ordering. + +# Check for existence of keys in a dictionary with contains, haskey +contains(filled_dict, ("one", 1)) #=> true +contains(filled_dict, ("two", 3)) #=> false +haskey(filled_dict, "one") #=> true +haskey(filled_dict, 1) #=> false + +# Trying to look up a non-existing key will raise an error +try + filled_dict["four"] #=> ERROR: key not found: four in getindex at dict.jl:489 +catch e + println(e) +end + +# Use get method to avoid the error +# get(dictionary,key,default_value) +get(filled_dict,"one",4) #=> 1 +get(filled_dict,"four",4) #=> 4 + +# Sets store sets +empty_set = Set() #=> Set{Any}() +# Initialize a set with a bunch of values +filled_set = Set(1,2,2,3,4) #=> Set{Int64}(1,2,3,4) + +# Add more items to a set +add!(filled_set,5) #=> Set{Int64}(5,4,2,3,1) + +# There are functions for set intersection, union, and difference. +other_set = Set(3, 4, 5, 6) #=> Set{Int64}(6,4,5,3) +intersect(filled_set, other_set) #=> Set{Int64}(3,4,5) +union(filled_set, other_set) #=> Set{Int64}(1,2,3,4,5,6) +setdiff(Set(1,2,3,4),Set(2,3,5)) #=> Set{Int64}(1,4) + +# Check for existence in a set with contains +contains(filled_set,2) #=> true +contains(filled_set,10) #=> false + + +#################################################### +## 3. Control Flow +#################################################### + +# Let's make a variable +some_var = 5 + +# Here is an if statement. Indentation is NOT meaningful in Julia. +# prints "some var is smaller than 10" +if some_var > 10 + println("some_var is totally bigger than 10.") +elseif some_var < 10 # This elseif clause is optional. + println("some_var is smaller than 10.") +else # The else clause is optional too. + println("some_var is indeed 10.") +end + + +# For loops iterate over iterables, such as ranges, lists, sets, dicts, strings. + +for animal=["dog", "cat", "mouse"] + # You can use $ to interpolate into strings + println("$animal is a mammal") +end +# prints: +# dog is a mammal +# cat is a mammal +# mouse is a mammal + +# You can use in instead of =, if you want. +for animal in ["dog", "cat", "mouse"] + println("$animal is a mammal") +end + +for a in ["dog"=>"mammal","cat"=>"mammal","mouse"=>"mammal"] + println("$(a[1]) is $(a[2])") +end + +for (k,v) in ["dog"=>"mammal","cat"=>"mammal","mouse"=>"mammal"] + println("$k is $v") +end + + +# While loops go until a condition is no longer met. +# prints: +# 0 +# 1 +# 2 +# 3 +x = 0 +while x < 4 + println(x) + x += 1 # Shorthand for x = x + 1 +end + +# Handle exceptions with a try/except block +try + error("help") +catch e + println("caught it $e") +end +#=> caught it ErrorException("help") + + +#################################################### +## 4. Functions +#################################################### + +# Use the keyword function to create new functions +function add(x, y) + println("x is $x and y is $y") + + # Functions implicitly return the value of their last statement + x + y +end + +add(5, 6) #=> 11 after printing out "x is 5 and y is 6" + +# You can define functions that take a variable number of +# positional arguments +function varargs(args...) + return args +end + +varargs(1,2,3) #=> (1,2,3) + +# The ... is called a splat. +# It can also be used in a fuction call +# to splat a list or tuple out to be the arguments +Set([1,2,3]) #=> Set{Array{Int64,1}}([1,2,3]) # produces a Set of Arrays +Set([1,2,3]...) #=> Set{Int64}(1,2,3) # this is equivalent to Set(1,2,3) + +x = (1,2,3) #=> (1,2,3) +Set(x) #=> Set{(Int64,Int64,Int64)}((1,2,3)) # a Set of Tuples +Set(x...) #=> Set{Int64}(2,3,1) + + +# You can define functions with optional positional arguments +function defaults(a,b,x=5,y=6) + return "$a $b and $x $y" +end + +defaults('h','g') #=> "h g and 5 6" +defaults('h','g','j') #=> "h g and j 6" +defaults('h','g','j','k') #=> "h g and j k" +try + defaults('h') #=> ERROR: no method defaults(Char,) + defaults() #=> ERROR: no methods defaults() +catch e +println(e) +end + +# You can define functions that take keyword arguments +function keyword_args(;k1=4,name2="hello") # note the ; + return ["k1"=>k1,"name2"=>name2] +end + +keyword_args(name2="ness") #=> ["name2"=>"ness","k1"=>4] +keyword_args(k1="mine") #=> ["k1"=>"mine","name2"=>"hello"] +keyword_args() #=> ["name2"=>"hello","k2"=>4] + +# You can also do both at once +function all_the_args(normal_arg, optional_positional_arg=2; keyword_arg="foo") + println("normal arg: $normal_arg") + println("optional arg: $optional_positional_arg") + println("keyword arg: $keyword_arg") +end + +all_the_args(1, 3, keyword_arg=4) +# prints: +# normal arg: 1 +# optional arg: 3 +# keyword arg: 4 + +# Julia has first class functions +function create_adder(x) + adder = function (y) + return x + y + end + return adder +end + +# or equivalently +function create_adder(x) + y -> x + y +end + +# you can also name the internal function, if you want +function create_adder(x) + function adder(y) + x + y + end + adder +end + +add_10 = create_adder(10) +add_10(3) #=> 13 + +# The first two inner functions above are anonymous functions +(x -> x > 2)(3) #=> true + +# There are built-in higher order functions +map(add_10, [1,2,3]) #=> [11, 12, 13] +filter(x -> x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) #=> [6, 7] + +# We can use list comprehensions for nice maps and filters +[add_10(i) for i=[1, 2, 3]] #=> [11, 12, 13] +[add_10(i) for i in [1, 2, 3]] #=> [11, 12, 13] + +#################################################### +## 5. Types and Multiple-Dispatch +#################################################### + +# Type definition +type Tiger + taillength::Float64 + coatcolor # no type annotation is implicitly Any +end +# default constructor is the properties in order +# so, Tiger(taillength,coatcolor) + +# Type instantiation +tigger = Tiger(3.5,"orange") # the type doubles as the constructor function + +# Abtract Types +abstract Cat # just a name and point in the type hierarchy + +# * types defined with the type keyword are concrete types; they can be +# instantiated +# +# * types defined with the abstract keyword are abstract types; they can +# have subtypes. +# +# * each type has one supertype; a supertype can have zero or more subtypes. + +type Lion <: Cat # Lion is a subtype of Cat + mane_color + roar::String +end + +type Panther <: Cat # Panther is also a subtype of Cat + eye_color + Panther() = new("green") + # Panthers will only have this constructor, and no default constructor. +end + +# Multiple Dispatch + +# In Julia, all named functions are generic functions +# This means that they are built up from many small methods +# For example, let's make a function meow: +function meow(cat::Lion) + cat.roar # access properties using dot notation +end + +function meow(cat::Panther) + "grrr" +end + +function meow(cat::Tiger) + "rawwwr" +end + +meow(tigger) #=> "rawwr" +meow(Lion("brown","ROAAR")) #=> "ROAAR" +meow(Panther()) #=> "grrr" + +function pet_cat(cat::Cat) + println("The cat says $(meow(cat))") +end + +try + pet_cat(tigger) #=> ERROR: no method pet_cat(Tiger,) +catch e + println(e) +end + +pet_cat(Lion(Panther(),"42")) #=> prints "The cat says 42" + +``` + +## Further Reading + +You can get a lot more detail from [The Julia Manual](http://docs.julialang.org/en/latest/manual/) + diff --git a/lua.html.markdown b/lua.html.markdown index 66ebf6bd..0ece399f 100644 --- a/lua.html.markdown +++ b/lua.html.markdown @@ -1,7 +1,8 @@ --- language: lua -author: Tyler Neylon -author_url: http://tylerneylon.com/ +contributors: + - ["Tyler Neylon", "http://tylerneylon.com/"] +filename: learnlua.lua --- ```lua diff --git a/pets.csv b/pets.csv new file mode 100644 index 00000000..0837f473 --- /dev/null +++ b/pets.csv @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +name,age,weight,species +"fluffy",3,14,"cat" +"vesuvius",6,23,"fish" +"rex",5,34,"dog" diff --git a/php.html.markdown b/php.html.markdown index 753f6ab1..a20e1d11 100644 --- a/php.html.markdown +++ b/php.html.markdown @@ -1,20 +1,17 @@ --- language: php -author: Malcolm Fell -author_url: http://emarref.net/ +contributors: + - ["Malcolm Fell", "http://emarref.net/"] +filename: learnphp.php --- This document describes PHP 5+. -## [Basic Syntax](http://www.php.net/manual/en/language.basic-syntax.php) - -All statements must end with a semi-colon; All PHP code must be between <?php and ?> tags. PHP can also be -configured to respect the [short open tags](http://www.php.net/manual/en/ini.core.php#ini.short-open-tag) <? and ?>. - -## [Comments](http://www.php.net/manual/en/language.basic-syntax.comments.php) - ```php -<?php +<?php // PHP code must be enclosed with <?php ? > tags + +// If your php file only contains PHP code, it is best practise +// to omit the php closing tag. // Two forward slashes start a one-line comment. @@ -24,27 +21,36 @@ configured to respect the [short open tags](http://www.php.net/manual/en/ini.cor Surrounding text in slash-asterisk and asterisk-slash makes it a multi-line comment. */ -``` - -## [Types](http://www.php.net/manual/en/language.types.php) -Types are [weakly typed](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_and_weak_typing) and begin with the $ symbol. -A valid variable name starts with a letter or underscore, followed by any number of letters, numbers, or underscores. +// Use "echo" or "print" to print output +print('Hello '); // Prints "Hello " with no line break -### Scalars +// () are optional for print and echo +echo "World\n"; // Prints "World" with a line break +// (all statements must end with a semicolon) -```php +// Anything outside <?php tags is echoed automatically +?>Hello World Again! <?php + +/************************************ + * Types & Variables + */ + +// Variables begin with the $ symbol. +// A valid variable name starts with a letter or underscore, +// followed by any number of letters, numbers, or underscores. + // Boolean values are case-insensitive -$boolean = true; // or TRUE or True +$boolean = true; // or TRUE or True $boolean = false; // or FALSE or False // Integers -$integer = 1234; // decimal number -$integer = -123; // a negative number -$integer = 0123; // octal number (equivalent to 83 decimal) -$integer = 0x1A; // hexadecimal number (equivalent to 26 decimal) +$int1 = 19; // => 19 +$int2 = -19; // => -19 +$int3 = 019; // => 15 (a leading 0 denotes an octal number) +$int4 = 0x0F; // => 15 (a leading 0x denotes a hex literal) // Floats (aka doubles) $float = 1.234; @@ -52,28 +58,30 @@ $float = 1.2e3; $float = 7E-10; // Arithmetic -$sum = $number + $float; -$difference = $number - $float; -$product = $number * $float; -$quotient = $number / $float; +$sum = 1 + 1; // 2 +$difference = 2 - 1; // 1 +$product = 2 * 2; // 4 +$quotient = 2 / 1; // 2 // Shorthand arithmetic -$number += 1; // Add 1 to $number -$number++; // Add 1 to $number after it is used -++$number; // Add 1 to $number before it is used. -$number /= $float // Divide and assign the quotient to $number +$number = 0; +$number += 1; // Increment $number by 1 +echo $number++; // Prints 1 (increments after evaluation) +echo ++$number; // Prints 3 (increments before evalutation) +$number /= $float; // Divide and assign the quotient to $number // Strings should be enclosed in single quotes; $sgl_quotes = '$String'; // => '$String' // Avoid using double quotes except to embed other variables -$dbl_quotes = "This is a $sgl_quotes." // => 'This is a $String' +$dbl_quotes = "This is a $sgl_quotes."; // => 'This is a $String.' -// Escape special characters with backslash -$escaped = "This contains a \t tab character."; +// Special characters are only escaped in double quotes +$escaped = "This contains a \t tab character."; +$unescaped = 'This just contains a slash and a t: \t'; // Enclose a variable in curly braces if needed -$money = "I have $${integer} in the bank." +$money = "I have $${number} in the bank."; // Since PHP 5.3, nowdocs can be used for uninterpolated multi-liners $nowdoc = <<<'END' @@ -81,35 +89,40 @@ Multi line string END; +// Heredocs will do string interpolation $heredoc = <<<END Multi line $sgl_quotes -END; // Nowdoc syntax is available in PHP 5.3.0 +END; -// Manipulation -$concatenated = $sgl_quotes . $dbl_quotes; -``` +// String concatenation is done with . +echo 'This string ' . 'is concatenated'; -### Compound -```php -<?php +/******************************** + * Arrays + */ -// Arrays -$array = array(1, 2, 3); -$array = [1, 2, 3]; // As of PHP 5.4 -$string = ["One", "Two", "Three"]; -$string[0]; // Holds the value "One"; +// All arrays in PHP are associative arrays (hashmaps), // Associative arrays, known as hashmaps in some languages. -$associative = ["One" => 1, "Two" => 2, "Three" => 3]; -$associative["One"]; // Holds the value 1 -``` -## Output +// Works with all PHP versions +$associative = array('One' => 1, 'Two' => 2, 'Three' => 3); -```php -<?php +// PHP 5.4 introduced a new syntax +$associative = ['One' => 1, 'Two' => 2, 'Three' => 3]; + +echo $associative['One']; // prints 1 + +// List literals implicitly assign integer keys +$array = ['One', 'Two', 'Three']; +echo $array[0]; // => "One" + + +/******************************** + * Output + */ echo('Hello World!'); // Prints Hello World! to stdout. @@ -121,133 +134,134 @@ print('Hello World!'); // The same as echo echo 'Hello World!'; print 'Hello World!'; // So is print -echo 100; -echo $variable; -echo function_result(); +$paragraph = 'paragraph'; + +echo 100; // Echo scalar variables directly +echo $paragraph; // or variables // If short open tags are configured, or your PHP version is // 5.4.0 or greater, you can use the short echo syntax -<?= $variable ?> -``` - -## [Operators](http://www.php.net/manual/en/language.operators.php) - -### Assignment - -```php +?> +<p><?= $paragraph ?></p> <?php $x = 1; $y = 2; -$x = $y; // A now contains the same value sa $y -$x = &$y; -// $x now contains a reference to $y. Changing the value of -// $x will change the value of $y also, and vice-versa. -``` +$x = $y; // $x now contains the same value as $y +$z = &$y; +// $z now contains a reference to $y. Changing the value of +// $z will change the value of $y also, and vice-versa. +// $x will remain unchanged as the original value of $y -### Comparison +echo $x; // => 2 +echo $z; // => 2 +$y = 0; +echo $x; // => 2 +echo $z; // => 0 -```php -<?php -// These comparisons will always be true, even if the types aren't the same. -$a == $b // TRUE if $a is equal to $b after type juggling. -$a != $b // TRUE if $a is not equal to $b after type juggling. -$a <> $b // TRUE if $a is not equal to $b after type juggling. -$a < $b // TRUE if $a is strictly less than $b. -$a > $b // TRUE if $a is strictly greater than $b. -$a <= $b // TRUE if $a is less than or equal to $b. -$a >= $b // TRUE if $a is greater than or equal to $b. +/******************************** + * Logic + */ +$a = 0; +$b = '0'; +$c = '1'; +$d = '1'; -// The following will only be true if the values match and are the same type. -$a === $b // TRUE if $a is equal to $b, and they are of the same type. -$a !== $b // TRUE if $a is not equal to $b, or they are not of the same type. -1 == '1' // TRUE -1 === '1' // FALSE -``` +// assert throws a warning if its argument is not true -## [Type Juggling](http://www.php.net/manual/en/language.types.type-juggling.php) +// These comparisons will always be true, even if the types aren't the same. +assert($a == $b); // equality +assert($c != $a); // inequality +assert($c <> $a); // alternative inequality +assert($a < $c); +assert($c > $b); +assert($a <= $b); +assert($c >= $d); -Variables can be converted between types, depending on their usage. +// The following will only be true if the values match and are the same type. +assert($c === $d); +assert($a !== $d); +assert(1 == '1'); +assert(1 !== '1'); -```php -<?php +// Variables can be converted between types, depending on their usage. $integer = 1; -echo $integer + $integer; // Outputs 2; +echo $integer + $integer; // => 2 $string = '1'; -echo $string + $string; -// Also outputs 2 because the + operator converts the strings to integers +echo $string + $string; // => 2 (strings are coerced to integers) $string = 'one'; -echo $string + $string; +echo $string + $string; // => 0 // Outputs 0 because the + operator cannot cast the string 'one' to a number -``` -Type casting can be used to treat a variable as another type temporarily by using cast operators in parentheses. +// Type casting can be used to treat a variable as another type -```php -$boolean = (boolean) $integer; // $boolean is true +$boolean = (boolean) 1; // => true $zero = 0; -$boolean = (boolean) $zero; // $boolean is false +$boolean = (boolean) $zero; // => false +// There are also dedicated functions for casting most types $integer = 5; $string = strval($integer); -// There are also dedicated functions for casting most types $var = null; // Null value -``` - -## [Control Structures](http://www.php.net/manual/en/language.control-structures.php) -### If Statements -```php -<?php +/******************************** + * Control Structures + */ -if (/* test */) { - // Do something +if (true) { + print 'I get printed'; } -if (/* test */) { - // Do something +if (false) { + print 'I don\'t'; } else { - // Do something else + print 'I get printed'; } -if (/* test */) { - // Do something -} elseif(/* test2 */) { - // Do something else, only if test2 +if (false) { + print 'Does not get printed'; +} elseif(true) { + print 'Does'; } -if (/* test */) { - // Do something -} elseif(/* test2 */) { - // Do something else, only if test2 +// ternary operator +print (false ? 'Does not get printed' : 'Does'); + +$x = 0; +if ($x === '0') { + print 'Does not print'; +} elseif($x == '1') { + print 'Does not print'; } else { - // Do something default + print 'Does print'; } + + + +// This alternative syntax is useful for templates: ?> -<?php if (/* test */): ?> +<?php if ($x): ?> This is displayed if the test is truthy. <?php else: ?> This is displayed otherwise. <?php endif; ?> -``` - -### Switch statements -```php <?php -switch ($variable) { - case 'one': - // Do something if $variable == 'one' - break; +// Use switch to save some logic. +switch ($x) { + case '0': + print 'Switch does type coercion'; + break; // You must include a break, or you will fall through + // to cases 'two' and 'three' case 'two': case 'three': // Do something if $variable is either 'two' or 'three' @@ -256,199 +270,231 @@ switch ($variable) { // Do something by default } -``` - -### Loops - -```php -<?php - +// While, do...while and for loops are probably familiar $i = 0; while ($i < 5) { echo $i++; -} +}; // Prints "01234" + +echo "\n"; $i = 0; do { echo $i++; -} while ($i < 5); +} while ($i < 5); // Prints "01234" + +echo "\n"; for ($x = 0; $x < 10; $x++) { - echo $x; // Will echo 0 - 9 -} + echo $x; +} // Prints "0123456789" + +echo "\n"; + +$wheels = ['bicycle' => 2, 'car' => 4]; -$wheels = ["bicycle" => 2, "car" => 4]; +// Foreach loops can iterate over arrays +foreach ($wheels as $wheel_count) { + echo $wheel_count; +} // Prints "24" +echo "\n"; + +// You can iterate over the keys as well as the values foreach ($wheels as $vehicle => $wheel_count) { echo "A $vehicle has $wheel_count wheels"; } -// This loop will stop after outputting 2 +echo "\n"; + $i = 0; while ($i < 5) { - if ($i == 3) { - break; // Exit out of the while loop and continue. + if ($i === 3) { + break; // Exit out of the while loop } echo $i++; -} +} // Prints "012" -// This loop will output everything except 3 -$i = 0; -while ($i < 5) { - if ($i == 3) { +for ($i = 0; $i < 5; $i++) { + if ($i === 3) { continue; // Skip this iteration of the loop } - echo $i++; -} -``` - -## Functions + echo $i; +} // Prints "0124" -Functions are created with the ```function``` keyword. -```php -<?php +/******************************** + * Functions + */ -function my_function($my_arg) { - $my_variable = 1; +// Define a function with "function": +function my_function () { + return 'Hello'; } -// $my_variable and $my_arg cannot be accessed outside of the function -``` - -Functions may be invoked by name. - -```php -<?php +echo my_function(); // => "Hello" -my_function_name(); +// A valid function name starts with a letter or underscore, followed by any +// number of letters, numbers, or underscores. -$variable = get_something(); // A function may return a value -``` - -A valid function name starts with a letter or underscore, followed by any -number of letters, numbers, or underscores. There are three ways to declare functions. - -### [User-defined](http://www.php.net/manual/en/functions.user-defined.php) - -```php -<?php - -function my_function_name ($arg_1, $arg_2) { - // $arg_1 and $arg_2 are required +function add ($x, $y = 1) { // $y is optional and defaults to 1 + $result = $x + $y; + return $result; } -// Functions may be nested to limit scope -function outer_function ($arg_1 = null) { // $arg_1 is optional - function inner_function($arg_2 = 'two') { // $arg_2 will default to 'two' - } -} +echo add(4); // => 5 +echo add(4, 2); // => 6 -// inner_function() does not exist and cannot be called until -// outer_function() is called -``` +// $result is not accessible outside the function +// print $result; // Gives a warning. -This enables [currying](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying) in PHP. +// Since PHP 5.3 you can declare anonymous functions; +$inc = function ($x) { + return $x + 1; +}; + +echo $inc(2); // => 3 -```php function foo ($x, $y, $z) { echo "$x - $y - $z"; } +// Functions can return functions function bar ($x, $y) { + // Use 'use' to bring in outside variables return function ($z) use ($x, $y) { foo($x, $y, $z); }; } $bar = bar('A', 'B'); -$bar('C'); -``` - -### [Variable](http://www.php.net/manual/en/functions.variable-functions.php) +$bar('C'); // Prints "A - B - C" -```php -<?php +// You can call named functions using strings +$function_name = 'add'; +echo $function_name(1, 2); // => 3 +// Useful for programatically determining which function to run. +// Or, use call_user_func(callable $callback [, $parameter [, ... ]]); -$function_name = 'my_function_name'; +/******************************** + * Includes + */ -$function_name(); // will execute the my_function_name() function +/* ``` - -### [Anonymous](http://www.php.net/manual/en/functions.anonymous.php) - -Similar to variable functions, functions may be anonymous. - ```php <?php +// PHP within included files must also begin with a PHP open tag. -function my_function($callback) { - $callback('My argument'); -} +include 'my-file.php'; +// The code in my-file.php is now available in the current scope. +// If the file cannot be included (e.g. file not found), a warning is emitted. -my_function(function ($my_argument) { - // do something -}); +include_once 'my-file.php'; +// If the code in my-file.php has been included elsewhere, it will +// not be included again. This prevents multiple class declaration errors -// Closure style -$my_function = function() { - // Do something -}; +require 'my-file.php'; +require_once 'my-file.php'; +// Same as include(), except require() will cause a fatal error if the +// file cannot be included. -$my_function(); -``` +// Contents of my-include.php: +<?php -## [Classes](http://www.php.net/manual/en/language.oop5.php) +return 'Anything you like.'; +// End file -Classes are defined with the ```class``` keyword. +// Includes and requires may also return a value. +$value = include 'my-include.php'; -```php -<?php +// Files are included based on the file path given or, if none is given, +// the include_path configuration directive. If the file isn't found in +// the include_path, include will finally check in the calling script's +// own directory and the current working directory before failing. +/* */ -class MyClass { - const MY_CONST = 'value'; - static $staticVar = 'something'; - public $property = 'value'; // Properties must declare their visibility -} +/******************************** + * Classes + */ -echo MyClass::MY_CONST; // Outputs "value"; +// Classes are defined with the class keyword -final class YouCannotExtendMe { -} -``` +class MyClass +{ + const MY_CONST = 'value'; // A constant -Classes are insantiated with the ```new``` keyword. Functions are referred to as -methods if they belong to a class. + static $staticVar = 'static'; -```php -<?php + // Properties must declare their visibility + public $property = 'public'; + public $instanceProp; + protected $prot = 'protected'; // Accessible from the class and subclasses + private $priv = 'private'; // Accessible within the class only -class MyClass { - function myFunction() { + // Create a constructor with __construct + public function __construct($instanceProp) { + // Access instance variables with $this + $this->instanceProp = $instanceProp; } - final function youCannotOverrideMe() { + // Methods are declared as functions inside a class + public function myMethod() + { + print 'MyClass'; } - public static function myStaticMethod() { + final function youCannotOverrideMe() + { + } + + public static function myStaticMethod() + { + print 'I am static'; } } -$cls = new MyClass(); // The parentheses are optional. +echo MyClass::MY_CONST; // Outputs 'value'; +echo MyClass::$staticVar; // Outputs 'static'; +MyClass::myStaticMethod(); // Outputs 'I am static'; -echo MyClass::$staticVar; // Access to static vars +// Instantiate classes using new +$my_class = new MyClass('An instance property'); +// The parentheses are optional if not passing in an argument. -echo $cls->property; // Access to properties +// Access class members using -> +echo $my_class->property; // => "public" +echo $my_class->instanceProp; // => "An instance property" +$my_class->myMethod(); // => "MyClass" -MyClass::myStaticMethod(); // myStaticMethod cannot be run on $cls -``` -PHP offers some [magic methods](http://www.php.net/manual/en/language.oop5.magic.php) for classes. +// Extend classes using "extends" +class MyOtherClass extends MyClass +{ + function printProtectedProperty() + { + echo $this->prot; + } -```php -<?php + // Override a method + function myMethod() + { + parent::myMethod(); + print ' > MyOtherClass'; + } +} -class MyClass { +$my_other_class = new MyOtherClass('Instance prop'); +$my_other_class->printProtectedProperty(); // => Prints "protected" +$my_other_class->myMethod(); // Prints "MyClass > MyOtherClass" + +final class YouCannotExtendMe +{ +} + +// You can use "magic methods" to create getters and setters +class MyMapClass +{ private $property; public function __get($key) @@ -462,16 +508,13 @@ class MyClass { } } -$x = new MyClass(); +$x = new MyMapClass(); echo $x->property; // Will use the __get() method $x->property = 'Something'; // Will use the __set() method -``` -Classes can be abstract (using the ```abstract``` keyword), extend other classes (using the ```extends``` keyword) and -implement interfaces (using the ```implements``` keyword). An interface is declared with the ```interface``` keyword. - -```php -<?php +// Classes can be abstract (using the abstract keyword) or +// implement interfaces (using the implements keyword). +// An interface is declared with the interface keyword. interface InterfaceOne { @@ -480,90 +523,112 @@ interface InterfaceOne interface InterfaceTwo { - public function doSomething(); + public function doSomethingElse(); } abstract class MyAbstractClass implements InterfaceOne { + public $x = 'doSomething'; } -class MyClass extends MyAbstractClass implements InterfaceTwo +class MyConcreteClass extends MyAbstractClass implements InterfaceTwo { + public function doSomething() + { + echo $x; + } + + public function doSomethingElse() + { + echo 'doSomethingElse'; + } } + // Classes can implement more than one interface class SomeOtherClass implements InterfaceOne, InterfaceTwo { + public function doSomething() + { + echo 'doSomething'; + } + + public function doSomethingElse() + { + echo 'doSomethingElse'; + } } -``` -### [Namespaces](http://www.php.net/manual/en/language.namespaces.rationale.php) -By default, classes exist in the global namespace, and can be explicitly called with a backslash. +/******************************** + * Traits + */ + +// Traits are available from PHP 5.4.0 and are declared using "trait" + +trait MyTrait +{ + public function myTraitMethod() + { + print 'I have MyTrait'; + } +} + +class MyTraitfulClass +{ + use MyTrait; +} + +$cls = new MyTraitfulClass(); +$cls->myTraitMethod(); // Prints "I have MyTrait" + +/******************************** + * Namespaces + */ + +// This section is separate, because a namespace declaration +// must be the first statement in a file. Let's pretend that is not the case + +/* +``` ```php <?php +// By default, classes exist in the global namespace, and can +// be explicitly called with a backslash. + $cls = new \MyClass(); -``` -```php -<?php + +// Set the namespace for a file namespace My\Namespace; class MyClass { } +// (from another file) $cls = new My\Namespace\MyClass; -``` - -Or from within another namespace. - -```php -<?php +//Or from within another namespace. namespace My\Other\Namespace; use My\Namespace\MyClass; $cls = new MyClass(); -``` -Or you can alias the namespace; - -```php -<?php +// Or you can alias the namespace; namespace My\Other\Namespace; use My\Namespace as SomeOtherNamespace; $cls = new SomeOtherNamespace\MyClass(); -``` - -### [Traits](http://www.php.net/manual/en/language.oop5.traits.php) - -Traits are available since PHP 5.4.0 and are declared using the ```trait``` keyword. - -```php -<?php -trait MyTrait { - public function myTraitMethod() - { - // Do something - } -} - -class MyClass -{ - use MyTrait; -} +*/ -$cls = new MyClass(); -$cls->myTraitMethod(); ``` ## More Information @@ -573,3 +638,5 @@ Visit the [official PHP documentation](http://www.php.net/manual/) for reference If you're interested in up-to-date best practices, visit [PHP The Right Way](http://www.phptherightway.com/). If you're coming from a language with good package management, check out [Composer](http://getcomposer.org/). + +For common standards, visit the PHP Framework Interoperability Group's [PSR standards](https://github.com/php-fig/fig-standards). diff --git a/python.html.markdown b/python.html.markdown index 463556d9..e7ee6fbd 100644 --- a/python.html.markdown +++ b/python.html.markdown @@ -1,11 +1,12 @@ --- language: python -author: Louie Dinh -author_url: http://ldinh.ca +contributors: + - ["Louie Dinh", "http://ldinh.ca"] +filename: learnpython.py --- Python was created by Guido Van Rossum in the early 90's. It is now one of the most popular -languages in existence. I fell in love with Python for it's syntactic clarity. It's basically +languages in existence. I fell in love with Python for its syntactic clarity. Its basically executable pseudocode. Feedback would be highly appreciated! You can reach me at [@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) or louiedinh [at] [google's email service] @@ -15,7 +16,7 @@ to Python 2.x. Look for another tour of Python 3 soon! ```python # Single line comments start with a hash. -""" Multiline strings can we written +""" Multiline strings can be written using three "'s, and are often used as comments """ @@ -86,10 +87,26 @@ not False #=> True # A newer way to format strings is the format method. # This method is the preferred way "{0} can be {1}".format("strings", "formatted") +# You can use keywords if you don't want to count. +"{name} wants to eat {food}".format(name="Bob", food="lasagna") # None is an object None #=> None +# Don't use the equality `==` symbol to compare objects to None +# Use `is` instead +"etc" is None #=> False +None is None #=> True + +# The 'is' operator tests for object identity. This isn't +# very useful when dealing with primitive values, but is +# very useful when dealing with objects. + +# None, 0, and empty strings/lists all evaluate to False. +# All other values are True +0 == False #=> True +"" == False #=> True + #################################################### ## 2. Variables and Collections @@ -103,16 +120,12 @@ print "I'm Python. Nice to meet you!" some_var = 5 # Convention is to use lower_case_with_underscores some_var #=> 5 -# Accessing a previously unassigned variable is an exception -try: - some_other_var -except NameError: - print "Raises a name error" +# Accessing a previously unassigned variable is an exception. +# See Control Flow to learn more about exception handling. +some_other_var # Raises a name error # if can be used as an expression -some_var = a if a > b else b -# If a is greater than b, then a is assigned to some_var. -# Otherwise b is assigned to some_var. +"yahoo!" if 3 > 2 else 2 #=> "yahoo!" # Lists store sequences li = [] @@ -135,10 +148,7 @@ li[0] #=> 1 li[-1] #=> 3 # Looking out of bounds is an IndexError -try: - li[4] # Raises an IndexError -except IndexError: - print "Raises an IndexError" +li[4] # Raises an IndexError # You can look at ranges with slice syntax. # (It's a closed/open range for you mathy types.) @@ -163,13 +173,11 @@ li.extend(other_li) # Now li is [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] # Examine the length with len len(li) #=> 6 + # Tuples are like lists but are immutable. tup = (1, 2, 3) tup[0] #=> 1 -try: - tup[0] = 3 # Raises a TypeError -except TypeError: - print "Tuples cannot be mutated." +tup[0] = 3 # Raises a TypeError # You can do all those list thingies on tuples too len(tup) #=> 3 @@ -177,7 +185,7 @@ tup + (4, 5, 6) #=> (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) tup[:2] #=> (1, 2) 2 in tup #=> True -# You can unpack tuples into variables +# You can unpack tuples (or lists) into variables a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) # a is now 1, b is now 2 and c is now 3 # Tuples are created by default if you leave out the parentheses d, e, f = 4, 5, 6 @@ -206,13 +214,12 @@ filled_dict.values() #=> [3, 2, 1] "one" in filled_dict #=> True 1 in filled_dict #=> False -# Trying to look up a non-existing key will raise a KeyError -filled_dict["four"] #=> KeyError + # Looking up a non-existing key is a KeyError +filled_dict["four"] # KeyError # Use get method to avoid the KeyError filled_dict.get("one") #=> 1 filled_dict.get("four") #=> None - # The get method supports a default argument when the value is missing filled_dict.get("one", 4) #=> 1 filled_dict.get("four", 4) #=> 4 @@ -228,13 +235,13 @@ empty_set = set() some_set = set([1,2,2,3,4]) # filled_set is now set([1, 2, 3, 4]) # Since Python 2.7, {} can be used to declare a set -filled_set = {1 2 2 3 4} # => {1 2 3 4} +filled_set = {1, 2, 2, 3, 4} # => {1 2 3 4} # Add more items to a set filled_set.add(5) # filled_set is now {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} # Do set intersection with & -other_set = set{3, 4, 5, 6} +other_set = {3, 4, 5, 6} filled_set & other_set #=> {3, 4, 5} # Do set union with | @@ -255,7 +262,7 @@ filled_set | other_set #=> {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} # Let's just make a variable some_var = 5 -# Here is an if statement. INDENTATION IS SIGNIFICANT IN PYTHON! +# Here is an if statement. Indentation is significant in python! # prints "some var is smaller than 10" if some_var > 10: print "some_var is totally bigger than 10." @@ -275,6 +282,18 @@ prints: for animal in ["dog", "cat", "mouse"]: # You can use % to interpolate formatted strings print "%s is a mammal" % animal + +""" +`range(number)` returns a list of numbers +from zero to the given number +prints: + 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 +""" +for i in range(4): + print i """ While loops go until a condition is no longer met. @@ -298,12 +317,6 @@ try: except IndexError as e: pass # Pass is just a no-op. Usually you would do recovery here. -# Works for Python 2.7 and down: -try: - raise IndexError("This is an index error") -except IndexError, e: # No "as", comma instead - pass - #################################################### ## 4. Functions @@ -315,7 +328,8 @@ def add(x, y): return x + y # Return values with a return statement # Calling functions with parameters -add(5, 6) #=> 11 and prints out "x is 5 and y is 6" +add(5, 6) #=> prints out "x is 5 and y is 6" and returns 11 + # Another way to call functions is with keyword arguments add(y=6, x=5) # Keyword arguments can arrive in any order. @@ -341,16 +355,17 @@ def all_the_args(*args, **kwargs): print kwargs """ all_the_args(1, 2, a=3, b=4) prints: - [1, 2] + (1, 2) {"a": 3, "b": 4} """ -# You can also use * and ** when calling a function +# When calling functions, you can do the opposite of varargs/kwargs! +# Use * to expand tuples and use ** to expand kwargs. args = (1, 2, 3, 4) kwargs = {"a": 3, "b": 4} -foo(*args) # equivalent to foo(1, 2, 3, 4) -foo(**kwargs) # equivalent to foo(a=3, b=4) -foo(*args, **kwargs) # equivalent to foo(1, 2, 3, 4, a=3, b=4) +all_the_args(*args) # equivalent to foo(1, 2, 3, 4) +all_the_args(**kwargs) # equivalent to foo(a=3, b=4) +all_the_args(*args, **kwargs) # equivalent to foo(1, 2, 3, 4, a=3, b=4) # Python has first class functions def create_adder(x): @@ -420,9 +435,47 @@ j.get_species() #=> "H. neanderthalensis" # Call the static method Human.grunt() #=> "*grunt*" + + +#################################################### +## 6. Modules +#################################################### + +# You can import modules +import math +print math.sqrt(16) #=> 4 + +# You can get specific functions from a module +from math import ceil, floor +print ceil(3.7) #=> 4.0 +print floor(3.7) #=> 3.0 + +# You can import all functions from a module. +# Warning: this is not recommended +from math import * + +# You can shorten module names +import math as m +math.sqrt(16) == m.sqrt(16) #=> True + +# Python modules are just ordinary python files. You +# can write your own, and import them. The name of the +# module is the same as the name of the file. + +# You can find out which functions and attributes +# defines a module. +import math +dir(math) + + ``` ## Further Reading -Still up for more? Try [Learn Python The Hard Way](http://learnpythonthehardway.org/book/) +Still up for more? Try: +* [Learn Python The Hard Way](http://learnpythonthehardway.org/book/) +* [Dive Into Python](http://www.diveintopython.net/) +* [The Official Docs](http://docs.python.org/2.6/) +* [Hitchhiker's Guide to Python](http://docs.python-guide.org/en/latest/) +* [Python Module of the Week](http://pymotw.com/2/) diff --git a/r.html.markdown b/r.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..0240e8fb --- /dev/null +++ b/r.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,350 @@ +--- +language: R +contributors: + - ["e99n09", "http://github.com/e99n09"] +filename: learnr.r +--- + +R is a statistical computing language. It has lots of good built-in functions for uploading and cleaning data sets, running common statistical tests, and making graphs. You can also easily compile it within a LaTeX document. + +```python + +# Comments start with hashtags. + +# You can't make a multi-line comment per se, +# but you can stack multiple comments like so. + +# Hit COMMAND-ENTER to execute a line + +######################### +# The absolute basics +######################### + +# NUMBERS + +# We've got doubles! Behold the "numeric" class +5 # => [1] 5 +class(5) # => [1] "numeric" +# We've also got integers! They look suspiciously similar, +# but indeed are different +5L # => [1] 5 +class(5L) # => [1] "integer" +# Try ?class for more information on the class() function +# In fact, you can look up the documentation on just about anything with ? + +# All the normal operations! +10 + 66 # => [1] 76 +53.2 - 4 # => [1] 49.2 +2 * 2.0 # => [1] 4 +3L / 4 # => [1] 0.75 +3 %% 2 # => [1] 1 + +# Finally, we've got not-a-numbers! They're numerics too +class(NaN) # => [1] "numeric" + +# CHARACTERS + +# We've (sort of) got strings! Behold the "character" class +"plugh" # => [1] "plugh" +class("plugh") # "character" +# There's no difference between strings and characters in R + +# LOGICALS + +# We've got booleans! Behold the "logical" class +class(TRUE) # => [1] "logical" +class(FALSE) # => [1] "logical" +# Behavior is normal +TRUE == TRUE # => [1] TRUE +TRUE == FALSE # => [1] FALSE +FALSE != FALSE # => [1] FALSE +FALSE != TRUE # => [1] TRUE +# Missing data (NA) is logical, too +class(NA) # => [1] "logical" + +# FACTORS + +# The factor class is for categorical data +# It has an attribute called levels that describes all the possible categories +factor("dog") +# => +# [1] dog +# Levels: dog +# (This will make more sense once we start talking about vectors) + +# VARIABLES + +# Lots of way to assign stuff +x = 5 # this is possible +y <- "1" # this is preferred +TRUE -> z # this works but is weird + +# We can use coerce variables to different classes +as.numeric(y) # => [1] 1 +as.character(x) # => [1] "5" + +# LOOPS + +# We've got for loops +for (i in 1:4) { + print(i) +} + +# We've got while loops +a <- 10 +while (a > 4) { + cat(a, "...", sep = "") + a <- a - 1 +} + +# Keep in mind that for and while loops run slowly in R +# Operations on entire vectors (i.e. a whole row, a whole column) +# or apply()-type functions (we'll discuss later) are preferred + +# IF/ELSE + +# Again, pretty standard +if (4 > 3) { + print("Huzzah! It worked!") +} else { + print("Noooo! This is blatantly illogical!") +} +# => +# [1] "Huzzah! It worked!" + +# FUNCTIONS + +# Defined like so: +myFunc <- function(x) { + x <- x * 4 + x <- x - 1 + return(x) +} + +# Called like any other R function: +myFunc(5) # => [1] 19 + +######################### +# Fun with data: vectors, matrices, data frames, and arrays +######################### + +# ONE-DIMENSIONAL + +# You can vectorize anything, so long as all components have the same type +vec <- c(8, 9, 10, 11) +vec # => [1] 8 9 10 11 +# The class of a vector is the class of its components +class(vec) # => [1] "numeric" +# If you vectorize items of different classes, weird coercions happen +c(TRUE, 4) # => [1] 1 4 +c("dog", TRUE, 4) # => [1] "dog" "TRUE" "4" + +# We ask for specific components like so (R starts counting from 1) +vec[1] # => [1] 8 +# We can also search for the indices of specific components, +which(vec %% 2 == 0) # => [1] 1 3 +# or grab just the first or last entry in the vector +head(vec, 1) # => [1] 8 +tail(vec, 1) # => [1] 11 +# If an index "goes over" you'll get NA: +vec[6] # => [1] NA +# You can find the length of your vector with length() +length(vec) # => [1] 4 + +# You can perform operations on entire vectors or subsets of vectors +vec * 4 # => [1] 16 20 24 28 +vec[2:3] * 5 # => [1] 25 30 +# and there are many built-in functions to summarize vectors +mean(vec) # => [1] 9.5 +var(vec) # => [1] 1.666667 +sd(vec) # => [1] 1.290994 +max(vec) # => [1] 11 +min(vec) # => [1] 8 +sum(vec) # => [1] 38 + +# TWO-DIMENSIONAL (ALL ONE CLASS) + +# You can make a matrix out of entries all of the same type like so: +mat <- matrix(nrow = 3, ncol = 2, c(1,2,3,4,5,6)) +mat +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 1 4 +# [2,] 2 5 +# [3,] 3 6 +# Unlike a vector, the class of a matrix is "matrix", no matter what's in it +class(mat) # => "matrix" +# Ask for the first row +mat[1,] # => [1] 1 4 +# Perform operation on the first column +3 * mat[,1] # => [1] 3 6 9 +# Ask for a specific cell +mat[3,2] # => [1] 6 +# Transpose the whole matrix +t(mat) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] +# [1,] 1 2 3 +# [2,] 4 5 6 + +# cbind() sticks vectors together column-wise to make a matrix +mat2 <- cbind(1:4, c("dog", "cat", "bird", "dog")) +mat2 +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] "1" "dog" +# [2,] "2" "cat" +# [3,] "3" "bird" +# [4,] "4" "dog" +class(mat2) # => [1] matrix +# Again, note what happened! +# Because matrices must contain entries all of the same class, +# everything got converted to the character class +c(class(mat2[,1]), class(mat2[,2])) + +# rbind() sticks vectors together row-wise to make a matrix +mat3 <- rbind(c(1,2,4,5), c(6,7,0,4)) +mat3 +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] +# [1,] 1 2 4 5 +# [2,] 6 7 0 4 +# Aah, everything of the same class. No coercions. Much better. + +# TWO-DIMENSIONAL (DIFFERENT CLASSES) + +# For columns of different classes, use the data frame +dat <- data.frame(c(5,2,1,4), c("dog", "cat", "bird", "dog")) +names(dat) <- c("number", "species") # name the columns +class(dat) # => [1] "data.frame" +dat +# => +# number species +# 1 5 dog +# 2 2 cat +# 3 1 bird +# 4 4 dog +class(dat$number) # => [1] "numeric" +class(dat[,2]) # => [1] "factor" +# The data.frame() function converts character vectors to factor vectors + +# There are many twisty ways to subset data frames, all subtly unalike +dat$number # => [1] 5 2 1 4 +dat[,1] # => [1] 5 2 1 4 +dat[,"number"] # => [1] 5 2 1 4 + +# MULTI-DIMENSIONAL (ALL OF ONE CLASS) + +# Arrays creates n-dimensional tables +# You can make a two-dimensional table (sort of like a matrix) +array(c(c(1,2,4,5),c(8,9,3,6)), dim=c(2,4)) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] +# [1,] 1 4 8 3 +# [2,] 2 5 9 6 +# You can use array to make three-dimensional matrices too +array(c(c(c(2,300,4),c(8,9,0)),c(c(5,60,0),c(66,7,847))), dim=c(3,2,2)) +# => +# , , 1 +# +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 1 4 +# [2,] 2 5 +# +# , , 2 +# +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 8 1 +# [2,] 9 2 + +# LISTS (MULTI-DIMENSIONAL, POSSIBLY RAGGED, OF DIFFERENT TYPES) + +# Finally, R has lists (of vectors) +list1 <- list(time = 1:40) +list1$price = c(rnorm(40,.5*list1$time,4)) # random +list1 + +# You can get items in the list like so +list1$time +# You can subset list items like vectors +list1$price[4] + +######################### +# The apply() family of functions +######################### + +# Remember mat? +mat +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 1 4 +# [2,] 2 5 +# [3,] 3 6 +# Use apply(X, MARGIN, FUN) to apply function FUN to a matrix X +# over rows (MAR = 1) or columns (MAR = 2) +# That is, R does FUN to each row (or column) of X, much faster than a +# for or while loop would do +apply(mat, MAR = 2, myFunc) +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 3 15 +# [2,] 7 19 +# [3,] 11 23 +# Other functions: ?lapply, ?sapply + +# Don't feel too intimidated; everyone agrees they are rather confusing + +# The plyr package aims to replace (and improve upon!) the *apply() family. + +install.packages("plyr") +require(plyr) +?plyr + +######################### +# Loading data +######################### + +# "pets.csv" is a file on the internet +pets <- read.csv("http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/pets.csv") +pets +head(pets, 2) # first two rows +tail(pets, 1) # last row + +# To save a data frame or matrix as a .csv file +write.csv(pets, "pets2.csv") # to make a new .csv file +# set working directory with setwd(), look it up with getwd() + +# Try ?read.csv and ?write.csv for more information + +######################### +# Plots +######################### + +# Scatterplots! +plot(list1$time, list1$price, main = "fake data") +# Regressions! +linearModel <- lm(price ~ time, data = list1) +linearModel # outputs result of regression +# Plot regression line on existing plot +abline(linearModel, col = "red") +# Get a variety of nice diagnostics +plot(linearModel) + +# Histograms! +hist(rpois(n = 10000, lambda = 5), col = "thistle") + +# Barplots! +barplot(c(1,4,5,1,2), names.arg = c("red","blue","purple","green","yellow")) + +# Try the ggplot2 package for more and better graphics + +install.packages("ggplot2") +require(ggplot2) +?ggplot2 + +``` + +## How do I get R? + +* Get R and the R GUI from [http://www.r-project.org/](http://www.r-project.org/) +* [RStudio](http://www.rstudio.com/ide/) is another GUI diff --git a/ruby.html.markdown b/ruby.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..2c9a4cb9 --- /dev/null +++ b/ruby.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,309 @@ +--- +language: ruby +filename: learnruby.rb +contributors: + - ["David Underwood", "http://theflyingdeveloper.com"] + - ["Joel Walden", "http://joelwalden.net"] +--- + +```ruby +# This is a comment + +=begin +This is a multiline comment +No-one uses them +You shouldn't either +=end + +# First and foremost: Everything is an object. + +# Numbers are objects + +3.class #=> Fixnum + +3.to_s #=> "3" + + +# Some basic arithmetic +1 + 1 #=> 2 +8 - 1 #=> 7 +10 * 2 #=> 20 +35 / 5 #=> 7 + +# Special values are objects +nil # Nothing to see here +true # truth +false # falsehood + +nil.class #=> NilClass +true.class #=> TrueClass +false.class #=> FalseClass + +# Equality +1 == 1 #=> true +2 == 1 #=> false + +# apart from false itself, nil is the only other 'falsey' value + +nil == false #=> true +0 == false #=> false + +# Inequality +1 != 1 #=> false +2 != 1 #=> true +!true #=> false +!false #=> true + +# More comparisons +1 < 10 #=> true +1 > 10 #=> false +2 <= 2 #=> true +2 >= 2 #=> true + +# Strings are objects + +'I am a string'.class #=> String +"I am a string too".class #=> String + +placeholder = "use string interpolation" +"I can #{placeholder} when using double quoted strings" +#=> "I can use string interpolation when using double quoted strings" + + +# print to the output +puts "I'm printing!" + +# Variables +x = 25 #=> 25 +x #=> 25 + +# Note that assignment returns the value assigned +# This means you can do multiple assignment: + +x = y = 10 #=> 10 +x #=> 10 +y #=> 10 + +# By convention, use snake_case for variable names +snake_case = true + +# Use descriptive variable names +path_to_project_root = '/good/name/' +path = '/bad/name/' + +# Symbols (are objects) +# Symbols are immutable, reusable constants represented internally by an +# integer value. They're often used instead of strings to efficiently convey +# specific, meaningful values + +:pending.class #=> Symbol + +status = :pending + +status == :pending #=> true + +status == 'pending' #=> false + +status == :approved #=> false + +# Arrays + +# This is an array +[1, 2, 3, 4, 5] #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] + +# Arrays can contain different types of items + +array = [1, "hello", false] #=> => [1, "hello", false] + +# Arrays can be indexed +# From the front +array[0] #=> 1 +array[12] #=> nil + +# From the end +array[-1] #=> 5 + +# With a start and end index +array[2, 4] #=> [3, 4, 5] + +# Or with a range +array[1..3] #=> [2, 3, 4] + +# Add to an array like this +array << 6 #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] + +# Hashes are Ruby's primary dictionary with keys/value pairs. +# Hashes are denoted with curly braces: +hash = {'color' => 'green', 'number' => 5} + +hash.keys #=> ['color', 'number'] + +# Hashes can be quickly looked up by key: +hash['color'] #=> 'green' +hash['number'] #=> 5 + +# Asking a hash for a key that doesn't exist returns nil: +hash['nothing here'] #=> nil + +# Iterate over hashes with the #each method: +hash.each do |k, v| + puts "#{k} is #{v}" +end + +# Since Ruby 1.9, there's a special syntax when using symbols as keys: + +new_hash = { defcon: 3, action: true} + +new_hash.keys #=> [:defcon, :action] + +# Tip: Both Arrays and Hashes are Enumerable +# They share a lot of useful methods such as each, map, count, and more + +# Control structures + +if true + "if statement" +elsif false + "else if, optional" +else + "else, also optional" +end + +for counter in 1..5 + puts "iteration #{counter}" +end +#=> iteration 1 +#=> iteration 2 +#=> iteration 3 +#=> iteration 4 +#=> iteration 5 + +# HOWEVER +# No-one uses for loops +# Use `each` instead, like this: + +(1..5).each do |counter| + puts "iteration #{counter}" +end +#=> iteration 1 +#=> iteration 2 +#=> iteration 3 +#=> iteration 4 +#=> iteration 5 + +counter = 1 +while counter <= 5 do + puts "iteration #{counter}" +end +#=> iteration 1 +#=> iteration 2 +#=> iteration 3 +#=> iteration 4 +#=> iteration 5 + +grade = 'B' + +case grade +when 'A' + puts "Way to go kiddo" +when 'B' + puts "Better luck next time" +when 'C' + puts "You can do better" +when 'D' + puts "Scraping through" +when 'F' + puts "You failed!" + + +# Functions + +def double(x) + x * 2 +end + +# Functions (and all blocks) implcitly return the value of the last statement +double(2) #=> 4 + +# Parentheses are optional where the result is unambiguous +double 3 #=> 6 + +double double 3 #=> 12 + +def sum(x,y) + x + y +end + +# Method arguments are separated by a comma +sum 3, 4 #=> 7 + +sum sum(3,4), 5 #=> 12 + +# yield +# All methods have an implicit, optional block parameter +# it can be called with the 'yield' keyword + +def surround + puts "{" + yield + puts "}" +end + +surround { puts 'hello world' } + +# { +# hello world +# } + + +# Define a class with the class keyword +class Human + + # A class variable. It is shared by all instances of this class. + @@species = "H. sapiens" + + # Basic initializer + def initialize(name, age=0): + # Assign the argument to the "name" instance variable for the instance + @name = name + # If no age given, we will fall back to the default in the arguments list. + @age = age + end + + # Basic setter method + def name=(name) + @name = name + end + + # Basic getter method + def name + @name + end + + # A class method uses self to distinguish from instance methods. + $ It can only be called on the class, not an instance. + def self.say(msg) + puts "#{msg}" + end + + def species + @@species + end + +end + + +# Instantiate a class +jim = Human.new("Jim Halpert") + +dwight = Human.new("Dwight K. Schrute") + +# Let's call a couple of methods +jim.species #=> "H. sapiens" +jim.name #=> "Jim Halpert" +dwight.species #=> "H. sapiens" +dwight.name #=> "Dwight K. Schrute" + +# Call the class method +Human.say("Hi") #=> "Hi" +``` |