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77 files changed, 10722 insertions, 586 deletions
diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore new file mode 100644 index 00000000..dd41ec4a --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitignore @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +**/*~ +**/*# +**/#*# +**/*.swp +**/*.swo +**/*.bak +**/*.log* +**/*.sublime-workspace +**/.DS_Store +**/.DS_Store? +**/._* +**/.Spotlight-V100 +**/.Trashes +**/ehthumbs.db +**/Thumbs.db +**/desktop.ini
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/asymptotic-notation.html.markdown b/asymptotic-notation.html.markdown index a516737e..a23ef1c8 100644 --- a/asymptotic-notation.html.markdown +++ b/asymptotic-notation.html.markdown @@ -3,41 +3,52 @@ category: Algorithms & Data Structures name: Asymptotic Notation contributors: - ["Jake Prather", "http://github.com/JakeHP"] + - ["Divay Prakash", "http://github.com/divayprakash"] --- # Asymptotic Notations ## What are they? -Asymptotic Notations are languages that allow us to analyze an algorithm's running time by -identifying its behavior as the input size for the algorithm increases. This is also known as -an algorithm's growth rate. Does the algorithm suddenly become incredibly slow when the input -size grows? Does it mostly maintain its quick run time as the input size increases? -Asymptotic Notation gives us the ability to answer these questions. +Asymptotic Notations are languages that allow us to analyze an algorithm's +running time by identifying its behavior as the input size for the algorithm +increases. This is also known as an algorithm's growth rate. Does the +algorithm suddenly become incredibly slow when the input size grows? Does it +mostly maintain its quick run time as the input size increases? Asymptotic +Notation gives us the ability to answer these questions. ## Are there alternatives to answering these questions? -One way would be to count the number of primitive operations at different input sizes. -Though this is a valid solution, the amount of work this takes for even simple algorithms -does not justify its use. +One way would be to count the number of primitive operations at different +input sizes. Though this is a valid solution, the amount of work this takes +for even simple algorithms does not justify its use. -Another way is to physically measure the amount of time an algorithm takes to complete -given different input sizes. However, the accuracy and relativity (times obtained would -only be relative to the machine they were computed on) of this method is bound to -environmental variables such as computer hardware specifications, processing power, etc. +Another way is to physically measure the amount of time an algorithm takes to +complete given different input sizes. However, the accuracy and relativity +(times obtained would only be relative to the machine they were computed on) +of this method is bound to environmental variables such as computer hardware +specifications, processing power, etc. ## Types of Asymptotic Notation -In the first section of this doc we described how an Asymptotic Notation identifies the -behavior of an algorithm as the input size changes. Let us imagine an algorithm as a function -f, n as the input size, and f(n) being the running time. So for a given algorithm f, with input -size n you get some resultant run time f(n). This results in a graph where the Y axis is the -runtime, X axis is the input size, and plot points are the resultants of the amount of time -for a given input size. - -You can label a function, or algorithm, with an Asymptotic Notation in many different ways. -Some examples are, you can describe an algorithm by its best case, worse case, or equivalent case. -The most common is to analyze an algorithm by its worst case. You typically don't evaluate by best case because those conditions aren't what you're planning for. A very good example of this is sorting algorithms; specifically, adding elements to a tree structure. Best case for most algorithms could be as low as a single operation. However, in most cases, the element you're adding will need to be sorted appropriately through the tree, which could mean examining an entire branch. This is the worst case, and this is what we plan for. +In the first section of this doc we described how an Asymptotic Notation +identifies the behavior of an algorithm as the input size changes. Let us +imagine an algorithm as a function f, n as the input size, and f(n) being +the running time. So for a given algorithm f, with input size n you get +some resultant run time f(n). This results in a graph where the Y axis is the +runtime, X axis is the input size, and plot points are the resultants of the +amount of time for a given input size. + +You can label a function, or algorithm, with an Asymptotic Notation in many +different ways. Some examples are, you can describe an algorithm by its best +case, worse case, or equivalent case. The most common is to analyze an +algorithm by its worst case. You typically don't evaluate by best case because +those conditions aren't what you're planning for. A very good example of this +is sorting algorithms; specifically, adding elements to a tree structure. Best +case for most algorithms could be as low as a single operation. However, in +most cases, the element you're adding will need to be sorted appropriately +through the tree, which could mean examining an entire branch. This is the +worst case, and this is what we plan for. ### Types of functions, limits, and simplification @@ -45,16 +56,25 @@ The most common is to analyze an algorithm by its worst case. You typically don' Logarithmic Function - log n Linear Function - an + b Quadratic Function - an^2 + bn + c -Polynomial Function - an^z + . . . + an^2 + a*n^1 + a*n^0, where z is some constant +Polynomial Function - an^z + . . . + an^2 + a*n^1 + a*n^0, where z is some +constant Exponential Function - a^n, where a is some constant ``` -These are some basic function growth classifications used in various notations. The list starts at the slowest growing function (logarithmic, fastest execution time) and goes on to the fastest growing (exponential, slowest execution time). Notice that as 'n', or the input, increases in each of those functions, the result clearly increases much quicker in quadratic, polynomial, and exponential, compared to logarithmic and linear. - -One extremely important note is that for the notations about to be discussed you should do your best to use simplest terms. This means to disregard constants, and lower order terms, because as the input size (or n in our f(n) -example) increases to infinity (mathematical limits), the lower order terms and constants are of little -to no importance. That being said, if you have constants that are 2^9001, or some other ridiculous, -unimaginable amount, realize that simplifying will skew your notation accuracy. +These are some basic function growth classifications used in various +notations. The list starts at the slowest growing function (logarithmic, +fastest execution time) and goes on to the fastest growing (exponential, +slowest execution time). Notice that as 'n', or the input, increases in each +of those functions, the result clearly increases much quicker in quadratic, +polynomial, and exponential, compared to logarithmic and linear. + +One extremely important note is that for the notations about to be discussed +you should do your best to use simplest terms. This means to disregard +constants, and lower order terms, because as the input size (or n in our f(n) +example) increases to infinity (mathematical limits), the lower order terms +and constants are of little to no importance. That being said, if you have +constants that are 2^9001, or some other ridiculous, unimaginable amount, +realize that simplifying will skew your notation accuracy. Since we want simplest form, lets modify our table a bit... @@ -67,10 +87,13 @@ Exponential - a^n, where a is some constant ``` ### Big-O -Big-O, commonly written as O, is an Asymptotic Notation for the worst case, or ceiling of growth -for a given function. Say `f(n)` is your algorithm runtime, and `g(n)` is an arbitrary time complexity -you are trying to relate to your algorithm. `f(n)` is O(g(n)), if for any real constant c (c > 0), -`f(n)` <= `c g(n)` for every input size n (n > 0). +Big-O, commonly written as **O**, is an Asymptotic Notation for the worst +case, or ceiling of growth for a given function. It provides us with an +_**asymptotic upper bound**_ for the growth rate of runtime of an algorithm. +Say `f(n)` is your algorithm runtime, and `g(n)` is an arbitrary time +complexity you are trying to relate to your algorithm. `f(n)` is O(g(n)), if +for some real constant c (c > 0), `f(n)` <= `c g(n)` for every input size +n (n > 0). *Example 1* @@ -114,19 +137,62 @@ Is there some constant c that satisfies this for all n? No, there isn't. `f(n)` is NOT O(g(n)). ### Big-Omega -Big-Omega, commonly written as Ω, is an Asymptotic Notation for the best case, or a floor growth rate -for a given function. +Big-Omega, commonly written as **Ω**, is an Asymptotic Notation for the best +case, or a floor growth rate for a given function. It provides us with an +_**asymptotic lower bound**_ for the growth rate of runtime of an algorithm. + +`f(n)` is Ω(g(n)), if for some real constant c (c > 0), `f(n)` is >= `c g(n)` +for every input size n (n > 0). + +### Note + +The asymptotic growth rates provided by big-O and big-omega notation may or +may not be asymptotically tight. Thus we use small-o and small-omega notation +to denote bounds that are not asymptotically tight. + +### Small-o +Small-o, commonly written as **o**, is an Asymptotic Notation to denote the +upper bound (that is not asymptotically tight) on the growth rate of runtime +of an algorithm. + +`f(n)` is o(g(n)), if for any real constant c (c > 0), `f(n)` is < `c g(n)` +for every input size n (n > 0). + +The definitions of O-notation and o-notation are similar. The main difference +is that in f(n) = O(g(n)), the bound f(n) <= g(n) holds for _**some**_ +constant c > 0, but in f(n) = o(g(n)), the bound f(n) < c g(n) holds for +_**all**_ constants c > 0. + +### Small-omega +Small-omega, commonly written as **ω**, is an Asymptotic Notation to denote +the lower bound (that is not asymptotically tight) on the growth rate of +runtime of an algorithm. + +`f(n)` is ω(g(n)), if for any real constant c (c > 0), `f(n)` is > `c g(n)` +for every input size n (n > 0). + +The definitions of Ω-notation and ω-notation are similar. The main difference +is that in f(n) = Ω(g(n)), the bound f(n) >= g(n) holds for _**some**_ +constant c > 0, but in f(n) = ω(g(n)), the bound f(n) > c g(n) holds for +_**all**_ constants c > 0. + +### Theta +Theta, commonly written as **Θ**, is an Asymptotic Notation to denote the +_**asymptotically tight bound**_ on the growth rate of runtime of an algorithm. + +`f(n)` is Θ(g(n)), if for some real constants c1, c2 (c1 > 0, c2 > 0), +`c1 g(n)` is < `f(n)` is < `c2 g(n)` for every input size n (n > 0). -`f(n)` is Ω(g(n)), if for any real constant c (c > 0), `f(n)` is >= `c g(n)` for every input size n (n > 0). +∴ `f(n)` is Θ(g(n)) implies `f(n)` is O(g(n)) as well as `f(n)` is Ω(g(n)). -Feel free to head over to additional resources for examples on this. Big-O is the primary notation used -for general algorithm time complexity. +Feel free to head over to additional resources for examples on this. Big-O +is the primary notation use for general algorithm time complexity. ### Ending Notes -It's hard to keep this kind of topic short, and you should definitely go through the books and online -resources listed. They go into much greater depth with definitions and examples. -More where x='Algorithms & Data Structures' is on its way; we'll have a doc up on analyzing actual -code examples soon. +It's hard to keep this kind of topic short, and you should definitely go +through the books and online resources listed. They go into much greater depth +with definitions and examples. More where x='Algorithms & Data Structures' is +on its way; we'll have a doc up on analyzing actual code examples soon. ## Books @@ -137,3 +203,4 @@ code examples soon. * [MIT](http://web.mit.edu/16.070/www/lecture/big_o.pdf) * [KhanAcademy](https://www.khanacademy.org/computing/computer-science/algorithms/asymptotic-notation/a/asymptotic-notation) +* [Big-O Cheatsheet](http://bigocheatsheet.com/) - common structures, operations, and algorithms, ranked by complexity. diff --git a/bash.html.markdown b/bash.html.markdown index bd2d5984..f3c9cccc 100644 --- a/bash.html.markdown +++ b/bash.html.markdown @@ -130,6 +130,15 @@ ls -l # Lists every file and directory on a separate line # .txt files in the current directory: ls -l | grep "\.txt" +# Since bash works in the context of a current directory, you might want to +# run your command in some other directory. We have cd for changing location: +cd ~ # change to home directory +cd .. # go up one directory + # (^^say, from /home/username/Downloads to /home/username) +cd /home/username/Documents # change to specified directory +cd ~/Documents/.. # still in home directory..isn't it?? + + # You can redirect command input and output (stdin, stdout, and stderr). # Read from stdin until ^EOF$ and overwrite hello.py with the lines # between "EOF": diff --git a/c.html.markdown b/c.html.markdown index d4ff529d..2fad5348 100644 --- a/c.html.markdown +++ b/c.html.markdown @@ -36,7 +36,6 @@ Multi-line comments don't nest /* Be careful */ // comment ends on this line... enum days {SUN = 1, MON, TUE, WED, THU, FRI, SAT}; // MON gets 2 automatically, TUE gets 3, etc. - // Import headers with #include #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> @@ -114,7 +113,6 @@ int main (int argc, char** argv) // sizeof(obj) yields the size of the expression (variable, literal, etc.). printf("%zu\n", sizeof(int)); // => 4 (on most machines with 4-byte words) - // If the argument of the `sizeof` operator is an expression, then its argument // is not evaluated (except VLAs (see below)). // The value it yields in this case is a compile-time constant. @@ -130,7 +128,6 @@ int main (int argc, char** argv) int my_int_array[20]; // This array occupies 4 * 20 = 80 bytes // (assuming 4-byte words) - // You can initialize an array to 0 thusly: char my_array[20] = {0}; @@ -146,9 +143,9 @@ int main (int argc, char** argv) // can be declared as well. The size of such an array need not be a compile // time constant: printf("Enter the array size: "); // ask the user for an array size - int size; - fscanf(stdin, "%d", &size); - int var_length_array[size]; // declare the VLA + int array_size; + fscanf(stdin, "%d", &array_size); + int var_length_array[array_size]; // declare the VLA printf("sizeof array = %zu\n", sizeof var_length_array); // Example: @@ -347,7 +344,6 @@ int main (int argc, char** argv) this will print out "Error occured at i = 52 & j = 99." */ - /////////////////////////////////////// // Typecasting /////////////////////////////////////// @@ -386,7 +382,6 @@ int main (int argc, char** argv) // (%p formats an object pointer of type void *) // => Prints some address in memory; - // Pointers start with * in their declaration int *px, not_a_pointer; // px is a pointer to an int px = &x; // Stores the address of x in px @@ -432,7 +427,6 @@ int main (int argc, char** argv) printf("%zu, %zu\n", sizeof arraythethird, sizeof ptr); // probably prints "40, 4" or "40, 8" - // Pointers are incremented and decremented based on their type // (this is called pointer arithmetic) printf("%d\n", *(x_ptr + 1)); // => Prints 19 @@ -578,8 +572,6 @@ void testFunc2() { } //**You may also declare functions as static to make them private** - - /////////////////////////////////////// // User-defined types and structs /////////////////////////////////////// @@ -696,6 +688,7 @@ typedef void (*my_fnp_type)(char *); "%o"; // octal "%%"; // prints % */ + /////////////////////////////////////// // Order of Evaluation /////////////////////////////////////// @@ -786,4 +779,4 @@ Readable code is better than clever code and fast code. For a good, sane coding Other than that, Google is your friend. -[1] http://stackoverflow.com/questions/119123/why-isnt-sizeof-for-a-struct-equal-to-the-sum-of-sizeof-of-each-member +[1] http://stackoverflow.com/questions/119123/why-isnt-sizeof-for-a-struct-equal-to-the-sum-of-sizeof-of-each-member
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/cs-cz/brainfuck.html.markdown b/cs-cz/brainfuck.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..29abc21f --- /dev/null +++ b/cs-cz/brainfuck.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,87 @@ +--- +language: brainfuck +contributors: + - ["Prajit Ramachandran", "http://prajitr.github.io/"] + - ["Mathias Bynens", "http://mathiasbynens.be/"] +translators: + - ["Vojta Svoboda", "https://github.com/vojtasvoboda/"] +filename: learnbrainfuck-cz.bf +lang: cs-cz +--- + +Brainfuck (psaný bez kapitálek s vyjímkou začátku věty) je extrémně minimální +Turingovsky kompletní (ekvivalentní) programovací jazyk a má pouze 8 příkazů. + +Můžete si ho vyzkoušet přímo v prohlížeči s [brainfuck-visualizer](http://fatiherikli.github.io/brainfuck-visualizer/). + +``` +Jakýkoliv znak mimo "><+-.,[]" (bez uvozovek) je ignorován. + +Brainfuck je reprezentován jako pole, které má 30.000 buněk s počátkem v nule +a datovým ukazatelem na aktuální buňce. + +Můžeme využít těchto osm příkazů: ++ : Přičte k aktuální buňce jedničku. +- : Odečte od aktuální buňky jedničku. +> : Posune datový ukazatel na další buňku, která je napravo. +< : Posune datový ukazatel na předchozí buňku, která je nalevo. +. : Vytiskne ASCII hodnotu aktuální buňky (například 65 = 'A'). +, : Načte jeden znak do aktuální buňky. +[ : Pokud je hodnota aktuální buňky nulová, přeskočí na buňku odpovídající ] . + Jinak skočí na další instrukci. +] : Pokud je hodnota aktuální buňky nulova, přeskočí na další instrukci. + Jinak skočí zpět na instrukci odpovídající [ . + +[ a ] tak tvoří 'while' smyčku a tyto symboly musí tak být v páru. + +Pojďme se mrknout na některé brainfuck programy. + +++++++ [ > ++++++++++ < - ] > +++++ . + +Tento program vypíše písmeno 'A' (v ASCII je to číslo 65). Nejdříve navýší +buňku #1 na hodnotu 6. Buňka #1 bude použita pro smyčku. Potom program vstoupí +do smyčky ([) a sníží hodnotu buňky #1 o jedničku. Ve smyčce zvýší hodnotu +buňky #2 desetkrát, vrátí ze zpět na buňku #1 a sníží její hodnotu o jedničku. +Toto se stane šestkrát (je potřeba šestkrát snížit hodnotu buňky #1, aby byla +nulová a program přeskočil na konec cyklu označený znakem ]. + +Na konci smyčky, kdy jsme na buňce #1 (která má hodnotu 0), tak má buňka #2 +hodnotu 60. Přesuneme se na buňku #2 a pětkrát zvýšíme její hodnotu o jedničku +na hodnotu 65. Na konci vypíšeme hodnotu buňky #2 - 65, což je v ASCII znak 'A' +na terminálu. + + +, [ > + < - ] > . + +Tento program přečte znak z uživatelského vstupu a zkopíruje ho do buňky #1. +Poté začne smyčka - přesun na buňku #2, zvýšení hodnoty buňky #2 o jedničku, +přesun zpět na buňku #1 a snížení její hodnoty o jedničku. Takto smyčka pokračuje +do té doby, než je buňka #1 nulová a buňka #2 nabyde původní hodnotu buňky #1. +Protože jsme na buňce #1, přesuneme se na buňku #2 a vytiskneme její hodnotu +v ASCII. + +Je dobré vědět, že mezery jsou v programu uvedené pouze z důvodu čitelnosti. +Program je možné klidně zapsat i takto: + +,[>+<-]>. + + +Nyní se podívejte na tento program a zkuste zjistit co dělá: + +,>,< [ > [ >+ >+ << -] >> [- << + >>] <<< -] >> + +Tento program vezme dvě čísla ze vstupu a vynásobí je. + +Program nejdříve načte dvě vstupní hodnoty. Poté začíná smyčka řízená hodnotou +v buňce #1 - přesun na buňku #2 a start druhé vnořené smyčky, která je řízená +hodnotou v buňce #2 a zvyšuje hodnotu v buňce #3. Nicméně je zde problém +kdy na konci vnitřní smyčky je v buňce #2 nula a smyčka by tak znovu +napokračovala. Vyřešíme to tak, že zvyšujeme o jedničku i buňku #4 a její +hodnotu poté překopírujeme do buňky #2. Na konci programu je v buňce #3 +výsledek. +``` + +A to je brainbuck. Zase tak složitý není, co? Zkuste si nyní napsat nějaký +vlastní brainfuck program a nebo interpretr v jiném jazyce, což není zase +tak složité, ale pokud jste opravdový masochista, zkuste si naprogramovat +interpretr jazyka brainfuck v jazyce... brainfuck :) diff --git a/cs-cz/json.html.markdown b/cs-cz/json.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..5972da5e --- /dev/null +++ b/cs-cz/json.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- +language: json +contributors: + - ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"] + - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] +translators: + - ["Vojta Svoboda", "https://github.com/vojtasvoboda/"] +filename: learnjson-cz.json +lang: cs-cz +--- + +JSON je exterémně jednoduchý datově nezávislý formát a bude asi jeden z +nejjednodušších 'Learn X in Y Minutes' ze všech. + +JSON nemá ve své nejzákladnější podobě žádné komentáře, ale většina parserů +umí pracovat s komentáři ve stylu jazyka C (`//`, `/* */`). Pro tyto účely +však budeme používat 100% validní JSON bez komentářů. Pojďme se podívat na +syntaxi formátu JSON: + +```json +{ + "klic": "value", + + "hodnoty": "Musí být vždy uvozený v dvojitých uvozovkách", + "cisla": 0, + "retezce": "Hellø, wørld. Všechny unicode znaky jsou povolené, společně s \"escapováním\".", + "pravdivostni_hodnota": true, + "prazdna_hodnota": null, + + "velke_cislo": 1.2e+100, + + "objekt": { + "komentar": "Most of your structure will come from objects.", + + "pole": [0, 1, 2, 3, "Pole nemusí být pouze homogenní.", 5], + + "jiny_objekt": { + "comment": "Je povolené jakkoli hluboké zanoření." + } + }, + + "cokoli": [ + { + "zdroje_drasliku": ["banány"] + }, + [ + [1, 0, 0, 0], + [0, 1, 0, 0], + [0, 0, 1, "neo"], + [0, 0, 0, 1] + ] + ], + + "alternativni_styl_zapisu": { + "komentar": "Mrkni se na toto!" + , "pozice_carky": "Na pozici čárky nezáleží - pokud je před hodnotou, ať už je kdekoli, tak je validní." + , "dalsi_komentar": "To je skvělé." + }, + + "to_bylo_rychle": "A tím jsme hotový. Nyní již víte vše, co může formát JSON nabídnout!" +} +``` diff --git a/cs-cz/python3.html.markdown b/cs-cz/python3.html.markdown index b498046a..581ed3a3 100644 --- a/cs-cz/python3.html.markdown +++ b/cs-cz/python3.html.markdown @@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ contributors: - ["Tomáš Bedřich", "http://tbedrich.cz"] translators: - ["Tomáš Bedřich", "http://tbedrich.cz"] -filename: learnpython3.py +filename: learnpython3-cz.py lang: cs-cz --- diff --git a/csharp.html.markdown b/csharp.html.markdown index 7d7f4340..7be34fb9 100644 --- a/csharp.html.markdown +++ b/csharp.html.markdown @@ -24,10 +24,12 @@ Multi-line comments look like this /// This is an XML documentation comment which can be used to generate external /// documentation or provide context help within an IDE /// </summary> -//public void MethodOrClassOrOtherWithParsableHelp() {} +/// <param name="firstParam">This is some parameter documentation for firstParam</param> +/// <returns>Information on the returned value of a function</returns> +//public void MethodOrClassOrOtherWithParsableHelp(string firstParam) {} // Specify the namespaces this source code will be using -// The namespaces below are all part of the standard .NET Framework Class Libary +// The namespaces below are all part of the standard .NET Framework Class Library using System; using System.Collections.Generic; using System.Dynamic; @@ -421,7 +423,7 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried"; // Item is an int Console.WriteLine(item.ToString()); } - + // YIELD // Usage of the "yield" keyword indicates that the method it appears in is an Iterator // (this means you can use it in a foreach loop) @@ -437,7 +439,7 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried"; foreach (var counter in YieldCounter()) Console.WriteLine(counter); } - + // you can use more than one "yield return" in a method public static IEnumerable<int> ManyYieldCounter() { @@ -446,7 +448,7 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried"; yield return 2; yield return 3; } - + // you can also use "yield break" to stop the Iterator // this method would only return half of the values from 0 to limit. public static IEnumerable<int> YieldCounterWithBreak(int limit = 10) @@ -482,7 +484,7 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried"; // ?? is syntactic sugar for specifying default value (coalesce) // in case variable is null int notNullable = nullable ?? 0; // 0 - + // ?. is an operator for null-propagation - a shorthand way of checking for null nullable?.Print(); // Use the Print() extension method if nullable isn't null @@ -692,7 +694,10 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried"; public BikeBrand Brand; // After declaring an enum type, we can declare the field of this type // Decorate an enum with the FlagsAttribute to indicate that multiple values can be switched on - [Flags] // Any class derived from Attribute can be used to decorate types, methods, parameters etc + // Any class derived from Attribute can be used to decorate types, methods, parameters etc + // Bitwise operators & and | can be used to perform and/or operations + + [Flags] public enum BikeAccessories { None = 0, @@ -879,8 +884,8 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried"; bool Broken { get; } // interfaces can contain properties as well as methods & events } - // Class can inherit only one other class, but can implement any amount of interfaces, however - // the base class name must be the first in the list and all interfaces follow + // Classes can inherit only one other class, but can implement any amount of interfaces, + // however the base class name must be the first in the list and all interfaces follow class MountainBike : Bicycle, IJumpable, IBreakable { int damage = 0; @@ -913,17 +918,17 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried"; public DbSet<Bicycle> Bikes { get; set; } } - + // Classes can be split across multiple .cs files // A1.cs - public partial class A + public partial class A { public static void A1() { Console.WriteLine("Method A1 in class A"); } } - + // A2.cs public partial class A { @@ -932,9 +937,9 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried"; Console.WriteLine("Method A2 in class A"); } } - + // Program using the partial class "A" - public class Program + public class Program { static void Main() { diff --git a/css.html.markdown b/css.html.markdown index 8ee4f4b9..5dae06ca 100644 --- a/css.html.markdown +++ b/css.html.markdown @@ -7,16 +7,23 @@ contributors: - ["Connor Shea", "https://github.com/connorshea"] - ["Deepanshu Utkarsh", "https://github.com/duci9y"] - ["Tyler Mumford", "https://tylermumford.com"] + filename: learncss.css --- -Web pages are built with HTML, which specifies the content of a page. CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) is a separate language which specifies a page's **appearance**. +Web pages are built with HTML, which specifies the content of a page. +CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) is a separate language which specifies +a page's **appearance**. -CSS code is made of static *rules*. Each rule takes one or more *selectors* and gives specific *values* to a number of visual *properties*. Those properties are then applied to the page elements indicated by the selectors. +CSS code is made of static *rules*. Each rule takes one or more *selectors* and +gives specific *values* to a number of visual *properties*. Those properties are +then applied to the page elements indicated by the selectors. -This guide has been written with CSS 2 in mind, which is extended by the new features of CSS 3. +This guide has been written with CSS 2 in mind, which is extended by the new +features of CSS 3. -**NOTE:** Because CSS produces visual results, in order to learn it, you need to try everything in a CSS playground like [dabblet](http://dabblet.com/). +**NOTE:** Because CSS produces visual results, in order to learn it, you need to +try everything in a CSS playground like [dabblet](http://dabblet.com/). The main focus of this article is on the syntax and some general tips. ## Syntax @@ -66,7 +73,7 @@ div { } [otherAttr~='foo'] { } [otherAttr~='bar'] { } -/* or contains a value in a dash-separated list, ie, "-" (U+002D) */ +/* or contains a value in a dash-separated list, e.g., "-" (U+002D) */ [otherAttr|='en'] { font-size:smaller; } @@ -113,7 +120,8 @@ selector:first-child {} /* any element that is the last child of its parent */ selector:last-child {} -/* Just like pseudo classes, pseudo elements allow you to style certain parts of a document */ +/* Just like pseudo classes, pseudo elements allow you to style certain parts of + a document */ /* matches a virtual first child of the selected element */ selector::before {} @@ -132,9 +140,9 @@ selector::after {} #################### */ selector { - + /* Units of length can be absolute or relative. */ - + /* Relative units */ width: 50%; /* percentage of parent element width */ font-size: 2em; /* multiples of element's original font-size */ @@ -143,14 +151,14 @@ selector { font-size: 2vh; /* or its height */ font-size: 2vmin; /* whichever of a vh or a vw is smaller */ font-size: 2vmax; /* or greater */ - + /* Absolute units */ width: 200px; /* pixels */ font-size: 20pt; /* points */ width: 5cm; /* centimeters */ min-width: 50mm; /* millimeters */ max-width: 5in; /* inches */ - + /* Colors */ color: #F6E; /* short hex format */ color: #FF66EE; /* long hex format */ @@ -161,10 +169,10 @@ selector { color: transparent; /* equivalent to setting the alpha to 0 */ color: hsl(0, 100%, 50%); /* as hsl percentages (CSS 3) */ color: hsla(0, 100%, 50%, 0.3); /* as hsl percentages with alpha */ - + /* Images as backgrounds of elements */ background-image: url(/img-path/img.jpg); /* quotes inside url() optional */ - + /* Fonts */ font-family: Arial; /* if the font family name has a space, it must be quoted */ @@ -195,7 +203,13 @@ Save a CSS stylesheet with the extension `.css`. ## Precedence or Cascade -An element may be targeted by multiple selectors and may have a property set on it in more than once. In these cases, one of the rules takes precedence over others. Rules with a more specific selector take precedence over a less specific one, and a rule occuring later in the stylesheet overwrites a previous one. +An element may be targeted by multiple selectors and may have a property set on +it in more than once. In these cases, one of the rules takes precedence over +others. Rules with a more specific selector take precedence over a less specific +one, and a rule occurring later in the stylesheet overwrites a previous one +(which also means that if two different linked stylesheets contain rules for an +element and if the rules are of the same specificity, then order of linking +would take precedence and the sheet linked latest would govern styling) . This process is called cascading, hence the name Cascading Style Sheets. @@ -224,18 +238,25 @@ and the following markup: <p style='/*F*/ property:value;' class='class1 class2' attr='value' /> ``` -The precedence of style is as follows. Remember, the precedence is for each **property**, not for the entire block. +The precedence of style is as follows. Remember, the precedence is for each +**property**, not for the entire block. -* `E` has the highest precedence because of the keyword `!important`. It is recommended that you avoid its usage. +* `E` has the highest precedence because of the keyword `!important`. It is +recommended that you avoid its usage. * `F` is next, because it is an inline style. -* `A` is next, because it is more "specific" than anything else. It has 3 specifiers: The name of the element `p`, its class `class1`, an attribute `attr='value'`. -* `C` is next, even though it has the same specificity as `B`. This is because it appears after `B`. +* `A` is next, because it is more "specific" than anything else. It has 3 + specifiers: The name of the element `p`, its class `class1`, an attribute + `attr='value'`. +* `C` is next, even though it has the same specificity as `B`. + This is because it appears after `B`. * `B` is next. * `D` is the last one. ## Compatibility -Most of the features in CSS 2 (and many in CSS 3) are available across all browsers and devices. But it's always good practice to check before using a new feature. +Most of the features in CSS 2 (and many in CSS 3) are available across all +browsers and devices. But it's always good practice to check before using +a new feature. ## Resources diff --git a/de-de/bash-de.html.markdown b/de-de/bash-de.html.markdown index 541d28bb..654fcdd4 100644 --- a/de-de/bash-de.html.markdown +++ b/de-de/bash-de.html.markdown @@ -92,12 +92,12 @@ echo "immer ausgeführt" || echo "Nur ausgeführt wenn der erste Befehl fehlschl echo "immer ausgeführt" && echo "Nur ausgeführt wenn der erste Befehl Erfolg hat" # Um && und || mit if statements zu verwenden, braucht man mehrfache Paare eckiger Klammern: -if [ $NAME == "Steve" ] && [ $Alter -eq 15 ] +if [ "$NAME" == "Steve" ] && [ "$Alter" -eq 15 ] then echo "Wird ausgeführt wenn $NAME gleich 'Steve' UND $Alter gleich 15." fi -if [ $Name == "Daniya" ] || [ $Name == "Zach" ] +if [ "$Name" == "Daniya" ] || [ "$Name" == "Zach" ] then echo "Wird ausgeführt wenn $NAME gleich 'Daniya' ODER $NAME gleich 'Zach'." fi diff --git a/de-de/d-de.html.markdown b/de-de/d-de.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ae036d70 --- /dev/null +++ b/de-de/d-de.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,250 @@ +--- +language: D +filename: learnd-de.d +contributors: + - ["Nick Papanastasiou", "www.nickpapanastasiou.github.io"] +translators: + - ["Dominik Süß", "www.thesuess.me"] +lang: de-de +--- + +```c +// Es war klar dass das kommt... +module hello; + +import std.stdio; + +// argumente sind optional +void main(string[] args) { + writeln("Hello, World!"); +} +``` + +Wenn du so wie ich bist und viel zeit im Internet verbringst stehen die Chancen gut +das du schonmal über [D](http://dlang.org/) gehört hast. +Die D-Sprache ist eine moderne, überall einsetzbare programmiersprache die von Low bis +High Level verwendet werden kann und dabei viele Stile anbietet. + +D wird aktiv von Walter Bright und Andrei Alexandrescu entwickelt, zwei super schlaue, +richtig coole leute. Da das jetzt alles aus dem weg ist - auf zu den Beispielen! + +```c +import std.stdio; + +void main() { + + // Logische Ausdrücke und Schleifen funktionieren wie erwartet + for(int i = 0; i < 10000; i++) { + writeln(i); + } + + auto n = 1; // auto um den typ vom Compiler bestimmen zu lassen + + // Zahlenliterale können _ verwenden für lesbarkeit + while(n < 10_000) { + n += n; + } + + do { + n -= (n / 2); + } while(n > 0); + + // For und while sind ja schön und gut aber D bevorzugt foreach + // .. erstellt eine spanne von zahlen, exklusive dem Ende + foreach(i; 1..1_000_000) { + if(n % 2 == 0) + writeln(i); + } + + foreach_reverse(i; 1..int.max) { + if(n % 2 == 1) { + writeln(i); + } else { + writeln("No!"); + } + } +} +``` + +Neue Typen können mit `struct`, `class`, `union`, und `enum` definiert werden. Structs und unions +werden as-value (koppiert) an methoden übergeben wogegen Klassen als Referenz übergeben werden. +Templates können verwendet werden um alle typen zu parameterisieren. + +```c +// Hier, T ist ein Type-Parameter, Er funktioniert wie Generics in C#/Java/C++ +struct LinkedList(T) { + T data = null; + LinkedList!(T)* next; // Das ! wird verwendet um T zu übergeben. (<T> in C#/Java/C++) +} + +class BinTree(T) { + T data = null; + + // Wenn es nur einen T parameter gibt können die Klammern um ihn weggelassen werden + BinTree!T left; + BinTree!T right; +} + +enum Day { + Sunday, + Monday, + Tuesday, + Wednesday, + Thursday, + Friday, + Saturday, +} + +// Aliase können verwendet werden um die Entwicklung zu erleichtern + +alias IntList = LinkedList!int; +alias NumTree = BinTree!double; + +// Funktionen können genau so Templates beinhalten + +T max(T)(T a, T b) { + if(a < b) + return b; + + return a; +} + +// Steht ref vor einem Parameter wird sichergestellt das er als Referenz übergeben wird. +// Selbst bei werten wird es immer eine Referenz sein. +void swap(T)(ref T a, ref T b) { + auto temp = a; + + a = b; + b = temp; +} + +// Templates können ebenso werte parameterisieren. +class Matrix(uint m, uint n, T = int) { + T[m] rows; + T[n] columns; +} + +auto mat = new Matrix!(3, 3); // Standardmäßig ist T vom typ Integer + +``` + +Wo wir schon bei Klassen sind - Wie wäre es mit Properties! Eine Property +ist eine Funktion die wie ein Wert agiert. Das gibt uns viel klarere Syntax +im Stil von `structure.x = 7` was gleichgültig wäre zu `structure.setX(7)` + +```c +// Diese Klasse ist parameterisiert mit T, U + +class MyClass(T, U) { + T _data; + U _other; + +} + +// Ihre Getter und Setter Methoden sehen so aus +class MyClass(T, U) { + T _data; + U _other; + + // Konstruktoren heißen immer `this` + this(T t, U u) { + data = t; + other = u; + } + + // getters + @property T data() { + return _data; + } + + @property U other() { + return _other; + } + + // setters + // @property kann genauso gut am ende der Methodensignatur stehen + void data(T t) @property { + _data = t; + } + + void other(U u) @property { + _other = u; + } +} +// Und so kann man sie dann verwenden + +void main() { + auto mc = MyClass!(int, string); + + mc.data = 7; + mc.other = "seven"; + + writeln(mc.data); + writeln(mc.other); +} +``` + +Mit properties können wir sehr viel logik hinter unseren gettern +und settern hinter einer schönen syntax verstecken + +Other object-oriented goodies at our disposal +Andere Objektorientierte features sind beispielsweise +`interface`s, `abstract class` und `override`. +Vererbung funktioniert in D wie in Java: +Erben von einer Klasse, so viele interfaces wie man will. + +Jetzt haben wir Objektorientierung in D gesehen aber schauen +wir uns noch was anderes an. +D bietet funktionale programmierung mit _first-class functions_ +puren funktionen und unveränderbare daten. +Zusätzlich können viele funktionale Algorithmen wie z.B +map, filter, reduce und friends im `std.algorithm` Modul gefunden werden! + +```c +import std.algorithm : map, filter, reduce; +import std.range : iota; // builds an end-exclusive range + +void main() { + // Wir wollen die summe aller quadratzahlen zwischen + // 1 und 100 ausgeben. Nichts leichter als das! + + // Einfach eine lambda funktion als template parameter übergeben + // Es ist genau so gut möglich eine normale funktion hier zu übergeben + // Lambdas bieten sich hier aber an. + auto num = iota(1, 101).filter!(x => x % 2 == 0) + .map!(y => y ^^ 2) + .reduce!((a, b) => a + b); + + writeln(num); +} +``` + +Ist dir aufgefallen wie wir eine Haskell-Style pipeline gebaut haben +um num zu berechnen? +Das war möglich durch die Uniform Function Call Syntax. +Mit UFCS können wir auswählen ob wir eine Funktion als Methode oder +als freie Funktion aufrufen. Walters artikel dazu findet ihr +[hier.](http://www.drdobbs.com/cpp/uniform-function-call-syntax/232700394) +Kurzgesagt kann man Funktionen deren erster parameter vom typ A ist, als +Methode auf A anwenden. + +Parrallel Computing ist eine Tolle sache, findest du nicht auch? + +```c +import std.stdio; +import std.parallelism : parallel; +import std.math : sqrt; + +void main() { + // Wir wollen die Wurzel von jeder Zahl in unserem Array berechnen + // und dabei alle Kerne verwenden die wir zur verfügung haben + auto arr = new double[1_000_000]; + + // Wir verwenden den index und das element als referenz + // und rufen einfach parallel auf! + foreach(i, ref elem; parallel(arr)) { + ref = sqrt(i + 1.0); + } +} + +``` diff --git a/de-de/git-de.html.markdown b/de-de/git-de.html.markdown index dea329d5..61f7bb67 100644 --- a/de-de/git-de.html.markdown +++ b/de-de/git-de.html.markdown @@ -33,6 +33,7 @@ Eine Versionsverwaltung erfasst die Änderungen einer Datei oder eines Verzeichn * Ist offline einsetzbar. * Einfache Kollaboration! * Branching ist einfach! +* Branching ist schnell! * Merging ist einfach! * Git ist schnell. * Git ist flexibel. @@ -53,11 +54,11 @@ Das .git-Verzeichnis enthält alle Einstellung, Logs, Branches, den HEAD und meh ### Arbeitsverzeichnis (Teil des Repositorys) -Dies sind die Verzeichnisse und Dateien in deinem Repository. +Dies sind die Verzeichnisse und Dateien in deinem Repository, also z.B. dein Programmcode. ### Index (Teil des .git-Verzeichnisses) -Der Index ist die die Staging-Area von Git. Es ist im Grunde eine Ebene, die Arbeitsverzeichnis vom Repository trennt. Sie gibt Entwicklern mehr Einfluss darüber, was ins Git-Repository eingeht. +Der Index ist die Staging-Area von Git. Es ist im Grunde eine Ebene, die Arbeitsverzeichnis vom Repository trennt. Sie gibt Entwicklern mehr Einfluss darüber, was ins Git-Repository eingeht. ### Commit @@ -84,7 +85,7 @@ Ein *head* ist ein Pointer, der auf einen beliebigen Commit zeigt. Ein Reposito ### init -Erstelle ein leeres Git-Repository. Die Einstellungen, gespeicherte Informationen und mehr zu diesem Git-Repository werden in einem Verzeichnis namens *.git* angelegt. +Erstelle ein leeres Git-Repository im aktuellen Verzeichnis. Die Einstellungen, gespeicherte Informationen und mehr zu diesem Git-Repository werden in einem Verzeichnis namens *.git* angelegt. ```bash $ git init @@ -180,6 +181,8 @@ Bringt alle Dateien im Arbeitsverzeichnis auf den Stand des Index oder des angeg ```bash # Ein Repo auschecken - wenn nicht anders angegeben ist das der master $ git checkout +# Eine Datei auschecken - sie befindet sich dann auf dem aktuellen Stand im Repository +$ git checkout /path/to/file # Einen bestimmten Branch auschecken $ git checkout branchName # Erstelle einen neuen Branch und wechsle zu ihm. Wie: "git branch <name>; git checkout <name>" @@ -217,6 +220,9 @@ $ git diff --cached # Unterschiede zwischen deinem Arbeitsverzeichnis und dem aktuellsten Commit anzeigen $ git diff HEAD + +# Unterschiede zwischen dem Index und dem aktuellsten Commit (betrifft nur Dateien im Index) +$ git diff --staged ``` ### grep @@ -374,3 +380,5 @@ $ git rm /pather/to/the/file/HelloWorld.c * [SalesForce Cheat Sheet](https://na1.salesforce.com/help/doc/en/salesforce_git_developer_cheatsheet.pdf) * [GitGuys](http://www.gitguys.com/) + +* [gitflow - Ein Modell um mit Branches zu arbeiten](http://nvie.com/posts/a-successful-git-branching-model/) diff --git a/de-de/go-de.html.markdown b/de-de/go-de.html.markdown index 94f48e65..dca88f01 100644 --- a/de-de/go-de.html.markdown +++ b/de-de/go-de.html.markdown @@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ filename: learngo-de.go contributors: - ["Joseph Adams", "https://github.com/jcla1"] - ["Dennis Keller", "https://github.com/denniskeller"] +translators: - ["Jerome Meinke", "https://github.com/jmeinke"] lang: de-de --- diff --git a/de-de/hack-de.html.markdown b/de-de/hack-de.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..42428130 --- /dev/null +++ b/de-de/hack-de.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,322 @@ +--- +language: Hack +lang: de-de +contributors: + - ["Stephen Holdaway", "https://github.com/stecman"] + - ["David Lima", "https://github.com/davelima"] +translators: + - ["Jerome Meinke", "https://github.com/jmeinke"] +filename: learnhack-de.hh +--- + +Hack ist eine von Facebook neu entwickelte Programmiersprache auf Basis von PHP. +Sie wird von der HipHop Virtual Machine (HHVM) ausgeführt. Die HHVM kann +aufgrund der Ähnlichkeit der Programmiersprachen nicht nur Hack, sondern auch +PHP-Code ausführen. Der wesentliche Unterschied zu PHP besteht in der statischen +Typisierung der Sprache, die eine wesentlich höhere Performance erlaubt. + + +Hier werden nur Hack-spezifische Eigenschaften beschrieben. Details über PHP's +Syntax findet man im [PHP Artikel](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/php/) dieser +Seite. + +```php +<?hh + +// Hack-Syntax ist nur für Dateien aktiv, die mit dem <?hh Prefix starten. +// Der <?hh Prefix kann nicht wie <?php mit HTML gemischt werden. +// Benutzung von "<?hh //strict" aktiviert den Strikt-Modus des Type-Checkers. + + +// Typisierung für Funktions-Argumente +function repeat(string $word, int $count) +{ + $word = trim($word); + return str_repeat($word . ' ', $count); +} + +// Typisierung für Rückgabewerte +function add(...$numbers) : int +{ + return array_sum($numbers); +} + +// Funktionen ohne Rückgabewert, werden mit "void" typisiert +function truncate(resource $handle) : void +{ + // ... +} + +// Typisierung unterstützt die explizit optionale Ein- / Ausgabe von "null" +function identity(?string $stringOrNull) : ?string +{ + return $stringOrNull; +} + +// Typisierung von Klassen-Eigenschaften +class TypeHintedProperties +{ + public ?string $name; + + protected int $id; + + private float $score = 100.0; + + // Hack erfordert es, dass typisierte Eigenschaften (also "non-null") + // einen Default-Wert haben oder im Konstruktor initialisiert werden. + public function __construct(int $id) + { + $this->id = $id; + } +} + + +// Kurzgefasste anonyme Funktionen (lambdas) +$multiplier = 5; +array_map($y ==> $y * $multiplier, [1, 2, 3]); + + +// Weitere, spezielle Felder (Generics) +// Diese kann man sich als ein zugreifbares Interface vorstellen +class Box<T> +{ + protected T $data; + + public function __construct(T $data) { + $this->data = $data; + } + + public function getData(): T { + return $this->data; + } +} + +function openBox(Box<int> $box) : int +{ + return $box->getData(); +} + + +// Formen +// +// Hack fügt das Konzept von Formen hinzu, wie struct-ähnliche arrays +// mit einer typ-geprüften Menge von Schlüsseln +type Point2D = shape('x' => int, 'y' => int); + +function distance(Point2D $a, Point2D $b) : float +{ + return sqrt(pow($b['x'] - $a['x'], 2) + pow($b['y'] - $a['y'], 2)); +} + +distance( + shape('x' => -1, 'y' => 5), + shape('x' => 2, 'y' => 50) +); + + +// Typen-Definition bzw. Aliasing +// +// Hack erlaubt es Typen zu definieren und sorgt somit für bessere Lesbarkeit +newtype VectorArray = array<int, Vector<int>>; + +// Ein Tupel mit zwei Integern +newtype Point = (int, int); + +function addPoints(Point $p1, Point $p2) : Point +{ + return tuple($p1[0] + $p2[0], $p1[1] + $p2[1]); +} + +addPoints( + tuple(1, 2), + tuple(5, 6) +); + + +// Erstklassige Aufzählungen (enums) +enum RoadType : int +{ + Road = 0; + Street = 1; + Avenue = 2; + Boulevard = 3; +} + +function getRoadType() : RoadType +{ + return RoadType::Avenue; +} + + +// Automatische Erstellung von Klassen-Eigenschaften durch Konstruktor-Argumente +// +// Wiederkehrende Definitionen von Klassen-Eigenschaften können durch die Hack- +// Syntax vermieden werden. Hack erlaubt es die Klassen-Eigenschaften über +// Argumente des Konstruktors zu definieren. +class ArgumentPromotion +{ + public function __construct(public string $name, + protected int $age, + private bool $isAwesome) {} +} + +class WithoutArgumentPromotion +{ + public string $name; + + protected int $age; + + private bool $isAwesome; + + public function __construct(string $name, int $age, bool $isAwesome) + { + $this->name = $name; + $this->age = $age; + $this->isAwesome = $isAwesome; + } +} + + +// Kooperatives Multitasking +// +// Die Schlüsselworte "async" and "await" führen Multitasking ein. +// Achtung, hier werden keine Threads benutzt, sondern nur Aktivität getauscht. +async function cooperativePrint(int $start, int $end) : Awaitable<void> +{ + for ($i = $start; $i <= $end; $i++) { + echo "$i "; + + // Geben anderen Tasks die Möglichkeit aktiv zu werden + await RescheduleWaitHandle::create(RescheduleWaitHandle::QUEUE_DEFAULT, 0); + } +} + +// Die Ausgabe von folgendem Code ist "1 4 7 2 5 8 3 6 9" +AwaitAllWaitHandle::fromArray([ + cooperativePrint(1, 3), + cooperativePrint(4, 6), + cooperativePrint(7, 9) +])->getWaitHandle()->join(); + + +// Attribute +// +// Attribute repräsentieren eine Form von Metadaten für Funktionen. +// Hack bietet Spezial-Attribute, die nützliche Eigenschaften mit sich bringen. + +// Das __Memoize Attribut erlaubt es die Ausgabe einer Funktion zu cachen. +<<__Memoize>> +function doExpensiveTask() : ?string +{ + return file_get_contents('http://example.com'); +} + +// Der Funktionsrumpf wird im Folgenden nur ein einziges mal ausgeführt: +doExpensiveTask(); +doExpensiveTask(); + + +// Das __ConsistentConstruct Attribut signalisiert dem type-checker, dass +// die Funktionsdeklaration von __construct für alle Unterklassen dieselbe ist. +<<__ConsistentConstruct>> +class ConsistentFoo +{ + public function __construct(int $x, float $y) + { + // ... + } + + public function someMethod() + { + // ... + } +} + +class ConsistentBar extends ConsistentFoo +{ + public function __construct(int $x, float $y) + { + // Der Type-checker erzwingt den Aufruf des Eltern-Klassen-Konstruktors + parent::__construct($x, $y); + + // ... + } + + // Das __Override Attribut ist ein optionales Signal an den Type-Checker, + // das erzwingt, dass die annotierte Methode die Methode der Eltern-Klasse + // oder des Traits verändert. + <<__Override>> + public function someMethod() + { + // ... + } +} + +class InvalidFooSubclass extends ConsistentFoo +{ + // Wenn der Konstruktor der Eltern-Klasse nicht übernommen wird, + // wird der Type-Checker einen Fehler ausgeben: + // + // "This object is of type ConsistentBaz. It is incompatible with this object + // of type ConsistentFoo because some of their methods are incompatible" + // + public function __construct(float $x) + { + // ... + } + + // Auch bei der Benutzung des __Override Attributs für eine nicht veränderte + // Methode wird vom Type-Checker eine Fehler ausgegeben: + // + // "InvalidFooSubclass::otherMethod() is marked as override; no non-private + // parent definition found or overridden parent is defined in non-<?hh code" + // + <<__Override>> + public function otherMethod() + { + // ... + } +} + +// Ein Trait ist ein Begriff aus der objektorientierten Programmierung und +// beschreibt eine wiederverwendbare Sammlung von Methoden und Attributen, +// ähnlich einer Klasse. + +// Anders als in PHP können Traits auch als Schnittstellen (Interfaces) +// implementiert werden und selbst Schnittstellen implementieren. +interface KittenInterface +{ + public function play() : void; +} + +trait CatTrait implements KittenInterface +{ + public function play() : void + { + // ... + } +} + +class Samuel +{ + use CatTrait; +} + + +$cat = new Samuel(); +$cat instanceof KittenInterface === true; // True + +``` + +## Weitere Informationen + +Die Hack [Programmiersprachen-Referenz](http://docs.hhvm.com/manual/de/hacklangref.php) +erklärt die neuen Eigenschaften der Sprache detailliert auf Englisch. Für +allgemeine Informationen kann man auch die offizielle Webseite [hacklang.org](http://hacklang.org/) +besuchen. + +Die offizielle Webseite [hhvm.com](http://hhvm.com/) bietet Infos zum Download +und zur Installation der HHVM. + +Hack's [nicht-untersützte PHP Syntax-Elemente](http://docs.hhvm.com/manual/en/hack.unsupported.php) +werden im offiziellen Handbuch beschrieben. diff --git a/de-de/haml-de.html.markdown b/de-de/haml-de.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7272b365 --- /dev/null +++ b/de-de/haml-de.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,156 @@ +--- +language: haml +filename: learnhaml-de.haml +contributors: + - ["Simon Neveu", "https://github.com/sneveu"] + - ["Sol Bekic", "https://github.com/S0lll0s"] +lang: de-de +--- + +Haml ist eine Markup- und Templatingsprache, aufgesetzt auf Ruby, mit der HTML Dokumente einfach beschrieben werden können. + +Haml vermindert Wiederholung und Fehleranfälligkeit, indem es Tags basierend auf der Markup-Struktur schließt und schachtelt. +Dadurch ergibt sich kurzes, präzises und logisches Markup. + +Haml kann außerhalb eines Ruby-projekts verwendet werden. Mit dem installierten Haml gem kann man das Terminal benutzen um Haml zu HTML umzuwandeln: + +$ haml input_file.haml output_file.html + + +```haml +/ ------------------------------------------- +/ Einrückung +/ ------------------------------------------- + +/ + Einrückung ist ein wichtiges Element des Haml Syntax, deswegen ist es + wichtig ein konsequentes Schema zu verwenden. Meistens werden zwei spaces + verwendet, solange die Einrückungen das gleiche Schema verfolgen können + aber auch andere Breiten und Tabs verwendet werden + + +/ ------------------------------------------- +/ Kommentare +/ ------------------------------------------- + +/ Kommentare beginnen mit einem Slash + +/ + Mehrzeilige Kommentare werden eingerückt und mit einem Slash + eingeführt + +-# Diese Zeile ist ein "stummes" Kommentar, es wird nicht mitgerendert + + +/ ------------------------------------------- +/ HTML Elemente +/ ------------------------------------------- + +/ Tags werden durch ein Prozentzeichen und den Tagnamen erzeugt +%body + %header + %nav + +/ Die Zeilen oben würden folgendes ergeben: + <body> + <header> + <nav></nav> + </header> + </body> + +/ Text kann direkt nach dem Tagnamen eingefügt werden: +%h1 Headline copy + +/ Mehrzeilige Inhalte müssen stattdessen eingerückt werden: +%p + This is a lot of content that we could probably split onto two + separate lines. + +/ + HTML kann mit &= escaped werden. So werden HTML-sensitive Zeichen + enkodiert. Zum Beispiel: + +%p + &= "Ja & Nein" + +/ würde 'Ja & Nein' ergeben + +/ HTML kann mit != dekodiert werden: +%p + != "so schreibt man ein Paragraph-Tag: <p></p>" + +/ ...was 'This is how you write a paragraph tag <p></p>' ergeben würde + +/ CSS Klassen können mit '.classname' an Tags angehängt werden: +%div.foo.bar + +/ oder über einen Ruby Hash: +%div{:class => 'foo bar'} + +/ Das div Tag wird standardmäßig verwendet, divs können also verkürzt werden: +.foo + +/ andere Attribute können über den Hash angegeben werden: +%a{:href => '#', :class => 'bar', :title => 'Bar'} + +/ Booleesche Attribute können mit 'true' gesetzt werden: +%input{:selected => true} + +/ data-Attribute können in einem eigenen Hash im :data key angegeben werden: +%div{:data => {:attribute => 'foo'}} + + +/ ------------------------------------------- +/ Verwendung von Ruby +/ ------------------------------------------- + +/ Mit dem = Zeichen können Ruby-werte evaluiert und als Tag-text verwendet werden: + +%h1= book.name + +%p + = book.author + = book.publisher + + +/ Code nach einem Bindestrich wird ausgeführt aber nicht gerendert: +- books = ['book 1', 'book 2', 'book 3'] + +/ So können zum Beispiel auch Blöcke verwendet werden: +- books.shuffle.each_with_index do |book, index| + %h1= book + + if book do + %p This is a book + +/ + Auch hier werden wieder keine End-Tags benötigt! + Diese ergeben sich aus der Einrückung. + + +/ ------------------------------------------- +/ Inline Ruby / Ruby Interpolation +/ ------------------------------------------- + +/ Ruby variablen können mit #{} in Text interpoliert werden: +%p dein bestes Spiel ist #{best_game} + + +/ ------------------------------------------- +/ Filter +/ ------------------------------------------- + +/ + Mit dem Doppelpinkt können Haml Filter benutzt werden. + Zum Beispiel gibt es den :javascript Filter, mit dem inline JS + geschrieben werden kann: + +:javascript + console.log('Dies ist ein <script>'); + +``` + +## Weitere Resourcen + +- [What is HAML?](http://haml.info/) - Eine gute Einleitung auf der Haml homepage (englisch) +- [Official Docs](http://haml.info/docs/yardoc/file.REFERENCE.html) - Die offizielle Haml Referenz (englisch) diff --git a/de-de/haskell-de.html.markdown b/de-de/haskell-de.html.markdown index d1a0008e..5d17ccc7 100644 --- a/de-de/haskell-de.html.markdown +++ b/de-de/haskell-de.html.markdown @@ -100,7 +100,7 @@ not False -- True [1..] !! 999 -- 1000 -- Haskell evaluiert nun die ersten 1 - 1000 Elemente, aber der Rest der Liste --- bleibt unangetastet. Haskell wird sie solange nicht weiterevalieren +-- bleibt unangetastet. Haskell wird sie solange nicht weiterevaluieren -- bis es muss. -- Zwei Listen konkatenieren @@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ tail [1..5] -- [2, 3, 4, 5] init [1..5] -- [1, 2, 3, 4] last [1..5] -- 5 --- list comprehensions | Listen erschaffen +-- Listen erschaffen ("list comprehensions") [x*2 | x <- [1..5]] -- [2, 4, 6, 8, 10] -- Mit Bedingungen @@ -179,7 +179,7 @@ myMap (\x -> x + 2) [1..5] -- [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] -- Fold (`inject` in einigen Sprachen) -- Foldl1 bedeutet: fold von links nach rechts und nehme den ersten --- Wert der Liste als Basiswert f[r den Akkumulator. +-- Wert der Liste als Basiswert für den Akkumulator. foldl1 (\acc x -> acc + x) [1..5] -- 15 ---------------------------------------------------- @@ -201,7 +201,7 @@ foo 5 -- 15 -- Funktionskomposition -- Die (.) Funktion verkettet Funktionen. --- Zum Beispiel, die Funktion Foo nimmt ein Argument addiert 10 dazu und +-- Zum Beispiel, die Funktion Foo nimmt ein Argument, addiert 10 dazu und -- multipliziert dieses Ergebnis mit 4. foo = (*4) . (+10) @@ -212,7 +212,7 @@ foo 5 -- 60 -- Haskell hat einen Operator `$`, welcher Funktionsapplikation durchführt. -- Im Gegenzug zu der Standard-Funktionsapplikation, welche linksassoziativ ist -- und die höchstmögliche Priorität von "10" hat, ist der `$`-Operator --- rechtsassoziativ und hat die Priorität 0. Dieses hat (idr.) den Effekt, +-- rechtsassoziativ und hat die Priorität 0. Dieses hat (i.d.R.) den Effekt, -- dass der `komplette` Ausdruck auf der rechten Seite als Parameter für die -- Funktion auf der linken Seite verwendet wird. -- Mit `.` und `$` kann man sich so viele Klammern ersparen. @@ -283,7 +283,7 @@ for [0..5] $ \i -> show i for [0..5] show -- foldl oder foldr reduziren Listen auf einen Wert. --- foldl <fn> <initial value> <list> +-- foldl <Funktion> <initialer Wert> <Liste> foldl (\x y -> 2*x + y) 4 [1,2,3] -- 43 -- die Abarbeitung sieht so aus: @@ -435,7 +435,7 @@ qsort (p:xs) = qsort lesser ++ [p] ++ qsort greater ``` Haskell ist sehr einfach zu installieren. -Hohl es dir von [hier](http://www.haskell.org/platform/). +Hol es dir von [hier](http://www.haskell.org/platform/). Eine sehr viele langsamere Einführung findest du unter: [Learn you a Haskell](http://learnyouahaskell.com/) oder diff --git a/de-de/lua-de.html.markdown b/de-de/lua-de.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..83f8506c --- /dev/null +++ b/de-de/lua-de.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,426 @@ +--- +language: Lua +contributors: + - ["Tyler Neylon", "http://tylerneylon.com/"] +translators: + - ["Martin Schimandl", "https://github.com/Git-Jiro"] +filename: learnlua-de.lua +lang: de-de +--- + +```lua +-- Zwei Gedankenstriche starten ein einzeiliges Kommentar. + +--[[ + Fügt man zwei '[' und ']' hinzu, + erzeugt man einen mehrzeiligen Kommentar. +--]] +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- 1. Variablen und Fluß-Kontrolle. +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +num = 42 -- Alle Nummern sind vom Typ: Double. +-- Werd nicht nervös, 64-Bit Double haben 52 Bits zum Speichern von exakten +-- Ganzzahlen; Maschinen-Genauigkeit ist kein Problem für Ganzzahlen kleiner als +-- 52 Bit. + +s = 'walternate' -- Zeichenketten sind unveränderlich, wie bei Python. +t = "Doppelte Anführungszeichen sind auch OK" +u = [[ Doppelte eckige Klammern + beginnen und beenden + mehrzeilige Zeichenketten.]] +t = nil -- Undefineren von t; Lua hat einen Garbage Collection. + +-- Blöcke werden durch Schlüsselwörter wie do/end markiert: +while num < 50 do + num = num + 1 -- Es gibt Keine Operatoren wie ++ oder += +end + +-- If Bedingungen: +if num > 40 then + print('over 40') +elseif s ~= 'walternate' then -- ~= bedeutet ungleich + -- Gleichheits-Check == wie bei Python; OK für Zeichenketten. + io.write('not over 40\n') -- Standard ist stdout. +else + -- Variablen sind standardmäßig global. + thisIsGlobal = 5 -- Camel case ist üblich. + + -- So macht man eine Variable lokal: + local line = io.read() -- Lies die nächste Zeile von stdin. + + -- Zeichenketten zusammenführen mit dem .. Operator: + print('Winter is coming, ' .. line) +end + +-- Undefinierte Variablen geben nil zurück. +-- Das ist kein Fehler: +foo = anUnknownVariable -- Nun ist foo = nil. + +aBoolValue = false + +-- Nur nil und false sind unwahr; 0 and '' sind wahr! +if not aBoolValue then print('was false') end + +-- 'or' und 'and' sind "kurz-geschlossen". Das ist so ähnlich wie der a?b:c +-- operator in C/js: +-- in C/js: +ans = aBoolValue and 'yes' or 'no' --> 'no' + +karlSum = 0 +for i = 1, 100 do -- Ein Bereich inkludiert beide Enden. + karlSum = karlSum + i +end + +-- Verwende "100, 1, -1" als Breich für Countdowns: +fredSum = 0 +for j = 100, 1, -1 do fredSum = fredSum + j end + +-- Im Allgemeinen besteht ein Bereich aus: Anfang, Ende, [, Schrittweite]. + +-- Ein anderes Schleifen-Konstrukt: +repeat + print('Der Weg der Zukunft') + num = num - 1 +until num == 0 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- 2. Funktionen. +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +function fib(n) + if n < 2 then return n end + return fib(n - 2) + fib(n - 1) +end + +-- Closures und anonyme Funktionen sind ok: +function adder(x) + -- Die zurückgegebene Funktion wird erzeugt wenn addr aufgerufen wird und merkt + -- sich den Wert von x: + return function (y) return x + y end +end +a1 = adder(9) +a2 = adder(36) +print(a1(16)) --> 25 +print(a2(64)) --> 100 + +-- Rückgabewerte, Funktions-Aufrufe und Zuweisungen funktionieren alle mit +-- Listen die nicht immer gleich lang sein müssen. Überzählige Empfänger +-- bekommen nil; überzählige Sender werden ignoriert. + +x, y, z = 1, 2, 3, 4 +-- Nun ist x = 1, y = 2, z = 3, und 4 wird ignoriert. + +function bar(a, b, c) + print(a, b, c) + return 4, 8, 15, 16, 23, 42 +end + +x, y = bar('zaphod') --> prints "zaphod nil nil" +-- Nun ist x = 4, y = 8, die Werte 15..42 werden ignoriert. + +-- Funktionen sind erste Klasse, und können lokal oder global sein. +-- Das ist alles das Gleiche: +function f(x) return x * x end +f = function (x) return x * x end + +-- Das auch: +local function g(x) return math.sin(x) end +local g = function(x) return math.sin(x) end +-- Äquivalent zu local function g(x)..., außer das Referenzen auf g im +-- Funktions-Körper nicht wie erwartet funktionieren. +local g; g = function (x) return math.sin(x) end +-- Die Deklaration 'local g' macht Selbst-Referenzen auf g OK. + +-- Nebenbei gesagt, Trigonometrie-Funktionen verwenden Radianten. + +-- Funktionsaufrufe mit nur einem Zeichenketten-Parameter brauch keine runden +-- Klammern. +print 'hello' -- Funktioniert wunderbar. + +-- Funktionsaufrufe mit einem Tabellen-Parameter brauchen auch keine runden +-- Klammern. Mehr zu Tabellen kommt später. +print {} -- Funktioniert auch wunderbar. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- 3. Tabellen. +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +-- Tabellen sind die einzige zusammengesetzte Struktur in Lua. Sie sind +-- assoziative Arrays. Sie sind so ähnlich wie PHP arrays oder JavaScript +-- Objekte. Sie sind Hash-Lookup-Dictionaries die auch als Listen verwendet +-- werden können. + +-- Verwenden von Tabellen als Dictionaries oder Maps: + +-- Dict-Literale haben standardmäßig Zeichenketten als Schlüssel: +t = {key1 = 'value1', key2 = false} + +-- Zeichenketten-Schlüssel verwenden eine JavaScript ähnliche Punkt-Notation. +print(t.key1) -- Ausgabe 'value1'. +t.newKey = {} -- Neues Schlüssel/Wert-Paar hinzufügen. +t.key2 = nil -- key2 aus der Tabelle entfernen. + +-- Literale notation für jeden (nicht-nil) Wert als Schlüssel: +u = {['@!#'] = 'qbert', [{}] = 1729, [6.28] = 'tau'} +print(u[6.28]) -- Ausgabe "tau" + +-- Schlüssel-Vergleiche funktionieren per Wert für Nummern und Zeichenketten, +-- aber über die Identität bei Tabellen. +a = u['@!#'] -- Nun ist a = 'qbert'. +b = u[{}] -- Wir würden 1729 erwarten, aber es ist nil: +-- b = nil weil der Lookup fehlschlägt. Er schlägt Fehl, weil der Schlüssel +-- den wir verwendet haben nicht das gleiche Objekt ist das wir verwendet +-- haben um den original Wert zu speichern. Zahlen und Zeichnkette sind daher +-- die praktischeren Schlüssel. + +-- Eine Funktion mit nur einem Tabellen-Parameter benötigt keine Klammern. +function h(x) print(x.key1) end +h{key1 = 'Sonmi~451'} -- Ausgabe 'Sonmi~451'. + +for key, val in pairs(u) do -- Tabellen-Iteration. + print(key, val) +end + +-- _G ist eine spezielle Tabelle die alles Globale enthält. +print(_G['_G'] == _G) -- Ausgabe 'true'. + +-- Verwenden von Tabellen als Listen/Arrays: + +-- Listen-Literale verwenden implizit Ganzzahlen als Schlüssel: +v = {'value1', 'value2', 1.21, 'gigawatts'} +for i = 1, #v do -- #v ist die Größe von v für Listen. + print(v[i]) -- Indices beginnen mit 1 !! SO VERRÜCKT! +end +-- Eine 'Liste' ist kein echter Typ. v ist nur eine Tabelle mit fortlaufenden +-- Ganzzahlen als Schlüssel, die behandelt wird wie eine Liste. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- 3.1 Metatabellen und Metamethoden +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +-- Eine Tabelle kann eine Metatabelle haben. Diese verleiht ihr so etwas wie +-- Tabellen-Operator-Überladungs-Verhalten. Später sehen wir wie +-- Metatabellen js-prototypen artiges Verhalten unterstützen. + +f1 = {a = 1, b = 2} -- Repräsentiert den Bruch a/b. +f2 = {a = 2, b = 3} + +-- Dies würde Fehlschlagen: +-- s = f1 + f2 + +metafraction = {} +function metafraction.__add(f1, f2) + local sum = {} + sum.b = f1.b * f2.b + sum.a = f1.a * f2.b + f2.a * f1.b + return sum +end + +setmetatable(f1, metafraction) +setmetatable(f2, metafraction) + +s = f1 + f2 -- Rufe __add(f1, f2) vom der Metatabelle von f1 auf. + +-- f1 und f2 haben keine Schlüssel für ihre Metatabellen, anders als bei js +-- Prototypen. Daher muss mithilfe von getmetatable(f1) darauf zugegriffen +-- werden. Eine Metatabelle ist wie eine normale Tabelle mit Schlüsseln die +-- Lua bekannt sind, so wie __add. + + +-- Die nächste Zeile schlägt fehl weil s keine Metatabelle hat: +-- t = s + s +-- Mihilfe von Klassen ähnlichen Mustern kann das gelöst werden. +-- Siehe weiter unten. + +-- Ein __index einer Metatabelle überlädt Punkt-Lookups: +defaultFavs = {animal = 'gru', food = 'donuts'} +myFavs = {food = 'pizza'} +setmetatable(myFavs, {__index = defaultFavs}) +eatenBy = myFavs.animal -- Funktioniert dank Metatabelle! + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- Direkte Tabellen-Lookups die fehlschlagen werden mithilfe von __index der +-- Metatabelle wiederholt. Das geschieht rekursiv. + +-- __index kann auch eine Funktion mit der Form function(tbl, key) sein. +-- Damit kann man Lookups weiter anpassen. + +-- Werte wie __index,add, .. werden Metamethoden genannt. +-- HIer eine vollständige Liste aller Metamethoden. + +-- __add(a, b) für a + b +-- __sub(a, b) für a - b +-- __mul(a, b) für a * b +-- __div(a, b) für a / b +-- __mod(a, b) für a % b +-- __pow(a, b) für a ^ b +-- __unm(a) für -a +-- __concat(a, b) für a .. b +-- __len(a) für #a +-- __eq(a, b) für a == b +-- __lt(a, b) für a < b +-- __le(a, b) für a <= b +-- __index(a, b) <fn or a table> für a.b +-- __newindex(a, b, c) für a.b = c +-- __call(a, ...) für a(...) + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- 3.2 Klassen-Artige Tabellen und Vererbung. +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +-- Klassen sind in Lua nicht eingebaut. Es gibt verschieden Wege sie mithilfe +-- von Tabellen und Metatabellen zu erzeugen. + +-- Die Erklärund des Beispiels erfolgt unterhalb. + +Dog = {} -- 1. + +function Dog:new() -- 2. + local newObj = {sound = 'woof'} -- 3. + self.__index = self -- 4. + return setmetatable(newObj, self) -- 5. +end + +function Dog:makeSound() -- 6. + print('I say ' .. self.sound) +end + +mrDog = Dog:new() -- 7. +mrDog:makeSound() -- 'I say woof' -- 8. + +-- 1. Dog verhält sich wie eine Klasse; Ist aber eine Tabelle. +-- 2. "function tablename:fn(...)" ist das gleiche wie +-- "function tablename.fn(self, ...)", Der : fügt nur ein Argument namens +-- self hinzu. Siehe 7 & 8 um zu sehen wie self seinen Wert bekommt. +-- 3. newObj wird eine Instanz von Dog. +-- 4. "self" ist die zu Instanzierende Klasse. Meistern ist self = Dog, aber +-- dies kann durch Vererbung geändert werden. newObj bekommt die Funktionen +-- von self wenn wir die Metatabelle von newObj und __index von self auf +-- self setzen. +-- 5. Zur Erinnerung: setmetatable gibt sein erstes Argument zurück. +-- 6. Der Doppelpunkt funktioniert wie bei 2, aber dieses Mal erwarten wir das +-- self eine Instanz ist und keine Klasse. +-- 7. Das Selbe wie Dog.new(Dog), also self = Dog in new(). +-- 8. Das Selbe wie mrDog.makeSound(mrDog); self = mrDog. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +-- Vererbungs-Beispiel: + +LoudDog = Dog:new() -- 1. + +function LoudDog:makeSound() + local s = self.sound .. ' ' -- 2. + print(s .. s .. s) +end + +seymour = LoudDog:new() -- 3. +seymour:makeSound() -- 'woof woof woof' -- 4. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- 1. LoudDog bekommt die Methoden und Variablen von Dog. +-- 2. self hat einen 'sound' Schlüssel von new(), siehe 3. +-- 3. Das Gleiche wie "LoudDog.new(LoudDog)", und umgewandelt zu "Dog.new(LoudDog)" +-- denn LoudDog hat keinen 'new' Schlüssel, aber "__index = Dog" steht in der +-- Metatabelle. +-- Ergebnis: Die Metatabelle von seymour ist LoudDog und "LoudDog.__index = Dog". +-- Daher ist seymour.key gleich seymour.key, LoudDog.key, Dog.key, je nachdem +-- welche Tabelle als erstes einen passenden Schlüssel hat. +-- 4. Der 'makeSound' Schlüssel wird in LoudDog gefunden: Das ist das Gleiche +-- wie "LoudDog.makeSound(seymour)". + +-- Wenn nötig, sieht new() einer Sub-Klasse genau so aus wie new() der +-- Basis-Klasse: +function LoudDog:new() + local newObj = {} + -- set up newObj + self.__index = self + return setmetatable(newObj, self) +end + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- 4. Module. +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + +--[[ Dieser Abschnitt ist auskommentiert damit der Rest des Skripts lauffähig +-- bleibt. +``` + +```lua +-- Angenommen mod.lua sieht so aus: +local M = {} + +local function sayMyName() + print('Hrunkner') +end + +function M.sayHello() + print('Why hello there') + sayMyName() +end + +return M + +-- Eine andere Datei könnte die Funktionen in mod.lua so verwenden: +local mod = require('mod') -- Führe mod.lua aus. + +-- require ist der Standard-Weg um Module zu inkludieren. +-- require verhält sich wie: (Wenn nicht gecached wird; siehe später) +local mod = (function () + <Inhalt von mod.lua> +end)() +-- Es ist als ob mod.lua eine Funktion wäre, sodass lokale Variablen in +-- mod.lua ausserhalb unsichtbar sind. + +-- Das funktioniert weil mod hier das Gleiche wie M in mod.lua ist: +mod.sayHello() -- Says hello to Hrunkner. + +-- Das ist Falsch: sayMyName existiert nur in mod.lua: +mod.sayMyName() -- Fehler + +-- Der Rückgabe-Wert von require wird zwischengespeichert. Sodass Module nur +-- einmal abgearbeitet werden, auch wenn sie mit require öfters eingebunden +-- werden. + +-- Nehmen wir an mod2.lua enthält "print('Hi!')". +local a = require('mod2') -- Ausgabe Hi! +local b = require('mod2') -- Keine Ausgabe; a=b. + +-- dofile ist wie require aber ohne Zwischenspeichern. +dofile('mod2') --> Hi! +dofile('mod2') --> Hi! (läuft nochmal, nicht wie require) + +-- loadfile ladet eine lua Datei aber die Datei wird noch nicht abgearbeitet. +f = loadfile('mod2') -- Sobald f() aufgerufen wird läuft mod2.lua. + +-- loadstring ist loadfile für Zeichenketten +g = loadstring('print(343)') -- Gibt eine Funktion zurück.. +g() -- Ausgabe 343; Vorher kam keine Ausgabe. + +--]] + +``` +## Referenzen + +Ich war so begeistert Lua zu lernen, damit ich Spiele mit <a href="http://love2d.org/">Love 2D game engine</a> programmieren konnte. + +Ich habe angefangen mit <a href="http://nova-fusion.com/2012/08/27/lua-for-programmers-part-1/">BlackBulletIV's Lua for programmers</a>. +Danach habe ich das offizielle Lua Buch gelesen: <a href="http://www.lua.org/pil/contents.html">Programming in Lua</a> + +Es kann auch hilfreich sein hier vorbeizuschauen: <a href="http://lua-users.org/files/wiki_insecure/users/thomasl/luarefv51.pdf">Lua short +reference</a> + +Wichtige Themen die hier nicht angesprochen wurden; die Standard-Bibliotheken: + +* <a href="http://lua-users.org/wiki/StringLibraryTutorial">string library</a> +* <a href="http://lua-users.org/wiki/TableLibraryTutorial">table library</a> +* <a href="http://lua-users.org/wiki/MathLibraryTutorial">math library</a> +* <a href="http://lua-users.org/wiki/IoLibraryTutorial">io library</a> +* <a href="http://lua-users.org/wiki/OsLibraryTutorial">os library</a> + +Übrigends, die gesamte Datei ist gültiges Lua. Speichere sie als learn.lua und +starte sie als "lua learn.lua" ! + +Die Erstfassung ist von tylerneylon.com, und ist auch hier verfügbar: <a href="https://gist.github.com/tylerneylon/5853042">github gist</a>. Viel Spaß mit Lua! diff --git a/de-de/make-de.html.markdown b/de-de/make-de.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..22c14a69 --- /dev/null +++ b/de-de/make-de.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,260 @@ +---
+language: make
+contributors:
+ - ["Robert Steed", "https://github.com/robochat"]
+translators:
+ - ["Martin Schimandl", "https://github.com/Git-Jiro"]
+filename: Makefile-de
+lang: de-de
+---
+
+Eine Makefile definiert einen Graphen von Regeln um ein Ziel (oder Ziele)
+zu erzeugen. Es dient dazu die geringste Menge an Arbeit zu verrichten um
+ein Ziel in einklang mit dem Quellcode zu bringen. Make wurde berühmterweise
+von Stuart Feldman 1976 übers Wochenende geschrieben. Make ist noch immer
+sehr verbreitet (vorallem im Unix umfeld) obwohl es bereits sehr viel
+Konkurrenz und Kritik zu Make gibt.
+
+Es gibt eine vielzahl an Varianten von Make, dieser Artikel beschäftig sich
+mit der Version GNU Make. Diese Version ist standard auf Linux.
+
+```make
+
+# Kommentare können so geschrieben werden.
+
+# Dateien sollten Makefile heißen, denn dann können sie als `make <ziel>`
+# aufgerufen werden. Ansonsten muss `make -f "dateiname" <ziel>` verwendet
+# werden.
+
+# Warnung - Es sollten nur TABULATOREN zur Einrückung im Makefile verwendet
+# werden. Niemals Leerzeichen!
+
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Grundlagen
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+# Eine Regel - Diese Regel wird nur abgearbeitet wenn die Datei file0.txt
+# nicht existiert.
+file0.txt:
+ echo "foo" > file0.txt
+ # Selbst Kommentare in der 'Rezept' Sektion werden an die Shell
+ # weitergegeben. Versuche `make file0.txt` oder einfach `make`
+ # die erste Regel ist die Standard-Regel.
+
+
+# Diese Regel wird nur abgearbeitet wenn file0.txt aktueller als file1.txt ist.
+file1.txt: file0.txt
+ cat file0.txt > file1.txt
+ # Verwende die selben Quoting-Regeln wie die Shell
+ @cat file0.txt >> file1.txt
+ # @ unterdrückt die Ausgabe des Befehls an stdout.
+ -@echo 'hello'
+ # - bedeutet das Make die Abarbeitung fortsetzt auch wenn Fehler passieren.
+ # Versuche `make file1.txt` auf der Kommandozeile.
+
+# Eine Regel kann mehrere Ziele und mehrere Voraussetzungen haben.
+file2.txt file3.txt: file0.txt file1.txt
+ touch file2.txt
+ touch file3.txt
+
+# Make wird sich beschweren wenn es mehrere Rezepte für die gleiche Regel gibt.
+# Leere Rezepte zählen nicht und können dazu verwendet werden weitere
+# Voraussetzungen hinzuzufügen.
+
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Phony-Ziele
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+# Ein Phony-Ziel ist ein Ziel das keine Datei ist.
+# Es wird nie aktuell sein, daher wird Make immer versuchen es abzuarbeiten
+all: maker process
+
+# Es ist erlaubt Dinge ausserhalb der Reihenfolge zu deklarieren.
+maker:
+ touch ex0.txt ex1.txt
+
+# Um das Fehlschlagen von Phony-Regeln zu vermeiden wenn eine echte Datei den
+# selben namen wie ein Phony-Ziel hat:
+.PHONY: all maker process
+# Das ist ein spezielles Ziel. Es gibt noch ein paar mehr davon.
+
+# Eine Regel mit einem Phony-Ziel als Voraussetzung wird immer abgearbeitet
+ex0.txt ex1.txt: maker
+
+# Häufige Phony-Ziele sind: all make clean install ...
+
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Automatische Variablen & Wildcards
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+process: file*.txt # Eine Wildcard um Dateinamen zu Vergleichen
+ @echo $^ # $^ ist eine Variable die eine Liste aller
+ # Voraussetzungen enthält.
+ @echo $@ # Namen des Ziels ausgeben.
+ #(Bei mehreren Ziel-Regeln enthält $@ den Verursacher der Abarbeitung
+ #der Regel.)
+ @echo $< # Die erste Voraussetzung aus der Liste
+ @echo $? # Nur die Voraussetzungen die nicht aktuell sind.
+ @echo $+ # Alle Voraussetzungen inklusive Duplikate (nicht wie Üblich)
+ #@echo $| # Alle 'order only' Voraussetzungen
+
+# Selbst wenn wir die Voraussetzungen der Regel aufteilen, $^ wird sie finden.
+process: ex1.txt file0.txt
+# ex1.txt wird gefunden werden, aber file0.txt wird dedupliziert.
+
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Muster
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+# Mit Mustern kann man make beibringen wie Dateien in andere Dateien
+# umgewandelt werden.
+
+%.png: %.svg
+ inkscape --export-png $^
+
+# Muster-Vergleichs-Regeln werden nur abgearbeitet wenn make entscheidet das Ziel zu
+# erzeugen
+
+# Verzeichnis-Pfade werden normalerweise bei Muster-Vergleichs-Regeln ignoriert.
+# Aber make wird versuchen die am besten passende Regel zu verwenden.
+small/%.png: %.svg
+ inkscape --export-png --export-dpi 30 $^
+
+# Make wird die letzte Version einer Muster-Vergleichs-Regel verwenden die es
+# findet.
+%.png: %.svg
+ @echo this rule is chosen
+
+# Allerdings wird make die erste Muster-Vergleicher-Regel verwenden die das
+# Ziel erzeugen kann.
+%.png: %.ps
+ @echo this rule is not chosen if *.svg and *.ps are both present
+
+# Make hat bereits ein paar eingebaute Muster-Vergleichs-Regelen. Zum Beispiel
+# weiß Make wie man aus *.c Dateien *.o Dateien erzeugt.
+
+# Ältere Versionen von Make verwenden möglicherweise Suffix-Regeln anstatt
+# Muster-Vergleichs-Regeln.
+.png.ps:
+ @echo this rule is similar to a pattern rule.
+
+# Aktivieren der Suffix-Regel
+.SUFFIXES: .png
+
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Variablen
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+# auch Makros genannt.
+
+# Variablen sind im Grunde genommen Zeichenketten-Typen.
+
+name = Ted
+name2="Sarah"
+
+echo:
+ @echo $(name)
+ @echo ${name2}
+ @echo $name # Das funktioniert nicht, wird als $(n)ame behandelt.
+ @echo $(name3) # Unbekannte Variablen werden als leere Zeichenketten behandelt.
+
+# Es git 4 Stellen um Variablen zu setzen.
+# In Reihenfolge der Priorität von höchster zu niedrigster:
+# 1: Befehls-Zeilen Argumente
+# 2: Makefile
+# 3: Shell Umbebungs-Variablen - Make importiert diese automatisch.
+# 3: MAke hat einige vordefinierte Variablen.
+
+name4 ?= Jean
+# Setze die Variable nur wenn es eine gleichnamige Umgebungs-Variable noch
+# nicht gibt.
+
+override name5 = David
+# Verhindert das Kommando-Zeilen Argumente diese Variable ändern können.
+
+name4 +=grey
+# Werte an eine Variable anhängen (inkludiert Leerzeichen).
+
+# Muster-Spezifische Variablen Werte (GNU Erweiterung).
+echo: name2 = Sara # Wahr innerhalb der passenden Regel und auch innerhalb
+ # rekursiver Voraussetzungen (ausser wenn es den Graphen zerstören
+ # kann wenn es zu kompilizert wird!)
+
+# Ein paar Variablen die von Make automatisch definiert werden.
+echo_inbuilt:
+ echo $(CC)
+ echo ${CXX)}
+ echo $(FC)
+ echo ${CFLAGS)}
+ echo $(CPPFLAGS)
+ echo ${CXXFLAGS}
+ echo $(LDFLAGS)
+ echo ${LDLIBS}
+
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Variablen 2
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+# Der erste Typ von Variablen wird bei jeder verwendung ausgewertet.
+# Das kann aufwendig sein, daher exisitert ein zweiter Typ von Variablen.
+# Diese werden nur einmal ausgewertet. (Das ist eine GNU make Erweiterung)
+
+var := hello
+var2 ::= $(var) hello
+#:= und ::= sind äquivalent.
+
+# Diese Variablen werden prozedural ausgwertet (in der Reihenfolge in der sie
+# auftauchen), die stehen daher im wiederspruch zum Rest der Sprache!
+
+# Das funktioniert nicht
+var3 ::= $(var4) and good luck
+var4 ::= good night
+
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Funktionen
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+# Make verfügt über eine vielzahl von Funktionen.
+
+sourcefiles = $(wildcard *.c */*.c)
+objectfiles = $(patsubst %.c,%.o,$(sourcefiles))
+
+# Das Format ist $(func arg0,arg1,arg2...)
+
+# Ein paar Beispiele
+ls: * src/*
+ @echo $(filter %.txt, $^)
+ @echo $(notdir $^)
+ @echo $(join $(dir $^),$(notdir $^))
+
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Direktiven
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+# Inkludiere andere Makefile, sehr praktisch für platformspezifischen Code
+include foo.mk
+
+sport = tennis
+# Konditionale kompiliereung
+report:
+ifeq ($(sport),tennis)
+ @echo 'game, set, match'
+else
+ @echo "They think it's all over; it is now"
+endif
+
+# Es gibt auch ifneq, ifdef, ifndef
+
+foo = true
+
+ifdef $(foo)
+bar = 'hello'
+endif
+```
+
+
+### Mehr Resourcen
+
++ [gnu make documentation](https://www.gnu.org/software/make/manual/)
++ [software carpentry tutorial](http://swcarpentry.github.io/make-novice/)
++ learn C the hard way [ex2](http://c.learncodethehardway.org/book/ex2.html) [ex28](http://c.learncodethehardway.org/book/ex28.html)
+
diff --git a/de-de/tcl-de.html.markdown b/de-de/tcl-de.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4f3b8820 --- /dev/null +++ b/de-de/tcl-de.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,475 @@ +--- +language: Tcl +contributors: + - ["Poor Yorick", "http://pooryorick.com/"] +translators: + - ["Martin Schimandl", "https://github.com/Git-Jiro"] +filename: learntcl-de.tcl +lang: de-de +--- + +Tcl wurde kreiert von [John Ousterhout](http://wiki.tcl.tk/John Ousterout) als +eine wiederverwendbare Script-Sprache für Chip-Design Werkzeuge die er kreiert +hat. Im Jahre 1997 wurde er mit dem [ACM Software System +Award](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACM_Software_System_Award) für Tcl +ausgezeichnet. Tcl kann sowohl als eingebettete Scipt-Sprache als auch als +allgemeine Programmier-Sprache verwendet werden. Tcl kann auch als portable +C-Bibliothek verwendet werden. Sogar in Fällen in denen die Script-Fähigkeiten +nicht nötig sind. Denn Tcl stellt Daten-Strukturen wie dynamische Zeichenketten, +Listen und Hash-Tabellen bereit. Die C-Bilbiothek stellt auch portable +Funktionen zur Verfügung: Laden von dynamischen Bibliotheken, Zeichenketten +formatierung und Code Konversion, Dateisystem Operationen, Netzwerk Operationen +und mehr. + + +Verschiedenste herausragende Fähigkeiten von Tcl: + +* Praktische Cross-Platform Netzwerk-API + +* Vollständig virtualisiertes Dateisystem + +* Stapelbare I/O Kanäle + +* Asynchron bis zum Kern + +* Vollständige Ko-Routinen + +* Robustes und einfach zu verwendendes Thread-Modell + + +Wenn Lisp ein Listen-Prozessor ist, dann ist TCl ein Zeichenketten-Prozessor. +Alle Werte sind Zeichenketten. Eine Liste ist ein Zeichenketten-Format. Eine +Prozedur-Definition ist ein Zeichenketten-Format. Um leistungsfähig zu sein, +werden Tcl-intern diese Zeichenketten in Strukutierter-Form gepuffert. Ein +Beispiel: Der "list" Befehl arbeitet mit diesen internen gepufferten +Repräsentationen. Tcl kümmert sich selbständig darum die String-Repräsentationen +zu aktualisieren, falls dies im Skript benötigt werden sollten. Das Kopieren- +beim-Schreiben-Design von Tcl erlaubt es Skript-Authoren mit großen Daten- +Strukturen zu arbeiten ohne zuätzlichen Speicher-Overhead. Prozeduren werden +automatisch byte-kompiliert außer sie verwenden dynamsiche Befehle wie zum +Beispiel "uplevel", "upvar und "trace". + +Es ist eine freude in Tcl zu programmieren. Hacker-Typen werden gefallen daran +finden, wenn sie Lisp, Forth oder Smalltalk interessant finden. Tcl wird auch +Ingenieuren und Wissenshaftlern gefallen die nur den Job erledigen wollen, +und zwar mit Werkzeugen die sich ihrem Willen anpassen. Bei Tcl ist jegliche +funktionalität in Befehlen ausgeführt, selbst Dinge wie Schleifen und +Mathematische-Funktionen die bei anderen Sprachen normalerweise Teil der Syntax +sind. Das erlaubt Tcl in den Hintergrund von Domänen spezischen Sprachen zu +treten die das jeweilige Projekt gerade benötigt. Die Tcl-Syntax ist sehr +leichtgewichtig. Sie ist selbst leichtgewichtiger als die Syntax von Lisp. +Tcl steht dir einfach nicht im Weg. + + +```tcl +#! /bin/env tclsh + +################################################################################ +## 1. Richtlinien +################################################################################ + +# Tcl ist nicht Bash oder C! Das muss gesagt werden, denn standard Shell-Quoting +# funktioniert fast mit Tcl. Daher glauben viele sie können diese Syntax für +# Tcl übernehmen. Am Beginn funktioniert das meist, führt aber schnell zu +# Frustrationen wenn die Skripte komplexer werden. + +# Eckige-Klammern sind nur Quoting-Mechanismen, keine Code-Block-Konstruktoren +# und auch keine Listen-Konstruktoren. In Tcl gibt es diese beiden Dinge nicht. +# Eckige-Klammern werden verwendet um Spezial-Zeichen in Prozeduren zu escapen +# und in Zeichenketten die als Listen formattiert sind. + +################################################################################ +## 2. Syntax +################################################################################ + +# Jede Zeile ist ein Befehl. Das erste Wort ist der Name des Befehls, jedes +# weitere Wort ist ein Argument des Befehls. Wörter sind begrenzt durch +# Leerzeichen. Da jedes Wort auch ein String ist, sind keine speziellen +# auszeichnungen wie Anführungs-Zeichen, Klammern oder Backslashes nötig. +# Selbst wenn Anführungs-Zeichen verwendet werden, denn sie sind ja keine +# String-Konstruktoren, sondern nur Escape-Zeichen. + +set greeting1 Sal +set greeting2 ut +set greeting3 ations + + +# Strichpunkte begrenzen auch Befehle +set greeting1 Sal; set greeting2 ut; set greeting3 ations + + +# Das Dollar-Zeichen zeigt eine Variablen-Substitution an. +set greeting $greeting1$greeting2$greeting3 + + +# Eckige-Klammern zeigen Befehls-Substitionen an. Das Ergebnis des Befehls wird an +# Stelle des Klammern-Ausdrucks eingefügt. Wenn man dem "set" Befehl nur den +# Namen einer Variablen übergibt, gibt er den Wert der Variablen zurück. +set greeting $greeting1$greeting2[set greeting3] + + +# Befehls-Substitution sollte eigentlich Script-Substitution heißen, denn ein +# komplettes Script, und nicht nur ein Befehl, kann zwischen die Eckigen-Klammern +# geschrieben werden. Der "incr" Befehl erhöht den Wert einer Variable um 1 +# und gibt den neuen Wert der Variable zurück. +set greeting $greeting[ + incr i + incr i + incr i +] + + +# Der Backslash unterdrück die Bedeutung von Sonderzeichen +set amount \$16.42 + + +# Der Backslash macht bestimmte Zeichen zu Sonderzeichen +puts lots\nof\n\n\n\n\n\nnewlines + +# Ein Wort das in geschweiften Klammern eingeschlossen wurde ist von jeglichen +# speziellen Interpretationen ausgeschlossen. Eine Ausnahme bilden Backslashes +# vor geschweiften Klammern, hiermit wird die geschweifte Klammer von der Suche +# nach der schließenden geschweiften Klammer ausgeschlossen. +set somevar { + Das ist ein literales $ Zeichen, diese geschweifte Klammer \} wird nicht + als Ende interpretiert. +} + + +# Bei einem Wort das in doppelten Anführungszeichen steht verlieren Leerzeichen +# ihre spezielle Bedeutung. +set name Neo +set greeting "Hallo, $name" + + +#Variablen-Namen können irgend eine Zeichenkette sein. +set {first name} New + + +# Die Geschweifte-Klammern-Form der Variablen-Substitution kann sehr komplexe +# Variblen-Namen handhaben. +set greeting "Hello, ${first name}" + + +# Der "set" Befehl kann immer anstatt einer Variablen-Substition verwendet +# werden. +set greeting "Hello, [set {first name}]" + + +# Mit dem Expansions-Operator "{*}" werden Wörter innerhalb eines Wortes wieder +# individuell als Teile des aktuellen Befehls behandelt. +set {*}{name Neo} + +# Ist Äquivalent zu +set name Neo + + +# Ein Array ist eine spezielle Varible die also Kontainer für andere Variablen +# dient. +set person(name) Neo +set person(gender) male +set greeting "Hello, $person(name)" + + +# Ein Namensraum enthält Befehle und Variablen +namespace eval people { + namespace eval person1 { + variable name Neo + } +} + + +#Der volle Name einer Variablen beihaltet den/die umschließenden +# Namensraum/Namensräume begrenzt durch zwei Doppelpunkte. +set greeting "Hello $people::person1::name" +``` + +```tcl +################################################################################ +## 3. Einige Notizen +################################################################################ + +# Jede weitere Funktion ist über Befehle implementiert. Von nun an kommt keine +# neue Syntax hinzu. Alles weitere das es über Tcl zu lernen gibt ist das +# Verhalten individueller Befehle und die bedeutung ihrer Argumente. + + +# Um einen Interpreter zu bekommen mit dem man nichts mehr machen kann, lösche +# einfach den globalen Namensraum. Das ist nicht sehr sinnvoll, zeigt aber die +# Natur von Tcl. +namespace delete :: + + +# Wegen des Verhaltens der Namens-Auflösung ist es sicherer den "variable" +# Befehl zu verwenden um in einem Namensraum einen Wert zu deklarieren oder +# zuzuweisen. Wenn eine Variable mit dem namen "name" bereits im globalen +# Namensraum existiert, bewirkt der "set" Befehl das der globalen Variable ein +# Wert zugewiesen wird, anstatt eine Variable im lokalen Namensraum zu erzeugen +namespace eval people { + namespace eval person1 { + variable name Neo + } +} + + +# Es kann immer der vollständige Name einer Variable verwendet werden, falls +# gewünscht. +set people::person1::name Neo + + + +################################################################################ +## 4. Befehle +################################################################################ + +# Berechnungen werde mit dem "expr" Befehl durchgeführt. +set a 3 +set b 4 +set c [expr {$a + $b}] + +# Since "expr" performs variable substitution on its own, brace the expression +# to prevent Tcl from performing variable substitution first. See + +# Da der "expr" Befehl eigene Variablen-Substitutionen durchführt, setze den +# zu berechnenden Ausdruck in Eckige-Klammern. Das hindert Tcl daran Variablen- +# Substitutionen durchzuführen. Für Details siehe: +# "http://wiki.tcl.tk/Brace%20your%20#%20expr-essions" + + +# Der "expr" Befehl versteht Variablen- und Befehls-Substitutionen +set c [expr {$a + [set b]}] + + +# Der "expr" Befehl stellt Mathematische-Funktionen zur Verfügung. +set c [expr {pow($a,$b)}] + + +# Mathematische Operatoren sind als Befehle auch im Namensraum +# ::tcl::mathop verfügbar. +::tcl::mathop::+ 5 3 + +# Befehle können aus anderen Namensräumen importiert werden. +namespace import ::tcl::mathop::+ +set result [+ 5 3] + + +# Neu Befehle werden mit dem "proc" Befehl gebildet. +proc greet name { + return "Hello, $name!" +} + +#Es können mehrere Parameter spezifiziert werden. +proc greet {greeting name} { + return "$greeting, $name!" +} + + +# Wie bereits erwähnt, geschwungene Klammern erzeugen keinen Code-Block. +# Jeder Wert, sogar das dritte Argument für den "proc" Befehl ist eine +# Zeichenkette. Der vorherige Befehl kann daher auch ohne +# geschwungene Klammern geschrieben werden: +proc greet greeting\ name return\ \"Hello,\ \$name! + + + +# Wenn der letzte Parameter der literale Wert "args" ist, sammelt dieser Wert +# alle übrigen Argumente des Befehls ein wenn dieser aufgerufen wird. +proc fold {cmd args} { + set res 0 + foreach arg $args { + set res [$cmd $res $arg] + } +} +fold ::tcl::mathop::* 5 3 3 ;# -> 45 + + +# Bedingte Ausführung ist auch als Befehl implementiert +if {3 > 4} { + puts {This will never happen} +} elseif {4 > 4} { + puts {This will also never happen} +} else { + puts {This will always happen} +} + + +# Auch Schleifen sind Befehle. Das erste, zweite und dritte Argument des "for" +# Befehls wird als mathematischer Ausdruck behandelt. +for {set i 0} {$i < 10} {incr i} { + set res [expr {$res + $i}] +} + + +# Das erste Argument des "while" Befehls wird auch als mathematischer Ausdruck +# behandelt. +set i 0 +while {$i < 10} { + incr i 2 +} + + +# Eine Liste ist eine speziell formatierte Zeichenkette. Im einfachsten Fall +# genügen Leerzeichen als Trennzeichen zwischen den einzelnen Werten. +set amounts 10\ 33\ 18 +set amount [lindex $amounts 1] + + +# Geschwungene Klammern und Backslashes können verwendet werden um komplexe +# Werte in einer Liste zu formatieren. Eine Liste sieht aus wie ein Skript, +# allerdings verlieren verlieren Zeilenumbrüche und Doppelüunkte ihre +# besondere Bedeutung. Diese Funktionalität macht Tcl homoikonisch. Die +# folgende Liste enhtält drei Elemente. +set values { + + one\ two + + {three four} + + five\{six + +} + + +# Da Listen auch Zeichenketten sind, kann man Zeichenketten-Operationen auf +# ihnen anwenden. Allerdings mit dem Risiko die Formatierung der Liste zu +# beschädigen. +set values {one two three four} +set values [string map {two \{} $values] ;# $values is no-longer a \ + properly-formatted listwell-formed list + + +# Der sicherste Weg korrekt formatierte Liste zu erzeugen, ist den "list" +# Befehl zu verwenden. +set values [list one \{ three four] +lappend values { } ;# Ein Leerzeichen als Element der Liste hinzufügen + + +# Mit "eval" können Werte als Skripts evaluiert weden. +eval { + set name Neo + set greeting "Hello, $name" +} + + +# Eine Liste kann immer an "eval" übergeben werden, solange die Liste einen +# einzigen Befehl entält. +eval {set name Neo} +eval [list set greeting "Hello, $name"] + + +# Daher: Wenn "eval" verwendet wird, verwende [list] um den gewünschten Befehl +# aufzubauen. +set command {set name} +lappend command {Archibald Sorbisol} +eval $command + + +# Es ist ein häufiger Fehler die Listen funktionen beim Aufbauen von Listen +# nicht zu verwenden. +set command {set name} +append command { Archibald Sorbisol} +eval $command ;# Hier passiert eine Fehler, denn der "set" Befehl hat nun zu \ + viele Argumente {set name Archibald Sorbisol} + + +# Dieser Fehler kann auch leicht beim "subst" Befehl passieren. +set replacement {Archibald Sorbisol} +set command {set name $replacement} +set command [subst $command] +eval $command ;# The same error as before: too many arguments to "set" in \ + {set name Archibald Sorbisol} + + +# Die korrekte Vorgangsweise ist es den substituierten Wert mit dem "list" +# Befehl zu formatieren. +set replacement [list {Archibald Sorbisol}] +set command {set name $replacement} +set command [subst $command] +eval $command + + +# Der "list" Befehl wird sehr häufig verwendet um Werte zu formatieren die +# in Tcl Skript Vorlagen substituiert werden. Es gibt dazu viele Beispiele, +# siehe unterhalb. + + +# Der "apply" Befehl evaluiert eine Zeichenkette als Befehl. +set cmd {{greeting name} { + return "$greeting, $name!" +}} +apply $cmd Whaddup Neo + + +# Der "uplevel" Befehl evaluiert ein Skript in einem höher liegenden +Gültigkeitsbereich. +proc greet {} { + uplevel {puts "$greeting, $name"} +} + +proc set_double {varname value} { + if {[string is double $value]} { + uplevel [list variable $varname $value] + } else { + error [list {not a double} $value] + } +} + + +# Der "upvar" Befehl verknüpft eine Variable im aktuellen Gültigkeitsbereich +# mit einer Variable in einem höher liegenden Gültigkeitsbereich. +proc set_double {varname value} { + if {[string is double $value]} { + upvar 1 $varname var + set var $value + } else { + error [list {not a double} $value] + } +} + + +# Werde den eingebauten "while" Befehl los. +rename ::while {} + + +# Definieren einen neuen "while" Befehl mit hilfe des "proc" Befehls. +# Ausführlichere Fehler-Behandlung wird dem Leser als Übung überlassen. +proc while {condition script} { + if {[uplevel 1 [list expr $condition]]} { + uplevel 1 $script + tailcall [namespace which while] $condition $script + } +} + + +# Der "coroutine" Befehl erzeugt einen separaten Call-Stack, zusammen mit einem +# Befehl um diesem Call-Stack zu verwenden. Der "yield" Befehl unterbricht +# die Ausführung des aktuellen Call-Stacks. +proc countdown {} { + #send something back to the initial "coroutine" command + yield + + set count 3 + while {$count > 1} { + yield [incr count -1] + } + return 0 +} +coroutine countdown1 countdown +coroutine countdown2 countdown +puts [countdown 1] ;# -> 2 +puts [countdown 2] ;# -> 2 +puts [countdown 1] ;# -> 1 +puts [countdown 1] ;# -> 0 +puts [coundown 1] ;# -> invalid command name "countdown1" +puts [countdown 2] ;# -> 1 + + +``` + +## Referenzen + +[Official Tcl Documentation](http://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl/) + +[Tcl Wiki](http://wiki.tcl.tk) + +[Tcl Subreddit](http://www.reddit.com/r/Tcl) diff --git a/es-es/c++-es.html.markdown b/es-es/c++-es.html.markdown index bcc775e5..07c8bc03 100644 --- a/es-es/c++-es.html.markdown +++ b/es-es/c++-es.html.markdown @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ --- language: c++ -filename: learncpp.cpp +filename: learncpp-es.cpp contributors: - ["Steven Basart", "http://github.com/xksteven"] - ["Matt Kline", "https://github.com/mrkline"] diff --git a/es-es/forth-es.html.markdown b/es-es/forth-es.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..edc5d38c --- /dev/null +++ b/es-es/forth-es.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,226 @@ +--- +language: forth +contributors: + - ["Horse M.D.", "http://github.com/HorseMD/"] +translators: + - ["Zach Larsen", "http://zachariahlarsen.com/"] +lang: es-es +filename: learnforth-es.fs +--- + +Forth fue criado por Charles H. Moore en los 70s. Forth es un lenguaje imperativo, basado en pila y entorno de programación, siendo usado en proyectos como Open Firmware. También esta usado por NASA. + +Nota: Este articulo enfoca predominantemente en la Gforth implementación de Forth, pero casi todo +de lo que esta escrito aquí debe funcionar en otro sitio. + +``` +\ Este es un comentario +( Este es un comentario también pero solo esta usado cuando definiendo palabras. ) + +\ --------------------------------- Precursor ---------------------------------- + +\ Todo programación en Forth se hace manipulando el parámetro pila (mas +\ común se refiere como "el pila"). +5 2 3 56 76 23 65 \ ok + +\ estos números se añadieron al pila desde izquierda a derecho. +.s \ <7> 5 2 3 56 76 23 65 ok + +\ En Forth, todo es o una palabra o un numero. + +\ ------------------------------ Básico Aritmética ------------------------------ + +\ Aritmética (de hecho casi todas palabras que requieren datos) funciona manipulando datos +\ en el pila. +5 4 + \ ok + +\ `.` saca lo alto resulto desde el pila: +. \ 9 ok + +\ Mas ejemplos de aritmética: +6 7 * . \ 42 ok +1360 23 - . \ 1337 ok +12 12 / . \ 1 ok +13 2 mod . \ 1 ok + +99 negate . \ -99 ok +-99 abs . \ 99 ok +52 23 max . \ 52 ok +52 23 min . \ 23 ok + +\ ----------------------------- Pila Manipulación ----------------------------- + +\ Naturalmente, cuando trabajaremos con el pila, querremos algunos metidos útiles: + +3 dup - \ duplicar el primero articulo (1ra ahora igual a 2da): 3 - 3 +2 5 swap / \ intercambiar la primera con la segunda elemento: 5 / 2 +6 4 5 rot .s \ rotar los tres primero elementos: 4 5 6 +4 0 drop 2 / \ sacar el primero articulo (no imprima a la pantalla): 4 / 2 +1 2 3 nip .s \ sacar el segundo articulo (similar a drop): 1 3 + +\ ---------------------- Mas Avanzado Pila Manipulación ---------------------- + +1 2 3 4 tuck \ duplicar el primero articulo en el segundo hueco: 1 2 4 3 4 ok +1 2 3 4 over \ duplicar el segundo articulo a la primera del pila: 1 2 3 4 3 ok +1 2 3 4 2 roll \ *mover* el articulo en este posición a la primera del pila: 1 3 4 2 ok +1 2 3 4 2 pick \ *duplicar* el articulo en este posición a la primera del pila: 1 2 3 4 2 ok + +\ Cuando refiere a pila indices, ellos son basado en cero. + +\ ------------------------------ Creando Palabras -------------------------------- + +\ La `:` palabra hace que Forth entra modo de compilar hasta que se ve la `;` palabra. +: cuadrado ( n -- n ) dup * ; \ ok +5 cuadrado . \ 25 ok + +\ Podemos ver lo que hace una palabra también.: +see cuadrado \ : cuadrado dup * ; ok + +\ -------------------------------- Condicionales -------------------------------- + +\ -1 == cierto, 0 == falso. No obstante, valores que no son cero es usualmente tratado como +\ siendo cierto: +42 42 = \ -1 ok +12 53 = \ 0 ok + +\ `if` es una palabra que solamente compila. `if` <cosas para hacer> `then` <los de mas del programa>. +: ?>64 ( n -- n ) dup 64 > if ." Mas que 64!" then ; \ ok +100 ?>64 \ Mas que 64! ok + +\ Else: +: ?>64 ( n -- n ) dup 64 > if ." Mas que 64!" else ." Menos que 64!" then ; +100 ?>64 \ Mas que 64! ok +20 ?>64 \ Menos que 64! ok + +\ ------------------------------------ Loops ----------------------------------- + +\ `do` también es una palabra que solamente compila. +: miloop ( -- ) 5 0 do cr ." Hola!" loop ; \ ok +miloop +\ Hola! +\ Hola! +\ Hola! +\ Hola! +\ Hola! ok + +\ `do` espera dos números en el pila: el último numero y el primero numero. + +\ Podemos recibir el valor del indice mientras damos vuelta con `i`: +: uno-a-12 ( -- ) 12 0 do i . loop ; \ ok +uno-a-12 \ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ok + +\ `?do` funciona similarmente, pero salta el loop si el último y primero +\ números son iguales. +: cuadrados ( n -- ) 0 ?do i cuadrado . loop ; \ ok +10 cuadrado \ 0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 ok + +\ cambiar el "paso" con `+loop`: +: treces ( n n -- ) ?do i . 3 +loop ; \ ok +15 0 treces \ 0 3 6 9 12 ok + +\ Indefinido loops empiezan `begin` <cosas para hacer> <bandera> `until`: +: death ( -- ) begin ." Ya hemos llegado?" 0 until ; \ ok + +\ ---------------------------- Variables y Memoria ---------------------------- + +\ Use `variable` declarar `edad` ser un variable. +variable edad \ ok + +\ Ahora escribimos 21 a edad con la palabra `!`. +21 edad ! \ ok + +\ Por fin podemos imprimir nuestro variable usando la "leer" palabra `@`, que agregue el +\ valor a la pila, or usa `?` que lee y imprime todo juntos. +edad @ . \ 21 ok +edad ? \ 21 ok + +\ Constantes son muy similar, pero no nos importa los direcciones de memoria: +100 constant PUNTA-QUE-AQUA-HIERVA \ ok +PUNTA-QUE-AQUA-HIERVA . \ 100 ok + +\ ----------------------------------- Arrays ----------------------------------- + +\ Creando arrays es similar a variables, pero necesitamos alocar mas +\ memoria a ellos. + +\ Puede usar `2 cells allot` para crear un array que es sea 3 cédulas de tamaño: +variable minumeros 2 cells allot \ ok + +\ Inicializar todos los valores a 0 +minumeros 3 cells erase \ ok + +\ Alternativamente podemos usar `fill`: +minumeros 3 cells 0 fill + +\ o podemos saltar todo arriba y inicializar con valores específicos: +create minumeros 64 , 9001 , 1337 , \ ok (el último `,` es importante!) + +\ ...que es equivalente a: + +\ Manualmente escribiendo valores a cada indice: +64 minumeros 0 cells + ! \ ok +9001 minumeros 1 cells + ! \ ok +1337 minumeros 2 cells + ! \ ok + +\ Leyendo valores en particular array indices: +0 cells minumeros + ? \ 64 ok +1 cells minumeros + ? \ 9001 ok + +\ Podemos simplificar un poco cuando hacemos una palabra que ayuda cuando manipulando arrays: +: de-arr ( n n -- n ) cells + ; \ ok +minumeros 2 de-arr ? \ 1337 ok + +\ Que podemos usar cuando escribimos también: +20 minumeros 1 de-arr ! \ ok +minumeros 1 de-arr ? \ 20 ok + +\ ------------------------------ El Pila de Regreso ------------------------------ + +\ El pila de regreso se usa para retener punteros a cosas cuando palabras están +\ ejecutando otras palabras como loops. + +\ Ya hemos visto un uso de esto: `i`, que duplica el primero del pila +\ de regreso. `i` es equivalente a `r@`. +: miloop ( -- ) 5 0 do r@ . loop ; \ ok + +\ También como leyendo, podemos agregar al pila de regreso y sacarlo: +5 6 4 >r swap r> .s \ 6 5 4 ok + +\ NOTA: Porque Forth usa el pila de regreso por punteros de palabras, `>r` debe +\ siempre ser seguido por un `r>`. + +\ ------------------------- Flotante Punto Operaciones -------------------------- + +\ La mayoría Forths evitan el uso de flotante punto operaciones. +8.3e 0.8e f+ f. \ 9.1 ok + +\ Usualmente agregamos al frente palabras con 'f' cuando usando flotantes: +variable miflotantevar \ ok +4.4e miflotantevar f! \ ok +miflotantevar f@ f. \ 4.4 ok + +\ --------------------------------- Notas al Final -------------------------------- + +\ Usando una palabra que no existe vaciara el pila. No obstante, también hay una palabra +\ específicamente por esto: +clearstack + +\ vaciar la pantalla: +page + +\ Cargando Forth archivos: +\ s" archivodeforth.fs" included + +\ Puede listar cada palabra en el diccionario de Forth (pero es una lista gigante!): +\ words + +\ Terminando Gforth: +\ bye + +``` + +##Listo Para Mas? + +* [Starting Forth](http://www.forth.com/starting-forth/) +* [Simple Forth](http://www.murphywong.net/hello/simple.htm) +* [Thinking Forth](http://thinking-forth.sourceforge.net/) diff --git a/es-es/hack-es.html.markdown b/es-es/hack-es.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..1059117a --- /dev/null +++ b/es-es/hack-es.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,307 @@ +--- +language: Hack +contributors: + - ["Stephen Holdaway", "https://github.com/stecman"] + - ["David Lima", "https://github.com/davelima"] +translators: + - ["César Suárez", "https://github.com/csuarez"] +lang: es-es +filename: learnhack-es.hh +--- + +Hack es un superconjunto de PHP que se ejecuta en una máquina virtual llamada HHVM. Hack es casi totalmente compatible con código PHP ya existente y añade varias características típicas de los lenguajes de programación estáticamente tipados. + +En este artículo sólo se cubren las características específicas de Hack. Los detalles sobre la sintaxis de PHP están en el [artículo sobre PHP](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/php/) de esta misma web. + +```php +<?hh + +// La sintaxis de Hack sólo se habilita para los ficheros que comienzan con +// un marcador <?hh. Estos marcadores no pueden intercalarse con código HTML, +// tal como se puede hacer con <?php. Al usar el marcador "<?hh //strict" el +// comprobador de tipado en modo estricto se pone en modo estricto. + +// Indicando el tipo de parámetros escalares +function repeat(string $word, int $count) +{ + $word = trim($word); + return str_repeat($word . ' ', $count); +} + +// Indicando el tipo que devuelve una función +function add(...$numbers) : int +{ + return array_sum($numbers); +} + +// Las funciones que no devuelven nada usan el tipo "void" +function truncate(resource $handle) : void +{ + // ... +} + +// Al determinar un tipo, hay que indicar explícitamente si permite el valor +// NULL +function identity(?string $stringOrNull) : ?string +{ + return $stringOrNull; +} + +// Se puede especificar el tipo de las propiedades de una clase +class TypeHintedProperties +{ + public ?string $name; + + protected int $id; + + private float $score = 100.0; + + // El comprobador de tipos de Hack fuerza que las propiedades tipadas + // tengan un valor por defecto o que estén asignadas en el constructor + public function __construct(int $id) + { + $this->id = $id; + } +} + + +// Funciones anónimas concisas (lambdas) +$multiplier = 5; +array_map($y ==> $y * $multiplier, [1, 2, 3]); + + +// Genéricos +class Box<T> +{ + protected T $data; + + public function __construct(T $data) { + $this->data = $data; + } + + public function getData(): T { + return $this->data; + } +} + +function openBox(Box<int> $box) : int +{ + return $box->getData(); +} + + +// Shapes +// +// Hack añade el concepto de shape para definir estructuras similares a +// vectores, pero con un conjunto de claves garantizado y tipado +type Point2D = shape('x' => int, 'y' => int); + +function distance(Point2D $a, Point2D $b) : float +{ + return sqrt(pow($b['x'] - $a['x'], 2) + pow($b['y'] - $a['y'], 2)); +} + +distance( + shape('x' => -1, 'y' => 5), + shape('x' => 2, 'y' => 50) +); + + +// Alias de tipos +// +// Hack permite crear alias para hacer que los tipos complejos sean más legibles +newtype VectorArray = array<int, Vector<int>>; + +// Una tupla que contiene dos enteros +newtype Point = (int, int); + +function addPoints(Point $p1, Point $p2) : Point +{ + return tuple($p1[0] + $p2[0], $p1[1] + $p2[1]); +} + +addPoints( + tuple(1, 2), + tuple(5, 6) +); + + +// Enumerados de primera clase +enum RoadType : int +{ + Road = 0; + Street = 1; + Avenue = 2; + Boulevard = 3; +} + +function getRoadType() : RoadType +{ + return RoadType::Avenue; +} + + +// Promoción de argumentos en constructores +// +// Para evitar repetir una y otra vez la definición de constructores que +// sólo asignan propiedades, Hack añade una sintaxis concisa para definir +// propiedades junto al constructor. +class ArgumentPromotion +{ + public function __construct(public string $name, + protected int $age, + private bool $isAwesome) {} +} + +class WithoutArgumentPromotion +{ + public string $name; + + protected int $age; + + private bool $isAwesome; + + public function __construct(string $name, int $age, bool $isAwesome) + { + $this->name = $name; + $this->age = $age; + $this->isAwesome = $isAwesome; + } +} + + +// Multitarea cooperativa +// +// "async" y "await" son dos palabras claves nuevas para realizar multi-tarea. +// Esto no implica que se usen hilos, sólo permiten transferir el control de la +// ejecución. +{ + for ($i = $start; $i <= $end; $i++) { + echo "$i "; + + // Da a otras tareas la oportunidad de hacer algo + await RescheduleWaitHandle::create(RescheduleWaitHandle::QUEUE_DEFAULT, 0); + } +} + +// Esto imprime "1 4 7 2 5 8 3 6 9" +AwaitAllWaitHandle::fromArray([ + cooperativePrint(1, 3), + cooperativePrint(4, 6), + cooperativePrint(7, 9) +])->getWaitHandle()->join(); + + +// Atributos +// +// Los atributos son una especie de metadatos para funciones. Hack implementa +// algunos atributos especiales para introducir esta característica. + +// El atributo especial __Memoize hace que el resultado de la función se cacheé. +<<__Memoize>> +function doExpensiveTask() : ?string +{ + return file_get_contents('http://example.com'); +} + +// Esta función se va a ejecutar sólo una vez: +doExpensiveTask(); +doExpensiveTask(); + + +// El atributo __ConsistentConstruct indica al comprobador de tipos de Hack que +// asegure que la signatura de __construct sea la misma para todas las +// subclases. +<<__ConsistentConstruct>> +class ConsistentFoo +{ + public function __construct(int $x, float $y) + { + // ... + } + + public function someMethod() + { + // ... + } +} + +class ConsistentBar extends ConsistentFoo +{ + public function __construct(int $x, float $y) + { + // El comprobador de tipos de Hack fuerza que los constructores de + // los padres sean llamados. + parent::__construct($x, $y); + + // ... + } + + // La anotación __Override es un atributo opcional para que el comprobador + // de tipos fuerce que ese método esté sobrecargando un método de un padre + // o de un trait. Sino, fallará. + <<__Override>> + public function someMethod() + { + // ... + } +} + +class InvalidFooSubclass extends ConsistentFoo +{ + // Este constructor no coincide con el padre y causará el siguiente error: + // + // "This object is of type ConsistentBaz. It is incompatible with this + // object of type ConsistentFoo because some of their methods are + // incompatible" + public function __construct(float $x) + { + // ... + } + + // Usando la anotación __Override en un método que no sobrecarga nada se + // producirá el siguiente error: + // + // "InvalidFooSubclass::otherMethod() is marked as override; no non-private + // parent definition found or overridden parent is defined in non-<?hh + // code" + <<__Override>> + public function otherMethod() + { + // ... + } +} + + +// Los traits pueden implementar interfaces (PHP no soporta esto). +interface KittenInterface +{ + public function play() : void; +} + +trait CatTrait implements KittenInterface +{ + public function play() : void + { + // ... + } +} + +class Samuel +{ + use CatTrait; +} + + +$cat = new Samuel(); +$cat instanceof KittenInterface === true; // True + +``` + +## Más información + +Para obtener una explicación más detallada de las características que añade Hack a PHP visita la página de [referencia de Hack](http://docs.hhvm.com/manual/en/hacklangref.php) o la [página oficial de Hack](http://hacklang.org/) para información de caracter más general. + +Visita la [página oficial de HHVM](http://hhvm.com/) para ver las instrucciones de su instalación. + +También puedes visitar la [sección de características de PHP no soportadas por Hack](http://docs.hhvm.com/manual/en/hack.unsupported.php) para más detalles sobre la retrocompatibilidad entre Hack y PHP. diff --git a/es-es/javascript-es.html.markdown b/es-es/javascript-es.html.markdown index 9ef0c63e..34428f42 100644 --- a/es-es/javascript-es.html.markdown +++ b/es-es/javascript-es.html.markdown @@ -23,7 +23,9 @@ Aunque JavaScript no sólo se limita a los navegadores web: Node.js, Un proyecto [adam@brenecki.id.au](mailto:adam@brenecki.id.au). ```js -// Los comentarios son como en C. Los comentarios de una sola línea comienzan con //, +// Los comentarios en JavaScript son los mismos como comentarios en C. + +//Los comentarios de una sola línea comienzan con //, /* y los comentarios multilínea comienzan y terminan con */ diff --git a/es-es/objective-c-es.html.markdown b/es-es/objective-c-es.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..bdbce524 --- /dev/null +++ b/es-es/objective-c-es.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,851 @@ +--- +language: Objective-C +contributors: + - ["Eugene Yagrushkin", "www.about.me/yagrushkin"] + - ["Yannick Loriot", "https://github.com/YannickL"] + - ["Levi Bostian", "https://github.com/levibostian"] +translators: + - ["David Hsieh", "http://github.com/deivuh"] +lang: es-es +filename: LearnObjectiveC-es.m +--- +Objective C es el lenguaje de programación principal utilizado por Apple para los sistemas operativos OS X y iOS y sus respectivos frameworks, Cocoa y Cocoa Touch. +Es un lenguaje de programación para propósito general que le agrega al lenguaje de programación C una mensajería estilo "Smalltalk". + + +```objective_c +// Los comentarios de una sola línea inician con // + +/* +Los comentarios de múltiples líneas se ven así. +*/ + +// Importa los encabezados de Foundation con #import +// Utiliza <> para importar archivos globales (generalmente frameworks) +// Utiliza "" para importar archivos locales (del proyecto) +#import <Foundation/Foundation.h> +#import "MyClass.h" + +// Si habilitas módulos para proyectos de iOS >= 7.0 u OS X >= 10.9 en +// Xcode 5, puedes importarlos de la siguiente manera: +@import Foundation; + +// El punto de entrada de tu programa es una función llamada +// main con un tipo de retorno entero. +int main (int argc, const char * argv[]) +{ + // Crear un autorelease pool para manejar la memoria al programa + NSAutoreleasePool * pool = [[NSAutoreleasePool alloc] init]; + // Si se utiliza el conteo automático de referencias (ARC), + // utiliza @autoreleasepool: + @autoreleasepool { + + // Utiliza NSLog para imprimir líneas a la consola + NSLog(@"Hello World!"); // Imprimir el string "Hello World!" + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Tipos y variables + /////////////////////////////////////// + + // Declaraciones de primitivos + int myPrimitive1 = 1; + long myPrimitive2 = 234554664565; + + // Declaraciones de objetos + // Pon el * como prefijo de los nombre de las variables para declaraciones + // de objetos de tipos fuertes + MyClass *myObject1 = nil; // Tipo fuerte + id myObject2 = nil; // Tipo débil + // %@ es un objeto + // 'description' es una convención para mostrar el valor de los objetos + NSLog(@"%@ and %@", myObject1, [myObject2 description]); + // imprime => "(null) and (null)" + + // String + NSString *worldString = @"World"; + NSLog(@"Hello %@!", worldString); // imprime => "Hello World!" + // NSMutableString es una versión mutable del objeto NSString + NSMutableString *mutableString = [NSMutableString stringWithString:@"Hello"]; + [mutableString appendString:@" World!"]; + NSLog(@"%@", mutableString); // imprime => "Hello World!" + + // Literales de caracteres + NSNumber *theLetterZNumber = @'Z'; + char theLetterZ = [theLetterZNumber charValue]; // o 'Z' + NSLog(@"%c", theLetterZ); + + // Literales de enteros + NSNumber *fortyTwoNumber = @42; + int fortyTwo = [fortyTwoNumber intValue]; // o 42 + NSLog(@"%i", fortyTwo); + + NSNumber *fortyTwoUnsignedNumber = @42U; + unsigned int fortyTwoUnsigned = [fortyTwoUnsignedNumber unsignedIntValue]; // o 42 + NSLog(@"%u", fortyTwoUnsigned); + + NSNumber *fortyTwoShortNumber = [NSNumber numberWithShort:42]; + short fortyTwoShort = [fortyTwoShortNumber shortValue]; // o 42 + NSLog(@"%hi", fortyTwoShort); + + NSNumber *fortyOneShortNumber = [NSNumber numberWithShort:41]; + unsigned short fortyOneUnsigned = [fortyOneShortNumber unsignedShortValue]; // o 41 + NSLog(@"%u", fortyOneUnsigned); + + NSNumber *fortyTwoLongNumber = @42L; + long fortyTwoLong = [fortyTwoLongNumber longValue]; // o 42 + NSLog(@"%li", fortyTwoLong); + + NSNumber *fiftyThreeLongNumber = @53L; + unsigned long fiftyThreeUnsigned = [fiftyThreeLongNumber unsignedLongValue]; // o 53 + NSLog(@"%lu", fiftyThreeUnsigned); + + // Literales de punto flotante + NSNumber *piFloatNumber = @3.141592654F; + float piFloat = [piFloatNumber floatValue]; // o 3.141592654f + NSLog(@"%f", piFloat); // imprime => 3.141592654 + NSLog(@"%5.2f", piFloat); // imprime => " 3.14" + + NSNumber *piDoubleNumber = @3.1415926535; + double piDouble = [piDoubleNumber doubleValue]; // o 3.1415926535 + NSLog(@"%f", piDouble); + NSLog(@"%4.2f", piDouble); // imprime => "3.14" + + // NSDecimalNumber es una clase de punto-fijo que es más preciso que float o double + NSDecimalNumber *oneDecNum = [NSDecimalNumber decimalNumberWithString:@"10.99"]; + NSDecimalNumber *twoDecNum = [NSDecimalNumber decimalNumberWithString:@"5.002"]; + // NSDecimalNumber no tiene la capacidad de utilizar los operadores estándares + // +, -, * , /, por lo que cuenta con sus propios operadores: + [oneDecNum decimalNumberByAdding:twoDecNum]; + [oneDecNum decimalNumberBySubtracting:twoDecNum]; + [oneDecNum decimalNumberByMultiplyingBy:twoDecNum]; + [oneDecNum decimalNumberByDividingBy:twoDecNum]; + NSLog(@"%@", oneDecNum); // imprime => 10.99 como NSDecimalNumber es inmutable + + // Literales BOOL + NSNumber *yesNumber = @YES; + NSNumber *noNumber = @NO; + // o + BOOL yesBool = YES; + BOOL noBool = NO; + NSLog(@"%i", yesBool); // prints => 1 + + // Objecto arreglo + // Puede contener diferentes tipos de datos, pero deben de ser un objeto de + // Objective-C + NSArray *anArray = @[@1, @2, @3, @4]; + NSNumber *thirdNumber = anArray[2]; + NSLog(@"Third number = %@", thirdNumber); // imprime => "Third number = 3" + // NSMutableArray es una versión mutable de NSArray, permitiendo el cambio + // de los elementos del arreglo y el agrandado o encojimiento del objeto arreglo. + // Conveniente, pero no tan eficiente como NSArray en cuanto a rendimiento. + NSMutableArray *mutableArray = [NSMutableArray arrayWithCapacity:2]; + [mutableArray addObject:@"Hello"]; + [mutableArray addObject:@"World"]; + [mutableArray removeObjectAtIndex:0]; + NSLog(@"%@", [mutableArray objectAtIndex:0]); // imprime => "World" + + // Objecto Diccionario + NSDictionary *aDictionary = @{ @"key1" : @"value1", @"key2" : @"value2" }; + NSObject *valueObject = aDictionary[@"A Key"]; + NSLog(@"Object = %@", valueObject); // imprime => "Object = (null)" + // NSMutableDictionary también está disponible como un objeto mutable + NSMutableDictionary *mutableDictionary = [NSMutableDictionary dictionaryWithCapacity:2]; + [mutableDictionary setObject:@"value1" forKey:@"key1"]; + [mutableDictionary setObject:@"value2" forKey:@"key2"]; + [mutableDictionary removeObjectForKey:@"key1"]; + + // Objeto de Set + NSSet *set = [NSSet setWithObjects:@"Hello", @"Hello", @"World", nil]; + NSLog(@"%@", set); // imprime => {(Hello, World)} (el orden puede variar) + // NSMutableSet también está disponible como un objeto mutable + NSMutableSet *mutableSet = [NSMutableSet setWithCapacity:2]; + [mutableSet addObject:@"Hello"]; + [mutableSet addObject:@"Hello"]; + NSLog(@"%@", mutableSet); // prints => {(Hello)} + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Operadores + /////////////////////////////////////// + + // Los operadores funcionan como en el lenguaje C + // Por ejemplo: + 2 + 5; // => 7 + 4.2f + 5.1f; // => 9.3f + 3 == 2; // => 0 (NO) + 3 != 2; // => 1 (YES) + 1 && 1; // => 1 (and lógico) + 0 || 1; // => 1 (or lógico) + ~0x0F; // => 0xF0 (negación bitwise) + 0x0F & 0xF0; // => 0x00 (AND bitwise) + 0x01 << 1; // => 0x02 (acarreamiento a la izquierda bitwise (por 1)) + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Estructuras de control + /////////////////////////////////////// + + // Declaraciones If-Else + if (NO) + { + NSLog(@"I am never run"); + } else if (0) + { + NSLog(@"I am also never run"); + } else + { + NSLog(@"I print"); + } + + // Declaración Switch + switch (2) + { + case 0: + { + NSLog(@"I am never run"); + } break; + case 1: + { + NSLog(@"I am also never run"); + } break; + default: + { + NSLog(@"I print"); + } break; + } + + // Declaración de ciclos While + int ii = 0; + while (ii < 4) + { + NSLog(@"%d,", ii++); // ii++ incrementa ii en la misma línea, luego de + // utilizar su valor + } // imprime => "0," + // "1," + // "2," + // "3," + + // Declaración de ciclos For + int jj; + for (jj=0; jj < 4; jj++) + { + NSLog(@"%d,", jj); + } // imprime => "0," + // "1," + // "2," + // "3," + + // Declaraciones foreach + NSArray *values = @[@0, @1, @2, @3]; + for (NSNumber *value in values) + { + NSLog(@"%@,", value); + } // imprime => "0," + // "1," + // "2," + // "3," + + // Objeto de ciclos For. Puede ser utilizado con cualquier tipo de objecto de + // Objective-C + for (id item in values) { + NSLog(@"%@,", item); + } // imprime => "0," + // "1," + // "2," + // "3," + + // Declaraciones Try-Catch-Finally + @try + { + // Tus declaraciones aquí + @throw [NSException exceptionWithName:@"FileNotFoundException" + reason:@"File Not Found on System" userInfo:nil]; + } @catch (NSException * e) // utiliza: @catch (id exceptionName) para atrapar + // todos los objetos + { + NSLog(@"Exception: %@", e); + } @finally + { + NSLog(@"Finally. Time to clean up."); + } // imprime => "Exception: File Not Found on System" + // "Finally. Time to clean up." + + // Los objetos NSError son útiles para argumentos de función para los + // errores de usuario. + NSError *error = [NSError errorWithDomain:@"Invalid email." code:4 userInfo:nil]; + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Objetos + /////////////////////////////////////// + + // Crea una instancia de objeto alocando memoria e inicializándola + // Un objeto no es completamente funcional hasta que ambos pasos hayan sido + // completados + MyClass *myObject = [[MyClass alloc] init]; + + // El modelo de programación orientada a objetos de Objective-C es basada en + // el envío de mensajes a instancias de objetos + // En Objective-C no se llama a un método; se envía un mensaje + [myObject instanceMethodWithParameter:@"Steve Jobs"]; + + // Limpiar la memoria que se utilizó en el programa + [pool drain]; + + // Fin de @autoreleasepool + } + + // Fin del programa + return 0; +} + +/////////////////////////////////////// +// Clases y funciones +/////////////////////////////////////// + +// Declara tu clase en archivo de encabezado (MyClass.h) +// Sintaxis de declaración de clase: +// @interface NombreDeClase : NombreDeClasePadre <ProtocolosImplementados> +// { +// type nombre; <= declaraciones de variables; +// } +// @property tipo nombre; <= declaración de propiedades +// -/+ (tipo) Declaración de método; <= Declaración de método +// @end +@interface MyClass : NSObject <MyProtocol> // NSObject es la clase de objeto + // base de Objective-C. +{ + // Declaraciones de variables de instancia (puede existir en el archivo de + // interfaz o de implementación) + int count; // Acceso protegido por defecto. + @private id data; // Acceso privado (Más conveniente de declarar en el + // archivo de implementación) + NSString *name; +} +// Notación conveneinte para acceso público de las variables para generar un +// método setter +// Por defecto, el nombre del método setter 'set' seguido del nombre de +// variable @property +@property int propInt; // Nombre del método 'setter' = 'setPropInt' +@property (copy) id copyId; // (copy) => Copia el objeto durante la asignación +// (readonly) => No se le puede asignar un valor fuera de @interface +@property (readonly) NSString *roString; // utiliza @synthesize en + // @implementation para crear un accesor +// Puedes personalizar el nombre del getter y del setter en lugar de utilizar +// el nombre por defecto "set". +@property (getter=lengthGet, setter=lengthSet:) int length; + +// Métodos ++/- (return type)methodSignature:(Parameter Type *)parameterName; + +// + Para métodos de clase: ++ (NSString *)classMethod; ++ (MyClass *)myClassFromHeight:(NSNumber *)defaultHeight; + +// - Para métodos de instancia: +- (NSString *)instanceMethodWithParameter:(NSString *)string; +- (NSNumber *)methodAParameterAsString:(NSString*)string andAParameterAsNumber:(NSNumber *)number; + +// Métodos de constructor con argumentos +- (id)initWithDistance:(int)defaultDistance; +// Los nombres de los métodos de Objective-C son muy descriptivos. +// Siempre nombra los métodos de acuerdo con sus argumentos + +@end // Define el final de la interfaz + + +// Para acceder a las variables públicas desde el archivo de implementación, +// @property genera un método setter automáticamente. El nombre del método +// es 'set' seguido de un nombre de variable @property: +MyClass *myClass = [[MyClass alloc] init]; // Crea una instancia del objeto MyClass +[myClass setCount:10]; +NSLog(@"%d", [myClass count]); // imprime => 10 +// O utilizando los métodos getter y setter personalizados en @interface: +[myClass lengthSet:32]; +NSLog(@"%i", [myClass lengthGet]); // imprime => 32 +// Por conveniencia, puedes utilizar la notación de punto para asignar y +// acceder a las variables de una instancia de objeto. +myClass.count = 45; +NSLog(@"%i", myClass.count); // imprime => 45 + +// Llama a métodos de clase: +NSString *classMethodString = [MyClass classMethod]; +MyClass *classFromName = [MyClass myClassFromName:@"Hello"]; + +// Llama a métodos de instancia: +MyClass *myClass = [[MyClass alloc] init]; // Crea una instancia de objeto Myclass +NSString *stringFromInstanceMethod = [myClass instanceMethodWithParameter:@"Hello"]; + +// Selectors +// Una forma dinámica de representar métodos. Utilizados para llamar métodos +// de una clase, pasar métodos a través de funciones para avisar a otras clases +// para que lo llamen, y para guardar métodos como una variable. +// SEL es el tipo de dato. @selector() devuelve un selector del nombre de +// método proveído methodAparameterAsString:andAParameterAsNumber: es un nombre +// para un método en MyClass +SEL selectorVar = @selector(methodAParameterAsString:andAParameterAsNumber:); +if ([myClass respondsToSelector:selectorVar]) { // Revisa si la clase contiene el método + // Debe de poner todos los argumentos de método en un solo objeto para mandar una + // función performSelector. + NSArray *arguments = [NSArray arrayWithObjects:@"Hello", @4, nil]; + [myClass performSelector:selectorVar withObject:arguments]; // Calls the method +} else { + // NSStringFromSelector() devuelve un NSString del nombre de método de un selector dado + NSLog(@"MyClass does not have method: %@", NSStringFromSelector(selectedVar)); +} + +// Implementa los métodos de un archivo de implementación (MyClass.m): +@implementation MyClass { + long distance; // Variable de instancia de acceso privado + NSNumber height; +} + +// Para acceder a una variable pública del archivo de interfaz, utiliza '_' seguido del +// nombre de la variable: +_count = 5; // Hace referencia a "int count" de la interfaz de MyClass +// Accede variables definidas en el archivo de implementación: +distance = 18; // Hace referencia a "long distance" de la implementación de MyClass +// Para utilizar una variable @property en el archivo de implementación, utiliza +// @synthesize para crear una variable de acceso: +@synthesize roString = _roString; // _roString ahora está disponible en @implementation + +// Lamado antes de llamar algún método o instanciar cualquier objeto ++ (void)initialize +{ + if (self == [MyClass class]) { + distance = 0; + } +} + +// Contraparte para inicializar un método. Llamado cuando el contador de referencias +// del objeto es cero +- (void)dealloc +{ + [height release]; // Si no utilizas ARC, asegúrate de liberar las variables de + // objeto de las clases + [super dealloc]; // y llama el método dealloc de la clase padre +} + +// Los constructores son una manera de crear instancias de una clase +// Este es el constructor por defecto que es llamado cuando el objeto es inicializado. +- (id)init +{ + if ((self = [super init])) // 'super' es utilizado para acceder a los + // métodos de la clase padre. + { + self.count = 1; // 'self' es utilizado para que el objeto se llame a sí mismo. + } + return self; +} +// Se pueden crear constructores que contiene argumentos +- (id)initWithDistance:(int)defaultDistance +{ + distance = defaultDistance; + return self; +} + ++ (NSString *)classMethod +{ + return @"Some string"; +} + ++ (MyClass *)myClassFromHeight:(NSNumber *)defaultHeight +{ + height = defaultHeight; + return [[self alloc] init]; +} + +- (NSString *)instanceMethodWithParameter:(NSString *)string +{ + return @"New string"; +} + +- (NSNumber *)methodAParameterAsString:(NSString*)string andAParameterAsNumber:(NSNumber *)number +{ + return @42; +} + +// Objective-C no tiene declaraciones de métodos privados, pero pueden ser simulados. +// Para simular un método privado, crea un método en @implementation pero no en @interface. +- (NSNumber *)secretPrivateMethod { + return @72; +} +[self secretPrivateMethod]; // Calls private method + +// Métodos declarados dentro de MyProtocol +- (void)myProtocolMethod +{ + // statements +} + +@end // Declara el final de la implementación + +/////////////////////////////////////// +// Categorías +/////////////////////////////////////// +// Una categoría es un grupo de métodos diseñados para extender una clase. +// Te permiten agregar nuevos métodos a una clase existente por propósitos +// de organización. Éstos no deben de serconfundidos con subclases. +// Las subclases existen para CAMBIAR la funcionalidad de un objeto mientras +// que las categoríasle AGREGAN funcionalidad de un objeto. +// Las categorías te permiten: +// -- Agregar métodos a una clase existente por propósitos de oganización. +// -- Extender clases de objetos de Objective-C (ejemplo: NSString) para +// agregar tus propios métodos. +// -- Agregar la habilidad de crear métodos protegidos y privados para las clases. +// NOTA: No sobreescribas los métodos de las clases base en una categoría +// aunque tengas la habilidad de poder hacerlo. Sobreescribir métodos puede +// causar errores en la compilación después entre diferentes categorías y +// puede arruinar el propósito de las categorías de solo AGREGAR funcionalidad. +// Utiliza subclass para sobreescribir métodos. + +// Aquí una clase base simple, Car. +@interface Car : NSObject + +@property NSString *make; +@property NSString *color; + +- (void)turnOn; +- (void)accelerate; + +@end + +// Y la implementación de la clase simple, Car +#import "Car.h" + +@implementation Car + +@synthesize make = _make; +@synthesize color = _color; + +- (void)turnOn { + NSLog(@"Car is on."); +} +- (void)accelerate { + NSLog(@"Accelerating."); +} + +@end + +// Ahora, si quisieramos crear un objeto Truck (Camión), crearíamos una +// subclase de Car (Carro) como si le cambiaramos de funcionalidad de Car +// para que se comporte como un camión. Pero digamos que únicamente queremos +// agregar funcionalidad al Car (Carro) existente. Un buen ejemplo sería +// limpiar el carro. Así que crearíamos una cateog®iea para agregar los +// métodos de limpieza: +// Archivo @interface: Car+Clean.h (NombreBaseDeClase+NombreDeCategoria.h) +#import "Car.h" // Asegúrate de improtar la clase que deseas extener. + +@interface Car (Clean) // El nombre de la categoría está dentro de (), + // seguido del nombre de la clase base + +- (void)washWindows; // Nombres de los nuevos métodos que le agregamos + // a nuestro objeto Car +- (void)wax; + +@end + +// Archivo @implementation: Car+Clean.m (NombreBaseDeClase+NombreDeCategoria.m) +#import "Car+Clean.h" // Importa el archivo de @interface de la categoría Clean + +@implementation Car (Clean) + +- (void)washWindows { + NSLog(@"Windows washed."); +} +- (void)wax { + NSLog(@"Waxed."); +} + +@end + +// Cualquier instancia del objeto Car tiene la habilidad de utilizar una +// categoría. Todo lo que necesitan es importarlo: +#import "Car+Clean.h" // Importa todas las diferentes categorías que + // necesites utilizar +#import "Car.h" // También debes de importar la clase base para su + // funcionalidad original + +int main (int argc, const char * argv[]) { + @autoreleasepool { + Car *mustang = [[Car alloc] init]; + mustang.color = @"Red"; + mustang.make = @"Ford"; + + [mustang turnOn]; // Utiliza métodos de la clase base Car. + [mustang washWindows]; // Utiliza métodos de la categoría Clean de Car. + } + return 0; +} + +// Objective-C no tiene declaraciones para métodos protegidos, pero los puedes +// simular. Crea una categoría conteniendo todos los métodos protegidos, +// luego importa ÚNICAMENTE al archivo @implementation de una clase que +// pertenece a la clase Car. +@interface Car (Protected) // Nombrando la categoría 'Protected' para + // recordar que los métodos están protegidos + +- (void)lockCar; // Los métodos enlistados aquí solo puedens ser creados + // por objetos Car + +@end +// Para utilizar los métodos protegidos, importa la categoría, +// luego implementa sus métodos: +#import "Car+Protected.h" // Recuerda, importa únicamente el archivo + // de @implementation + +@implementation Car + +- (void)lockCar { + NSLog(@"Car locked."); // Las instancias de Car no puede utilizar + // lockCar porque no se encuentra en @interface +} + +@end + +/////////////////////////////////////// +// Extensiones +/////////////////////////////////////// +// Las Extensions te permiten sobreescribir atributos de propiedades de +// acceso público y métodos de un @interface +// Archivo @interface: Shape.h +@interface Shape : NSObject + +@property (readonly) NSNumber *numOfSides; + +- (int)getNumOfSides; + +@end +// Puedes sobreescribir la variable numOfSides o el métodos getNumOfSlides +// para modificarlos con una extensión: +// Archivo @implementation: Shape.m +#import "Shape.h" +// Las extensiones se encuentran en el mismo archivo que el archivo +// de @implementation +@interface Shape () // () después del nombre de la clase base declara + // una extensión + +@property (copy) NSNumber *numOfSides; // Hacer numOfSlides copy en lugar + // de readonly. +-(NSNumber)getNumOfSides; // Hacer que getNumOfSides devuelva un NSNumber + // en lugar de un int. +-(void)privateMethod; // También puedes crear una nuevos métodos privados + // dentro de las extensiones + +@end +// @implementation principal: +@implementation Shape + +@synthesize numOfSides = _numOfSides; + +-(NSNumber)getNumOfSides { // Todas las declaraciones dentro de extensions + // deben de ser dentro de @implementation + return _numOfSides; +} +-(void)privateMethod { + NSLog(@"Private method created by extension. Shape instances cannot call me."); +} + +@end + +/////////////////////////////////////// +// Protocolos +/////////////////////////////////////// +// Un protocolo declara métodos que pueden ser implementados por cualquier otra +// clase. Los protocolos no son clases. Simplementen define una interfaz que +// otros objetos deben de implementar. +// Archivo @protocol: "CarUtilities.h" +@protocol CarUtilities <NSObject> // <NSObject> => Nombre de otro protocolo + // que se incluye en éste + @property BOOL engineOn; // La clase que lo adopta debe de utilizar + // @synthesize para todas las @properties definidas + - (void)turnOnEngine; // y todos los métodos definidos +@end +// A continuación una clase ejemplo que implementa el protcolo +#import "CarUtilities.h" // Importar el archivo @protocol. + +@interface Car : NSObject <CarUtilities> // El nombre del protocolo dentro de <> + // No necesitas los nombres de @property o métodos aquí para CarUtilities. + // Estos solo es requerido por @implementation. +- (void)turnOnEngineWithUtilities:(id <CarUtilities>)car; // También Puedes + // utilizar protocolos + // como datos. +@end +// El @implementation necesita que se implementen @properties y métodos +// del protocolo. +@implementation Car : NSObject <CarUtilities> + +@synthesize engineOn = _engineOn; // Crear una declaración @synthesize para el + // @property engineOn. + +- (void)turnOnEngine { // Implementa turnOnEngine como quieras. Los + // protocolos no definen + _engineOn = YES; // cómo implementas un método, con tal de que lo implementes. +} +// Puedes utilizar un protocolo como data mientras sepas quee métodos y variables +// tiene implementado. +- (void)turnOnEngineWithCarUtilities:(id <CarUtilities>)objectOfSomeKind { + [objectOfSomeKind engineOn]; // Tienes acceso a las variables + [objectOfSomeKind turnOnEngine]; // y los métodos del objeto + [objectOfSomeKind engineOn]; // Puede o no puede ser YES. La clase lo + // implementa como se quiera. +} + +@end +// Las instancias de Car ahora tienen acceso al protocolo. +Car *carInstance = [[Car alloc] init]; +[carInstance setEngineOn:NO]; +[carInstance turnOnEngine]; +if ([carInstance engineOn]) { + NSLog(@"Car engine is on."); // imprime => "Car engine is on." +} +// Asegúrate de revisar si un objeto de tipo 'id' implementa un protocolo antes +// de llamar a sus métodos: +if ([myClass conformsToProtocol:@protocol(CarUtilities)]) { + NSLog(@"This does not run as the MyClass class does not implement the CarUtilities protocol."); +} else if ([carInstance conformsToProtocol:@protocol(CarUtilities)]) { + NSLog(@"This does run as the Car class implements the CarUtilities protocol."); +} +// Las categorías también pueden implementar protcolos: @interface Car +// (CarCategory) <CarUtilities> +// Puedes implementar varios protocolos: +// @interface Car : NSObject <CarUtilities, CarCleaning> +// NOTA: Si dos o más protocolos dependen entre sí, asegúrate de declararlos +// de manera adelantada: +#import "Brother.h" + +@protocol Brother; // Declaración adelantada. Sin ésto, el compilador + // tira un error. + +@protocol Sister <NSObject> + +- (void)beNiceToBrother:(id <Brother>)brother; + +@end + +// Ver si el problema es que Sister depende de Brother, +// y Brother dependa de Sister. +#import "Sister.h" + +@protocol Sister; // Estas líneas detienen la recursión, resolviendo el problema. + +@protocol Brother <NSObject> + +- (void)beNiceToSister:(id <Sister>)sister; + +@end + + +/////////////////////////////////////// +// Bloques +/////////////////////////////////////// +// Los bloques son declaraciones de código, tal como una función, pueden +// ser utilizados como data. +// A continuación un bloque simple con un argumento entero que devuelve +// un el argumento más 4. +int (^addUp)(int n); // Declarar una variable para almacenar el bloque. +void (^noParameterBlockVar)(void); // Ejemplo de una declaración de variable + // de bloque sin argumentos. +// Los bloques tienen acceso a variables del mismo ámbito. Pero las variables +// son solo readonly y el valor pasado al bloque es el valor de la variable +// cuando el bloque es creado. +int outsideVar = 17; // Si modificamos outsideVar después de declarar addUp, + // outsideVar AÚN es 17. +__block long mutableVar = 3; // __block hace que las variables se puedan + // escribir en bloques. +addUp = ^(int n) { // Remueve (int n) para tener un bloque que no recibe + // ningún parámetro + NSLog(@"You may have as many lines in a block as you would like."); + NSSet *blockSet; // También puedes declarar variables locales. + mutableVar = 32; // Asignar un nuevo valor a la variable __block. + return n + outsideVar; // Declaraciones de retorno son opcionales. +} +int addUp = add(10 + 16); // Llama al bloque de código con argumentos. +// Los bloques son usualmente utilizados como argumentos a funciones que +// son llamados más adelante o para callbacks. +@implementation BlockExample : NSObject + + - (void)runBlock:(void (^)(NSString))block { + NSLog(@"Block argument returns nothing and takes in a NSString object."); + block(@"Argument given to block to execute."); // Calling block. + } + + @end + + +/////////////////////////////////////// +// Manejo de memoria +/////////////////////////////////////// +/* +Para cada objeto utilizado en una aplicación, la memoria debe de ser alocada +para ese objeto. Cuando la aplicación termina de utilizar ese objeto, la +memoria debe de ser desalocada para asegurar la eficiencia de la aplicación. +Objetive-C no utiliza garbage collection, y en lugar de eso utiliza conteos +de referencias. Mientras haya al menos una referencia del objeto (también +conocido como tener un objeto de adueñado), entonces el objeto estará +disponible para su uso. + +Cuando una instancia es dueña un objeto, su contador de referencia incrementa +por uno. Cuando el objeto es liberado, el contador de referencia decrementa uno. +Cuando el conteo de referencia es cero, el objeto es removido de la memoria. + +Con todas las interacciones de los objetos, sigue el patrón de: +(1) Crear e lobjeto, (2) utiliza el objeto, (3) libera el objeto de la memoria. +*/ + +MyClass *classVar = [MyClass alloc]; // 'alloc' asigna uno al conteo de + // referencias de classVar. Devuelve un + // puntero al objeto +[classVar release]; // Decrementa el conteo de referencias de classVar's +// 'retain' +// 'retain' adueña la instancia de objeto existente e incrementa el conteo de +// referencia por uno. Devuelve un puntero al objeto. +MyClass *newVar = [classVar retain]; // Si classVar es liberado, el objeto + // aún se queda en memoria porque newVar + // es el dueño. +[classVar autorelease]; // Remueve el adueñamiento de un objeto al final del + // bloque @autoreleasepool. Devuelve un puntero al objeto. + +// @property puede utilizar 'retain' y 'assign' también para pequeñas +// definiciones convenientes +@property (retain) MyClass *instance; // Libera el valor viejo y retiene + // uno nuevo (referencia fuerte) +@property (assign) NSSet *set; // Apunta a un nuevo valor sin retener/liberar + // una referencia vieja (débil) + +// Conteo Automático de Referencias (ARC) +// Debido a que el manejo de memoria puede ser un dolor, en Xcode 4.2 y iOS 4 +// se introdujo el Conteo Automático de Referencias (ARC). +// ARC es una funcionalidad del compilador que agrega retain, release y +// autorealase automáticamente, así que al +// utilizar ARC, no se debe de utilizar retain, release o autorelease. +MyClass *arcMyClass = [[MyClass alloc] init]; +// ... código utilizando arcMyClass +// Sin ARC, necesitarás llamar: [arcMyClass release] luego de terminar de +// utilizar arcMyClass. Pero con ARC, no hay necesidad. Insertará +// automáticamente la declaración de liberación. + +// Mientras que para los atributos de @property 'assign' y 'retain', con ARC +// utilizarás 'weak' y 'strong' +@property (weak) MyClass *weakVar; // 'weak' no adueña el objeto. El conteo de + // referencias de la instancia original +// es fijado a ceor, weakVar automáticamente recibe el valor de nil para +// evitar cualquier 'crashing'. +@property (strong) MyClass *strongVar; // 'strong' se adueña del objeto. + // Asegura que el objeto se quede en memoria. + +// Para variables regulares (no variables de @property), utiliza lo siguiente: +__strong NSString *strongString; // Por defecto. La variables de retenida en + // memoria hasta que se salga del ámbito. +__weak NSSet *weakSet; // Referencia débil a un objeto existente. Cuando el + // objeto existente es liberado, weakSet le es asginado + // un valor nil +__unsafe_unretained NSArray *unsafeArray; // Como __weak, pero unsafeArray no + // es asginado a nil cuando el objeto + // existente es liberado. + +``` +## Lecturas sugeridas + +[Wikipedia Objective-C](http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective-C) + +[Programming with Objective-C. Libro PDF de Apple](https://developer.apple.com/library/ios/documentation/cocoa/conceptual/ProgrammingWithObjectiveC/ProgrammingWithObjectiveC.pdf) + +[iOS For High School Students: Getting Started](http://www.raywenderlich.com/5600/ios-for-high-school-students-getting-started) diff --git a/es-es/python-es.html.markdown b/es-es/python-es.html.markdown index 4930eebc..a27203d1 100644 --- a/es-es/python-es.html.markdown +++ b/es-es/python-es.html.markdown @@ -9,8 +9,8 @@ lang: es-es filename: learnpython-es.py --- -Python fue creado por Guido Van Rossum en el principio de los 90'. Ahora es uno -de los lenguajes más populares en existencia. Me enamoré de Python por su claridad sintáctica. +Python fue creado por Guido Van Rossum en el principio de los 90. Ahora es uno +de los lenguajes más populares que existen. Me enamoré de Python por su claridad sintáctica. Es básicamente pseudocódigo ejecutable. ¡Comentarios serán muy apreciados! Pueden contactarme en [@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) o louiedinh [at] [servicio de email de google] @@ -19,8 +19,8 @@ Nota: Este artículo aplica a Python 2.7 específicamente, pero debería ser apl ```python # Comentarios de una línea comienzan con una almohadilla (o signo gato) -""" Strings multilinea pueden escribirse - usando tres "'s, y comunmente son usados +""" Strings multilínea pueden escribirse + usando tres "'s, y comúnmente son usados como comentarios. """ @@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ Nota: Este artículo aplica a Python 2.7 específicamente, pero debería ser apl # Resultado de la división de enteros truncada para positivos y negativos 5 // 3 # => 1 -5.0 // 3.0 # => 1.0 # funciona con números en coma flotante +5.0 // 3.0 # => 1.0 # funciona con números de coma flotante -5 // 3 # => -2 -5.0 // 3.0 # => -2.0 @@ -436,7 +436,7 @@ class Humano(object): def get_especie(cls): return cls.especie - # Un metodo estatico es llamado sin la clase o instancia como referencia + # Un metodo estático es llamado sin la clase o instancia como referencia @staticmethod def roncar(): return "*roncar*" @@ -507,7 +507,7 @@ def duplicar_numeros(iterable): # Nota: xrange es un generador que hace lo mismo que range. # Crear una lista de 1 a 900000000 lleva mucho tiempo y ocupa mucho espacio. # xrange crea un generador, mientras que range crea toda la lista. -# Añadimos un guion bajo a los nombres de variable que coinciden con palabras +# Añadimos un guión bajo a los nombres de variable que coinciden con palabras # reservadas de python. xrange_ = xrange(1, 900000000) diff --git a/es-es/r-es.html.markdown b/es-es/r-es.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..2b710b27 --- /dev/null +++ b/es-es/r-es.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,717 @@ +--- +language: R +contributors: + - ["e99n09", "http://github.com/e99n09"] + - ["isomorphismes", "http://twitter.com/isomorphisms"] +translators: + - ["David Hsieh", "http://github.com/deivuh"] +lang: es-es +filename: learnr-es.r +--- + +R es un lenguaje de computación estadística. Tiene muchas librerías para cargar +y limpiar sets de datos, ejecutar procedimientos estadísticos y generar +gráficas. También puedes ejecutar comandos `R` dentro de un documento de +LaTeX. + +```r + +# Los comentariso inician con símbolos numéricos. + +# No puedes hacer comentarios de múltiples líneas +# pero puedes agrupar múltiples comentarios de esta manera. + +# En Windows puedes utilizar CTRL-ENTER para ejecutar una línea. +# En Mac utilizas COMMAND-ENTER + + +############################################################################# +# Cosas que puedes hacer sin entender nada acerca de programación +############################################################################# + +# En esta sección, mostramos algunas cosas chileras / cool que puedes hacer en +# R sin entender nada de programación. No te preocupes en entender nada +# de lo que hace este código. Solo disfruta! + +data() # Examinar sets de datos pre-cargados +data(rivers) # Obtiene este: Lengths of Major North American Rivers" +ls() # Fijarse que "rivers" ahora aparece en el workspace +head(rivers) # Echarle un ojo al set de datos +# 735 320 325 392 524 450 + +length(rivers) # ¿Cuántos ríos fueron medidos? +# 141 +summary(rivers) # ¿Cuáles son algunas estadísticas generales? +# Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. +# 135.0 310.0 425.0 591.2 680.0 3710.0 + +# Generar una gráfica tallo-y-hoja (Visualización de datos tipo histograma) +stem(rivers) + +# El punto decimal son 2 dígitos a la derecha de | +# +# 0 | 4 +# 2 | 011223334555566667778888899900001111223333344455555666688888999 +# 4 | 111222333445566779001233344567 +# 6 | 000112233578012234468 +# 8 | 045790018 +# 10 | 04507 +# 12 | 1471 +# 14 | 56 +# 16 | 7 +# 18 | 9 +# 20 | +# 22 | 25 +# 24 | 3 +# 26 | +# 28 | +# 30 | +# 32 | +# 34 | +# 36 | 1 + +stem(log(rivers)) # Fijarse que la data no es normal ni log-normal! +# Toma eso, fundamentalistas de la curva de campana! + +# El punto decimal está a 1 dígito a la izquierda del | +# +# 48 | 1 +# 50 | +# 52 | 15578 +# 54 | 44571222466689 +# 56 | 023334677000124455789 +# 58 | 00122366666999933445777 +# 60 | 122445567800133459 +# 62 | 112666799035 +# 64 | 00011334581257889 +# 66 | 003683579 +# 68 | 0019156 +# 70 | 079357 +# 72 | 89 +# 74 | 84 +# 76 | 56 +# 78 | 4 +# 80 | +# 82 | 2 + +# Generar un histograma: +hist(rivers, col="#333333", border="white", breaks=25) # Juega con los estos parámetros +hist(log(rivers), col="#333333", border="white", breaks=25) # Generarás más gráficas después + +# Aquí hay otro set de datos pre-cargado. R tiene bastantes de éstos. +data(discoveries) +plot(discoveries, col="#333333", lwd=3, xlab="Year", + main="Number of important discoveries per year") +plot(discoveries, col="#333333", lwd=3, type = "h", xlab="Year", + main="Number of important discoveries per year") + +# En lugar de dejar el orden por defecto (por año), +# podemos ordenar de tal manera que muestre qué es típico: +sort(discoveries) +# [1] 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 +# [26] 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 +# [51] 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 +# [76] 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 9 10 12 + +stem(discoveries, scale=2) +# +# El punto decimal se encuentra en | +# +# 0 | 000000000 +# 1 | 000000000000 +# 2 | 00000000000000000000000000 +# 3 | 00000000000000000000 +# 4 | 000000000000 +# 5 | 0000000 +# 6 | 000000 +# 7 | 0000 +# 8 | 0 +# 9 | 0 +# 10 | 0 +# 11 | +# 12 | 0 + +max(discoveries) +# 12 +summary(discoveries) +# Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. +# 0.0 2.0 3.0 3.1 4.0 12.0 + +# Tirar los dados varias veces +round(runif(7, min=.5, max=6.5)) +# 1 4 6 1 4 6 4 +# Tus números será diferente de los míos, a menos que tengamos el mismo valor +# de random.seed(31337) + +# Dibuja de un Gaussian 9 veces +rnorm(9) +# [1] 0.07528471 1.03499859 1.34809556 -0.82356087 0.61638975 -1.88757271 +# [7] -0.59975593 0.57629164 1.08455362 + + + +################################################## +# Tipos de datos y aritmética básica +################################################## + +# Ahora para la parte de programación orientada a objetos del tutorial. +# En esta sección conocerás los tipos de datos importantes de R: +# Enteros, numéricos, caracteres, lógicos, y factores. +# Hay otros, pero esos son los que menos necesitas para empezar. + +# ENTEROS +# Enteros de almacenamiento largo son escritos con L +5L # 5 +class(5L) # "integer" +# (Try ?class para más información en la función class().) +# En R, cada valor único, como 5L, es considerado un vector de logitud 1 +length(5L) # 1 +# También puedes tener un vector de enteros con longitud > 1: +c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L) # 4 5 8 3 +length(c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L)) # 4 +class(c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L)) # "integer" + +# NUMÉRICOS +# Un "numérico" es un número de punto flotante de doble precisión. +5 # 5 +class(5) # "numeric" +# Nuevamente, todo en R es un vector; +# puedes hacer un vector numérico con más de un elemento +c(3,3,3,2,2,1) # 3 3 3 2 2 1 +# También puedes utilizar el notación científica +5e4 # 50000 +6.02e23 # Número de Avogadro +1.6e-35 # Logintud Planck +# También puedes tener números infinitamente grandes o pequeños +class(Inf) # "numeric" +class(-Inf) # "numeric" +# Puede que uses "Inf", por ejemplo, en integrate(dnorm, 3, Inf); +# esto obvia las tablas de puntos Z. + +# ARITMÉTICA BÁSICA +# Puedes hacer aritmética con números +# Haciendo aritmética en un mix de enteros y numéricos, te da otro numérico +10L + 66L # 76 # entero mas entero da entero +53.2 - 4 # 49.2 # entero menos entero da numérico +2.0 * 2L # 4 # numérico veces entero da numérico +3L / 4 # 0.75 # entero sobre numérico da numérico +3 %% 2 # 1 # el residuo de dos numéricos es otro numérico +# La aritmética ilegal rinde un "not-a-number" +0 / 0 # NaN +class(NaN) # "numeric" +# Puedes hacer aritmética con dos vectores con longitud mayor a 1, +# siempre que la longitud del vector mayor es un entero múltiplo del menor. +c(1,2,3) + c(1,2,3) # 2 4 6 + +# CARACTERES +# No hay diferencia entre strings y caracteres en R +"Horatio" # "Horatio" +class("Horatio") # "character" +class('H') # "character" +# Ambos eran vectores de caracteres de longitud 1 +# Aquí hay uno más largo: +c('alef', 'bet', 'gimmel', 'dalet', 'he') +# => +# "alef" "bet" "gimmel" "dalet" "he" +length(c("Call","me","Ishmael")) # 3 +# Puedes hacer operaciones regex en vectores de caracteres: +substr("Fortuna multis dat nimis, nulli satis.", 9, 15) # "multis " +gsub('u', 'ø', "Fortuna multis dat nimis, nulli satis.") # "Fortøna møltis dat nimis, nølli satis." +# R tiene varios vectores predefinidos de caracteres +letters +# => +# [1] "a" "b" "c" "d" "e" "f" "g" "h" "i" "j" "k" "l" "m" "n" "o" "p" "q" "r" "s" +# [20] "t" "u" "v" "w" "x" "y" "z" +month.abb # "Jan" "Feb" "Mar" "Apr" "May" "Jun" "Jul" "Aug" "Sep" "Oct" "Nov" "Dec" + +# LÓGICOS +# En R, un "logical" es un boolean +class(TRUE) # "logical" +class(FALSE) # "logical" +# Ese comportamiento es normal +TRUE == TRUE # TRUE +TRUE == FALSE # FALSE +FALSE != FALSE # FALSE +FALSE != TRUE # TRUE +# El dato faltante (NA) es lógico también +class(NA) # "logical" +# Utiliza | y & para operaciones lógicas +# OR +TRUE | FALSE # TRUE +# AND +TRUE & FALSE # FALSE +# Puedes probar si x es TRUE (verdadero) +isTRUE(TRUE) # TRUE +# Aquí tenemos un vector lógico con varios elementos: +c('Z', 'o', 'r', 'r', 'o') == "Zorro" # FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE +c('Z', 'o', 'r', 'r', 'o') == "Z" # TRUE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE + +# FACTORES +# La clase factor es para datos de categoría +# Los factores pueden ser ordenados (como las calificaciones de los niños) +# o sin orden (como el género) +factor(c("female", "female", "male", NA, "female")) +# female female male <NA> female +# Levels: female male +# Los "levels" son los valores que los datos categóricos pueden tener +# Tomar nota que los datos faltantes no entran a los niveles +levels(factor(c("male", "male", "female", NA, "female"))) # "female" "male" +# Si un vector de factores tiene longitud 1, sus niveles también tendrán +# una longitud de 1 también + +length(factor("male")) # 1 +length(levels(factor("male"))) # 1 +# Los factores son comúnmente vistos en marcos de dato, y una estructura de +# datos que cubriremos después +data(infert) # "Infertility after Spontaneous and Induced Abortion" +levels(infert$education) # "0-5yrs" "6-11yrs" "12+ yrs" + +# NULL +# "NULL" es uno raro; utilízalo para "limpiar" un vector +class(NULL) # NULL +parakeet = c("beak", "feathers", "wings", "eyes") +parakeet +# => +# [1] "beak" "feathers" "wings" "eyes" +parakeet <- NULL +parakeet +# => +# NULL + +# COERCIÓN DE TIPO +# La coerción de tipos es cuando forzas un valor diferente tipo al que puede tomar. +as.character(c(6, 8)) # "6" "8" +as.logical(c(1,0,1,1)) # TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE +# Si pones elementos de diferentes tipos en un vector, coerciones raras pasan: +c(TRUE, 4) # 1 4 +c("dog", TRUE, 4) # "dog" "TRUE" "4" +as.numeric("Bilbo") +# => +# [1] NA +# Warning message: +# NAs introduced by coercion + +# También tomar nota: Esos solo eran datos de tipos básicos +# Hay mucho más tipos de datos, como las fechas, series de tiempo, etc. + + +################################################## +# Variables, ciclos, condiciones (if/else) +################################################## + +# A variable is like a box you store a value in for later use. +# We call this "assigning" the value to the variable. +# Having variables lets us write loops, functions, and if/else statements + +# VARIABLES +# Muchas maneras de asignar valores: +x = 5 # esto es posible +y <- "1" # esto es preferido +TRUE -> z # estos funciona pero es raro + +# CICLOS +# Tenemos ciclos 'for' +for (i in 1:4) { + print(i) +} +# Tenemos ciclos 'while' +a <- 10 +while (a > 4) { + cat(a, "...", sep = "") + a <- a - 1 +} +# Ten en mente que los ciclos 'for' y 'while' son lentos en R +# Operaciones con vectores enteros (i.e. una fila o columna completa) +# o tipos de función apply() (que discutiremos después) son preferidos + +# CONDICIONES (IF/ELSE) +# De nuevo, bastante normal +if (4 > 3) { + print("4 is greater than 3") +} else { + print("4 is not greater than 3") +} +# => +# [1] "4 is greater than 3" + +# FUNCIONES +# Definidos de la siguiente manera: +jiggle <- function(x) { + x = x + rnorm(1, sd=.1) #agregar un poco de ruido (controlado) + return(x) +} +# Llamados como cualquier otra función de R +jiggle(5) # 5±ε. luego de set.seed(2716057), jiggle(5)==5.005043 + + + +########################################################################### +# Estructura de datos: Vectores, matrices, marcos da datos y arreglos +########################################################################### + +# UNIDIMENSIONAL + +# Empecemos desde el principio, y con algo que ya conoces: vectores. +vec <- c(8, 9, 10, 11) +vec # 8 9 10 11 +# Preguntamos por elementos específicos poniendo un subconjunto en corchetes +# (Toma nota de que R empieza los conteos desde 1) +vec[1] # 8 +letters[18] # "r" +LETTERS[13] # "M" +month.name[9] # "September" +c(6, 8, 7, 5, 3, 0, 9)[3] # 7 +# También podes buscar por los índices de componentes específicos, +which(vec %% 2 == 0) # 1 3 +# obtener la primera o las últimas entradas de un vector, +head(vec, 1) # 8 +tail(vec, 2) # 10 11 +# o averiguar si cierto valor se encuentra dentro de un vector +any(vec == 10) # TRUE +# Si un índice "se pasa", obtendrás un NA: +vec[6] # NA +# Puedes encontrar la longitud de un vector con length() +length(vec) # 4 +# Puedes realizar operaciones con vectores enteros o con subconjuntos de vectores +vec * 4 # 16 20 24 28 +vec[2:3] * 5 # 25 30 +any(vec[2:3] == 8) # FALSE +# y R tiene muchas funciones pre-definidas para resumir vectores +mean(vec) # 9.5 +var(vec) # 1.666667 +sd(vec) # 1.290994 +max(vec) # 11 +min(vec) # 8 +sum(vec) # 38 +# Otras funciones pre-definidas: +5:15 # 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 +seq(from=0, to=31337, by=1337) +# => +# [1] 0 1337 2674 4011 5348 6685 8022 9359 10696 12033 13370 14707 +# [13] 16044 17381 18718 20055 21392 22729 24066 25403 26740 28077 29414 30751 + +# BIDIMENCIONAL (TODO EN UNA CLASE) + +# Puedes hacer una matriz de las entradas todos de un mismo tipo como: +mat <- matrix(nrow = 3, ncol = 2, c(1,2,3,4,5,6)) +mat +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 1 4 +# [2,] 2 5 +# [3,] 3 6 +# A diferencia de un vector, una clase matriz es una 'matriz', +# sin importar qué contiene +class(mat) # => "matrix" +# Consulta la primera fila +mat[1,] # 1 4 +# Realiza una operación en la primera columna +3 * mat[,1] # 3 6 9 +# Consulta por una celda específica +mat[3,2] # 6 + +# Transpone una matriz entera +t(mat) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] +# [1,] 1 2 3 +# [2,] 4 5 6 + +# Multiplicación de matrices +mat %*% t(mat) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] +# [1,] 17 22 27 +# [2,] 22 29 36 +# [3,] 27 36 45 + +# cbind() une vectores como columnas para hacer una matriz +mat2 <- cbind(1:4, c("dog", "cat", "bird", "dog")) +mat2 +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] "1" "dog" +# [2,] "2" "cat" +# [3,] "3" "bird" +# [4,] "4" "dog" +class(mat2) # matrix +# De nuevo, ten en cuenta lo que sucedió +# Debido a que las matrices deben de contener todas las entradas del mismo tipo, +# todo fue convertido a la clase caracter +c(class(mat2[,1]), class(mat2[,2])) + +# rbind() une vectores como filas para hacer una matriz +mat3 <- rbind(c(1,2,4,5), c(6,7,0,4)) +mat3 +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] +# [1,] 1 2 4 5 +# [2,] 6 7 0 4 +# Ah, todo es de la misma clase. No hay coerciones. Mucho mejor. + +# BIDIMENSIONAL (DIFERENTES CLASES) + +# Para columnas de tipos diferentes, utiliza un data frame +# Esta estructura de datos es muy útil para programación estadística, +# una versión de ésta fue agregada a Python en el paquete "pandas". + +students <- data.frame(c("Cedric","Fred","George","Cho","Draco","Ginny"), + c(3,2,2,1,0,-1), + c("H", "G", "G", "R", "S", "G")) +names(students) <- c("name", "year", "house") # name the columns +class(students) # "data.frame" +students +# => +# name year house +# 1 Cedric 3 H +# 2 Fred 2 G +# 3 George 2 G +# 4 Cho 1 R +# 5 Draco 0 S +# 6 Ginny -1 G +class(students$year) # "numeric" +class(students[,3]) # "factor" +# encontrar las dimensiones +nrow(students) # 6 +ncol(students) # 3 +dim(students) # 6 3 +# La función data.frame() convierte vectores de caracteres en vectores +# de factores por defecto; deshabilita este atributo +# stringsAsFactors = FALSE cuando vayas a crear el data.frame +?data.frame + +# Hay otras formas de hacer subconjuntos de data frames +students$year # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 +students[,2] # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 +students[,"year"] # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 + +# Una versión aumentada de la estructura data.frame es el data.table +# Si estás trabajando huge o panel data, o necesitas unificar algunos +# subconjuntos de datos, data.table puede ser una buena elección. +# Aquí un tour: +install.packages("data.table") # Descarga el paquete de CRAN +require(data.table) # Cárgalo +students <- as.data.table(students) +students # Tomar en cuenta la diferencia de la impresión +# => +# name year house +# 1: Cedric 3 H +# 2: Fred 2 G +# 3: George 2 G +# 4: Cho 1 R +# 5: Draco 0 S +# 6: Ginny -1 G +students[name=="Ginny"] # obtener filas con name == "Ginny" +# => +# name year house +# 1: Ginny -1 G +students[year==2] # obtener filas con year == 2 +# => +# name year house +# 1: Fred 2 G +# 2: George 2 G +# data.table hace que la unificación de dos sets de datos sea fácil +# Hagamos otro data.table para unifiar a los estudiantes +founders <- data.table(house=c("G","H","R","S"), + founder=c("Godric","Helga","Rowena","Salazar")) +founders +# => +# house founder +# 1: G Godric +# 2: H Helga +# 3: R Rowena +# 4: S Salazar +setkey(students, house) +setkey(founders, house) +students <- founders[students] # Unifica los dos sets de datos comparando "house" +setnames(students, c("house","houseFounderName","studentName","year")) +students[,order(c("name","year","house","houseFounderName")), with=F] +# => +# studentName year house houseFounderName +# 1: Fred 2 G Godric +# 2: George 2 G Godric +# 3: Ginny -1 G Godric +# 4: Cedric 3 H Helga +# 5: Cho 1 R Rowena +# 6: Draco 0 S Salazar + +# data.table hace que sea fácil obtener resúmenes de las tablas +students[,sum(year),by=house] +# => +# house V1 +# 1: G 3 +# 2: H 3 +# 3: R 1 +# 4: S 0 + +# Para eliminar una columna de un data.frame o data.table, +# asignarle el valor NULL. +students$houseFounderName <- NULL +students +# => +# studentName year house +# 1: Fred 2 G +# 2: George 2 G +# 3: Ginny -1 G +# 4: Cedric 3 H +# 5: Cho 1 R +# 6: Draco 0 S + +# Elimina una fila poniendo un subconjunto +# Usando data.table: +students[studentName != "Draco"] +# => +# house studentName year +# 1: G Fred 2 +# 2: G George 2 +# 3: G Ginny -1 +# 4: H Cedric 3 +# 5: R Cho 1 +# Usando data.frame: +students <- as.data.frame(students) +students[students$house != "G",] +# => +# house houseFounderName studentName year +# 4 H Helga Cedric 3 +# 5 R Rowena Cho 1 +# 6 S Salazar Draco 0 + +# MULTI-DIMENSIONAL (TODOS LOS ELEMENTOS DE UN TIPO) + +# Arreglos crean una tabla de dimensión n +# Todos los elementos deben de ser del mismo tipo +# Puedes hacer una tabla bi-dimensional (como una matriz) +array(c(c(1,2,4,5),c(8,9,3,6)), dim=c(2,4)) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] +# [1,] 1 4 8 3 +# [2,] 2 5 9 6 +# Puedes utilizar un arreglo para hacer una matriz tri-dimensional también +array(c(c(c(2,300,4),c(8,9,0)),c(c(5,60,0),c(66,7,847))), dim=c(3,2,2)) +# => +# , , 1 +# +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 2 8 +# [2,] 300 9 +# [3,] 4 0 +# +# , , 2 +# +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 5 66 +# [2,] 60 7 +# [3,] 0 847 + +# LISTAS (MULTI-DIMENSIONAL, POSIBLEMENTE DESIGUALES, DE DIFERENTES TIPOS) + +# Finalmente, R tiene listas (de vectores) +list1 <- list(time = 1:40) +list1$price = c(rnorm(40,.5*list1$time,4)) # aleatorio +list1 +# Puedes obtener elementos de una lista de la siguiente manera +list1$time # Una manera +list1[["time"]] # Otra manera +list1[[1]] # Y otra manera +# => +# [1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 +# [34] 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 +# Puedes crear una lista de subconjuntos como cualquier otro vector +list1$price[4] + +# Las listas no son la estructura de datos más eficiente para trabajar en R; +# a menos de que tengas una buena razón, deberías de quedarte con data.frames +# Las listas son usualmente devueltas por funciones que realizan regresiones +# lineales + +################################################## +# La familia de funciones apply() +################################################## + +# Te recuerdas de mat? +mat +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 1 4 +# [2,] 2 5 +# [3,] 3 6 +# Utiliza apply(X, MARGIN, FUN) paraaplicar una función FUN a la matriz X +# sobre las filas (MAR = 1) o las columnas (MAR = 2) +# Eso es, R aplica FUN sobre cada fila (o columna) de X, mucho más rápido que +# lo que haría un ciclo 'for' o 'loop' +apply(mat, MAR = 2, jiggle) +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 3 15 +# [2,] 7 19 +# [3,] 11 23 +# Otras funciones: ?lapply, ?sapply + +# No te sientas muy intimidado; todos están de acuerdo que son confusas + +# El paquete plyr busca reemplazar (y mejorar) la familiar *apply() +install.packages("plyr") +require(plyr) +?plyr + + + +######################### +# Carga de datos +######################### + +# "pets.csv" es un archivo en internet +# (pero puede ser tan fácil como tener el archivo en tu computadora) +pets <- read.csv("http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/pets.csv") +pets +head(pets, 2) # primeras dos filas +tail(pets, 1) # última fila + +# Para guardar un data frame o una matriz como un archivo .csv +write.csv(pets, "pets2.csv") # para hacer un nuevo archivo .csv +# definir el directorio de trabajo con setwd(), búscalo con getwd() + +# Prueba ?read.csv ?write.csv para más información + + +######################### +# Gráficas +######################### + +# FUNCIONES PREDEFINIDAS DE GRAFICACIÓN +# Gráficos de dispersión! +plot(list1$time, list1$price, main = "fake data") +# Regresiones! +linearModel <- lm(price ~ time, data = list1) +linearModel # Muestra el resultado de la regresión +# Grafica la línea de regresión +abline(linearModel, col = "red") +# Obtiene una veridad de diagnósticos +plot(linearModel) +# Histogramas! +hist(rpois(n = 10000, lambda = 5), col = "thistle") +# Barras! +barplot(c(1,4,5,1,2), names.arg = c("red","blue","purple","green","yellow")) + +# GGPLOT2 +# Pero éstas no son las gráficas más bonitas de R +# Prueba el paquete ggplot2 para mayor variedad y mejores gráficas +install.packages("ggplot2") +require(ggplot2) +?ggplot2 +pp <- ggplot(students, aes(x=house)) +pp + geom_histogram() +ll <- as.data.table(list1) +pp <- ggplot(ll, aes(x=time,price)) +pp + geom_point() +# ggplot2 tiene una excelente documentación +# (disponible en http://docs.ggplot2.org/current/) + + + +``` + +## ¿Cómo obtengo R? + +* Obtén R y R GUI de [http://www.r-project.org/](http://www.r-project.org/) +* [RStudio](http://www.rstudio.com/ide/) es otro GUI diff --git a/es-es/rust-es.html.markdown b/es-es/rust-es.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..b43cb815 --- /dev/null +++ b/es-es/rust-es.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,324 @@ +--- +language: rust +contributors: + - ["P1start", "http://p1start.github.io/"] +translators: + - ["Razican", "https://www.razican.com/"] +filename: learnrust-es.rs +lang: es-es +--- + +Rust es un lenguaje de programación desarrollado por Mozzilla Research. Rust +combina el control del rendimiento a bajo nivel con la comodidad del alto nivel +y garantías de seguridad. + +Consigue cumplir estos objetivos sin necesidad de un recolector de basura o +runtime, haciendo posible usar las librerías de Rust como sustituto de C. + +La primera versión de Rust, la 0.1, fue lanzada en enero de 2012, y durante 3 +años el desarrollo fue tan rápido que hasta hace poco el uso de las versiones +estables no era recomendable, y se aconsejaba usar las compilaciones nocturnas. + +El 15 de mayo de 2015 se lanzó Rust 1.0, con una garantía completa de +retrocompatibilidad. A día de hoy los tiempos de compilación han mejorado mucho +desde ese lanzamiento, así como otros aspectos del lenguaje y el compilador. +Rust ha adoptado un modelo de desarrollo por series de publicaciones periódicas, +con lanzamientos cada 6 semanas. Junto con cada lanzamiento, se lanza la beta de +la siguiente versión. + +A pesar de que Rust es un lenguaje relativamente de bajo nivel, tiene conceptos +funcionales que generalmente se encuentran en lenguajes de más alto nivel. Esto +hace que Rust sea rápido y al mismo tiempo fácil y eficiente a la hora de +programar. + +```rust +// Esto es un comentario. Los comentarios de una sola línea se hacen así... +/* ...y los de múltiples líneas así */ + +////////////////////////// +// 1. Conceptos básicos // +////////////////////////// + +// Funciones +// `i32` es el tipo para enteros de 32 bits con signo +fn suma2(x: i32, y: i32) -> i32 { + // Retorno implícito (sin punto y coma) + x + y +} + +// Función principal +fn main() { + // N;umeros // + + // Bindings (variables) inmutables + let x: i32 = 1; + + // Sufijos para enteros / floats + let y: i32 = 13i32; + let f: f64 = 1.3f64; + + // Inferencia de tipos + // La mayor parte del tiempo, el compilador de Rust puede inferir el tipo de + // una variable, por lo que no necesitas escribir una anotación de tipo + // explícita. A lo largo de este tutorial, los tipos están anotados + // explícitamente en varios sitios, pero solo con propósito demostrativo. La + // inferencia de tipos puede manejar esto por ti la mayor parte del tiempo. + let x_implicita = 1; + let f_implicita = 1.3; + + // Aritmética + let sum = x + y + 13; + + // Variable mutable + let mut mutable = 1; + mutable = 4; + mutable += 2; + + // Strings (cadenas de caracteres) // + + // Strings literales + let x: &str = "hola mundo!"; + + // Impresión por consola + println!("{} {}", f, x); // 1.3 hola mundo! + + // Un `String` – una cadena en memoria dinámica (heap) + let s: String = "hola mundo".to_string(); + + // Una porión de cadena (slice) – una vista inmutable a otra cadena + // Esto es básicamente un puntero inmutable a un string string – en realidad + // no contiene los caracteres de la cadena, solo un puntero a algo que los + // tiene (en este caso, `s`) + let s_slice: &str = &s; + + println!("{} {}", s, s_slice); // hola mundo hola mundo + + // Vectores/arrays // + + // A fixed-size array + let cuatro_enteros: [i32; 4] = [1, 2, 3, 4]; + + // Un array dinámico (vector) + let mut vector: Vec<i32> = vec![1, 2, 3, 4]; + vector.push(5); + + // Una porción (slice) – una vista inmutable a un vector o array + // Esto es parecido a un slice de un string, pero para vectores + let slice: &[i32] = &vector; + + // Usa `{:?}` para imprimir algo en estilo debug + println!("{:?} {:?}", vector, slice); // [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] + + // Tuplas // + + // Una tupla es un conjunto de tamaño fijo de valores. Pueden ser de diferente tipo. + let x: (i32, &str, f64) = (1, "hola", 3.4); + + // Desestructurando `let` + let (a, b, c) = x; + println!("{} {} {}", a, b, c); // 1 hola 3.4 + + // Indexando + println!("{}", x.1); // hola + + ////////////// + // 2. Tipos // + ////////////// + + // Estructuras + struct Punto { + x: i32, + y: i32, + } + + let origen: Punto = Punto { x: 0, y: 0 }; + + // Una estructura con campos sin nombre, una ‘estructura de tupla’ + struct Punto2(i32, i32); + + let origen2 = Punto2(0, 0); + + // Enums básicos como en C + enum Direccion { + Izquierda, + Derecha, + Arriba, + Abajo, + } + + let arriba = Direccion::Arriba; + + // Enum con campos + enum OpcionalI32 { + UnI32(i32), + Nada, + } + + let dos: OpcionalI32 = OpcionalI32::UnI32(2); + let nada = OpcionalI32::Nada; + + // Genéricos // + + struct Foo<T> { bar: T } + + // Esto está definido en la librería estándar como `Option` + enum Opcional<T> { + AlgunVal(T), + SinVal, + } + + // Métodos // + + impl<T> Foo<T> { + // Los métodos reciben un parámetro explícito `self` + fn get_bar(self) -> T { + self.bar + } + } + + let un_foo = Foo { bar: 1 }; + println!("{}", un_foo.get_bar()); // 1 + + // Traits (conocidos como interfaces o typeclasses en otros lenguajes) // + + trait Frobnicate<T> { + fn frobnicate(self) -> Option<T>; + } + + impl<T> Frobnicate<T> for Foo<T> { + fn frobnicate(self) -> Option<T> { + Some(self.bar) + } + } + + let otro_foo = Foo { bar: 1 }; + println!("{:?}", otro_foo.frobnicate()); // Some(1) + + ///////////////////////////////// + // 3. Comparación con patrones // + ///////////////////////////////// + + let foo = OpcionalI32::UnI32(1); + match foo { + OpcionalI32::UnI32(n) => println!("es un i32: {}", n), + OpcionalI32::Nada => println!("no es nada!"), + } + + // comparación de patrones avanzada + struct FooBar { x: i32, y: OpcionalI32 } + let bar = FooBar { x: 15, y: OpcionalI32::UnI32(32) }; + + match bar { + FooBar { x: 0, y: OpcionalI32::UnI32(0) } => + println!("Los números son cero!"), + FooBar { x: n, y: OpcionalI32::UnI32(m) } if n == m => + println!("Los números son iguales"), + FooBar { x: n, y: OpcionalI32::UnI32(m) } => + println!("Números diferentes: {} {}", n, m), + FooBar { x: _, y: OpcionalI32::Nada } => + println!("El segudo número no es nada!"), + } + + ///////////////////////// + // 4. Flujo de control // + ///////////////////////// + + // bucles `for` + let array = [1, 2, 3]; + for i in array.iter() { + println!("{}", i); + } + + // Rangos + for i in 0u32..10 { + print!("{} ", i); + } + println!(""); + // imprime `0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ` + + // `if` + if 1 == 1 { + println!("Las matemáticas funcionan!"); + } else { + println!("Oh no..."); + } + + // `if` como una expresión + let valor = if true { + "bueno" + } else { + "malo" + }; + + // bucle `while` + while 1 == 1 { + println!("El universo está funcionando correctamente."); + } + + // Bucle infinito + loop { + println!("Hola!"); + } + + //////////////////////////////////////// + // 5. Seguridad de memoria y punteros // + //////////////////////////////////////// + + // Posesión de punteros – solo uno puede ‘poseer’ un puntero en cada momento + // Esto significa que cuando la `Box` queda fuera del ámbito, puede ser + // liberada automáticamente de manera segura. + let mut mio: Box<i32> = Box::new(3); + *mio = 5; // dereferenciar + // Aquí, `ahora_es_mio`, toma posesión de `mio`. En otras palabras, `mio` se + // mueve. + let mut ahora_es_mio = mio; + *ahora_es_mio += 2; + + println!("{}", ahora_es_mio); // 7 + // println!("{}", mio); // esto no compilaría, porque `now_its_mine` es el + // que posee el puntero + + // Referencia – un puntero inmutable que referencia a otro dato + // Cuando se crea una referencia a un valor, decimos que el valor ha sido + // ‘tomado prestado’. + // Mientras un valor está prestado como inmutable, no puede ser modificado o + // movido. + // Una prestación dura hasta el fin del ámbito en el que se creó. + let mut var = 4; + var = 3; + let ref_var: &i32 = &var; + + println!("{}", var); // A diferencia de `mio`, `var` se puede seguir usando + println!("{}", *ref_var); + // var = 5; // esto no compilaría, porque `var` está prestada + // *ref_var = 6; // esto tampoco, porque `ref_var` es una referencia + // inmutable + + // Referencia mutable + // Mientras que un valor está prestado como mutable, no puede ser accedido + // desde ningún otro sitio. + let mut var2 = 4; + let ref_var2: &mut i32 = &mut var2; + *ref_var2 += 2; // '*' se usa para apuntar al var2 prestado como mutable + + println!("{}", *ref_var2); // 6 , //var2 no compilaría. //ref_var2 es de + // tipo &mut i32, por lo que guarda una + // referencia a un i32 no el valor. + // var2 = 2; // esto no compilaría porque `var2` está prestado +} +``` + +## Lectura adicional + +Rust es mucho más que esto. Esto es solo lo más básico para que puedas entender +las cosas más importantes. Para aprender más sobre Rust, lee [The Rust +Programming Language](http://doc.rust-lang.org/book/index.html) y echa un +vistazo al subreddit [/r/rust](http://reddit.com/r/rust). Los compañeros en el +canal #rust en irc.mozilla.org también son muy buenos con los recien llegados. +También puedes acceder a [Rust users](https://users.rust-lang.org/) a pedir +ayuda o a [Rust internals](https://internals.rust-lang.org/) para aprender más +sobre el lenguaje y colaborar en su desarrollo. + +También puedes probar Rust con un compilador online en el oficial [Rust +playpen](http://play.rust-lang.org) o en la [web principal de +Rust](http://rust-lang.org). diff --git a/es-es/yaml-es.html.markdown b/es-es/yaml-es.html.markdown index a5157b5d..cd3143fb 100644 --- a/es-es/yaml-es.html.markdown +++ b/es-es/yaml-es.html.markdown @@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ lang: es-es filename: learnyaml-es.yaml contributors: - ["Adam Brenecki", "https://github.com/adambrenecki"] + - ["Everardo Medina","https://github.com/everblut"] translators: - ["Daniel Zendejas","https://github.com/DanielZendejas"] --- @@ -14,7 +15,7 @@ leído y escrito por humanos. Basa su funcionalidad en JSON, con la adición de líneas nuevas e indentación inspirada en Python. A diferencia de Python, YAML -no permite tabs literales. +no permite tabulaciones literales. ```yaml # Los comentarios en YAML se ven así. @@ -38,97 +39,177 @@ llave con espacios: valor llave: "Un string, entre comillas." "Las llaves tambien pueden estar entre comillas.": "valor entre comillas" -# Los strings de líneas múltiples pueden ser escritos +# Los strings de líneas múltiples pueden ser escritos # como un 'bloque literal' (usando pipes |) # o como un 'bloque doblado' (usando >) bloque_literal: | Este bloque completo de texto será preservado como el valor de la llave 'bloque_literal', incluyendo los saltos de línea. - - Se continúa guardando la literal hasta que se cese la indentación. + + Se continúa guardando la literal hasta que se cese la indentación. Cualquier línea que tenga más indentación, mantendrá los espacios dados (por ejemplo, estas líneas se guardarán con cuatro espacios) -nloque_doblado: > +bloque_doblado: > De la misma forma que el valor de 'bloque_literal', todas estas líneas se guardarán como una sola literal, pero en esta ocasión todos los saltos de línea serán reemplazados por espacio. - Las líneas en blanco, como la anterior, son convertidos a un salto de línea. + Las líneas en blanco, como la anterior, son convertidas a un salto de línea. Las líneas con mayor indentación guardan sus saltos de línea. Esta literal ocuparán dos líneas. -######################## -# TIPOS DE COLECCIONES # -######################## - -# La indentación se usa para anidar. +# La indentación se usa para anidar elementos un_mapa_indentado: llave: valor otra_llave: otro valor otro_mapa_indentado: llave_interna: valor_interno -# Las llaves de los mapas no deben ser strings necesariamente +# Las llaves de los mapas no requieren ser strings necesariamente 0.25: una llave numérica -# Las llaves también pueden ser objetos de multi línea, usando ? para indicar -# el inicio de una llave +# Las llaves también pueden ser objetos de multiples líneas, +# usando ? para indicar el inicio de una llave ? | Esto es una llave que tiene múltiples líneas : y este es su valor -# YAML tambien permite colecciones como llaves, pero muchos lenguajes de +######################## +# TIPOS DE COLECCIONES # +######################## + +# Las colecciones en YAML usan la indentación para delimitar el alcance +# y cada elemento de la colección inicia en su propia línea. +# YAML tambien permite colecciones como llaves, pero muchos lenguajes de # programación se quejarán. # Las secuencias (equivalentes a listas o arreglos) se ven así: -una_secuencia: - - Item 1 - - Item 2 - - 0.5 # las secuencias pueden tener distintos tipos en su contenido. - - Item 4 - - llave: valor - otra_llave: otro_valor +- Amarillo +- Verde +- Azul + +# Se puede usar una secuencia como valor para una llave. +secuencia: + - Elemento 1 + - Elemento 2 + - Elemento 3 + - Elemento 4 + +# Las secuencias pueden contener secuencias como elementos. +- [Uno, Dos, Tres] +- [Domingo, Lunes, Martes] +- [Luna, Marte, Tierra] + +# Las secuencias pueden tener distintos tipos en su contenido. +secuencia_combinada: + - texto + - 5 + - 0.6 + - llave: valor # se convierte en un json dentro de la secuencia - - Esta es una secuencia - ...dentro de otra secuencia -# Dado que todo JSON está incluído dentro de YAML, también puedes escribir -# mapas con la sintaxis de JSON y secuencias: -mapa_de_json: {"llave": "valor"} -secuencia_de_json: [3, 2, 1, "despegue"] +# Dado que todo JSON está incluído dentro de YAML, también puedes escribir +# mapas con la sintaxis de JSON y secuencias: +mapa_de_json_1: {"llave": "valor"} +mapa_de_json_2: + llave: valor + +# Las secuencias tambien se pueden escribir como un arreglo al estilo JSON +secuencia_de_json_1: [3, 2, 1, "despegue"] +secuencia_de_json_2: + - 3 + - 2 + - 1 + - "despegue" + +# YAML también soporta conjuntos usando el simbolo ? +# y se ven de la siguiente forma: +set: + ? item1 + ? item2 + ? item3 + +# Se puede usar el tag !!set +# Al igual que Python, los conjuntos sólo son mapas con valores nulos. +# El ejemplo de arriba es equivalente a: +set2: + item1: null + item2: null + item3: null ################################## # CARACTERÍSTICAS EXTRAS DE YAML # ################################## +# YAML usa tres guiones (---) para diferenciar entre directivas +# y contenido del documento. +# Por otra parte, tres puntos (...) se utilizan para indicar +# el final del documento en casos especiales. + # YAML tiene funciones útiles llamadas 'anchors' (anclas), que te permiten -# duplicar fácilmente contenido a lo largo de tu documento. En el ejemplo -# a continuación, ambas llaves tendrán el mismo valor: -contenido_anclado: &nombre_del_ancla Este string será el valor de las llaves -otra_ancla: *nombre_del_ancla - -# YAML también tiene tags, que puedes usar para declarar tipos explícitamente. -string_explícito: !!str 0.5 -# Algunos parseadores implementar tags específicas del lenguaje, como el +# duplicar fácilmente contenido a lo largo de tu documento. +# El ampersand indica la declaración del ancla, +declara_ancla: &texto texto de la llave +# el asterisco indica el uso de dicha ancla. +usa_ancla: *texto # tendrá el valor "texto de la llave" + +################ +# TAGS EN YAML # +################ + +# En YAML, los nodos que no tienen un tag obtienen su tipo +# según la aplicación que los use, al usar un tag +# se pueden declarar tipos explícitamente. +string_explicito: !!str 0.5 # !!str para declarar un string +integer_explicito: !!int 5 # !!int para declarar un integer +float_explicito: !!float 1.2 # !!float para declarar un float +conjunto_explicito: !!set # !!set para declarar un conjunto + ? Uno + ? Dos + ? Tres +mapa_ordenado_explicito: !!omap # !!omap para declarar un mapa ordenado +- Primero: 1 +- Segundo: 2 +- Tercero: 3 +- Cuarto: 4 + +# Tags para los numeros enteros +llave_canonica: 5222 +llave_decimal: +5222 +llave_octal: 010 +llave_hexadecimal: 0xC + +#Tags para los numeros flotantes +llave_canonica: 1.215e+3 +llave_exponencial: 12.3555e+02 +llave_fija: 12.15 +llave_negativa_infinita: -.inf +llave_numero_invalido: .NaN + +# Tags para las fechas y horas +llave_canonica: 2001-12-15T02:59:43.1Z +llave_iso8601: 2001-12-14t21:59:43.10-05:00 +llave_con_espacios: 2001-12-14 21:59:43.10 -5 +llave_fecha: 2002-12-14 + +# Además existen tags para +null: #valor nulo +booleans: [ true, false ] # Valores booleanos +string: '012345' # Valor en string + + +# Algunos parseadores implementan tags específicas del lenguaje, como el # que se muestra a continuación, encargado de manejar números complejos en # Python: numero_complejo_python: !!python/complex 1+2j -######################## -# TIPOS EXTRAS EN YAML # -######################## - -# Stirngs y números no son los únicos escalares que YAML puede entener. -# YAML también puede parsear fechas en formato ISO . -fechaHora: 2001-12-15T02:59:43.1Z -fechaHora_con_espacios: 2001-12-14 21:59:43.10 -5 -fecha: 2002-12-14 - -# La tag !!binary indica que un string es, en realidad, un blob +# El tag !!binary indica que un string es en realidad un blob # representado en base-64. archivo_gif: !!binary | R0lGODlhDAAMAIQAAP//9/X17unp5WZmZgAAAOfn515eXvPz7Y6OjuDg4J+fn5 @@ -136,16 +217,10 @@ archivo_gif: !!binary | +f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++SH+Dk1hZGUgd2l0aCBHSU1QACwAAAAADAAMAAAFLC AgjoEwnuNAFOhpEMTRiggcz4BNJHrv/zCFcLiwMWYNG84BwwEeECcgggoBADs= -# YAML también tiene un tipo set, que se ve de la siguiente forma: -set: - ? item1 - ? item2 - ? item3 - -# Al igual que Python, los sets sólo son mapas con valores nulos. -# El ejemplo de arriba es equivalente a: -set2: - item1: null - item2: null - item3: null ``` + +### Recursos adicionales + ++ [Sitio oficial de YAML](http://yaml.org/) ++ [Parser en línea de de YAML](http://yaml-online-parser.appspot.com/) ++ [Validador en línea de YAML](http://codebeautify.org/yaml-validator) diff --git a/fa-ir/css-fa.html.markdown b/fa-ir/css-fa.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4e222eb2 --- /dev/null +++ b/fa-ir/css-fa.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,307 @@ +--- +language: css +contributors: + - ["Mohammad Valipour", "https://github.com/mvalipour"] + - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] + - ["Geoffrey Liu", "https://github.com/g-liu"] + - ["Connor Shea", "https://github.com/connorshea"] + - ["Deepanshu Utkarsh", "https://github.com/duci9y"] + - ["Tyler Mumford", "https://tylermumford.com"] +translators: + - ["Arashk", "https://github.com/Arashk-A"] +lang: fa-ir +filename: learncss-fa.css +--- + +<p dir='rtl'>در روزهای آغازین وب هیچگونه عنصر بصری مشاهده نمیشد و محتوا به صورت متن خالی بود. </p> +<p dir='rtl'>اما با توسعه بیشتر مرورگرها صفحات وب کاملاً تصویری نیز رایج شد</p> +<p dir='rtl'>CSS زبان استانداردی که موجودیت آن برای حفظ جدایی بین محتوا (HTML) و نگاه و احساس از</p> +<p dir='rtl'>صفحات وب است.</p> + +<p dir='rtl'>به طور خلاصه, کاری که CSS انجام میدهد ارائه نحوه ایست که شما را قادر به هدف قرار دادن</p> +<p dir='rtl'>عناصر مختلف در یک صفحه HTML کرده و امکان اختصاص خواص متفاوت بصری به آنها را میدهد.</p> + + +<p dir='rtl'>مانند هر زبانی, CSS نسخه های زیادی دارد که در اینجا توجه ما روی CSS2.0 است. با وجودی که این نسخه جدیدترین نسخه نمیباشد اما بیشترین پشتیبانی و سازگاری را در میان نسخه های مختلف را دارد</p> + +<p dir='rtl'><strong>توجه: </strong> برای مشاهده برخی از نتایج جلوه های تصویری CSS به منظور یادگیری بیشتر شما باید چیزهای گوناگونی در محیطی مثل [dabblet](http://dabblet.com/) امتحان کنید. توجه اصلی این مقاله روی دستورات و برخی از نکات عمومی است.</p> + + +<p dir='rtl'>در CSS همه توضیحات داخل ستاره-بروم نوشته میشوند زیرا CSS دستوری برای توضیحات تک خطی مثل C ندارد</p> + +```CSS +/* comments appear inside slash-asterisk, just like this line! + there are no "one-line comments"; this is the only comment style */ +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>به طور کلی دستورات CSS بسیار ساده هستند که در آن یک انتخابگر (selector) عنصری را در روی صفحه هدف قرار میدهد.</p> + +```CSS +selector { property: value; /* more properties...*/ } +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>با استفاده از ستاره می توان برای همه عناصر روی صفحه استایل تعریف کرد</p> + + +```CSS +* { color:red; } +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>فرض کنید عنصری مثل این بر روی صفحه قرار دارد</p> + +```html +<div class='some-class class2' id='someId' attr='value' otherAttr='en-us foo bar' /> +``` +<p dir='rtl'>شما میتوانید با استفاده از نام کلاس آنرا انتخاب کنید</p> + + +```CSS +.some-class { } +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>یا با استفاده از نام دو کلاس</p> + +```CSS +.some-class.class2 { } +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>یا با استفاده از نام id</p> + +```CSS +#someId { } +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>یا با استفاده از نام خود عنصر</p> + +```CSS +div { } +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>یا با استفاده از `attr`</p> + +```CSS +[attr] { font-size:smaller; } +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>یا با استفاده از ارزشی که برای `attr` مشخص شده</p> + +```CSS +[attr='value'] { font-size:smaller; } +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>با استفاده از ارزشی که برای `attr` مشخص شده و آن ارزش با `val` شروع میشود در CSS3</p> + +```CSS +[attr^='val'] { font-size:smaller; } +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>با استفاده از ارزشی که برای `attr` مشخص شده و آن ارزش با `ue` به پایان میرسد در CSS3</p> + +```CSS +[attr$='ue'] { font-size:smaller; } +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>یا با انتخاب بوسیله یکی از ارزشهایی که در لیست `otherAttr` بوسیله فاصله از هم جدا شده اند در CSS3</p> + +```CSS +[attr$='ue'] { font-size:smaller; } +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>یا ارزش(`value`) دقیقاً خود ارزش(`value`) یا بوسیله `-` که یونیکد (U+002D) از حرف بعدی جدا شود</p> + +```CSS +[otherAttr|='en'] { font-size:smaller; } +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>و مهمتر از همه اینکه میتوان آنها را ترکیب کرد. نکته مهمی که در اینجا باید مد نظر داشته باشید این است که هنگام ترکیب نباید هیچگونه فاصله ای بین آنها قرار گیرد زیرا در این حالت معنای دستور تغییر میکند</p> + +```CSS +div.some-class[attr$='ue'] { } +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>CSS این امکان را به شما میدهد که یک عنصر را بوسیله والدین آن انتخاب کنید</p> +<p dir='rtl'>برای مثال دستور زیر همه عناصری را که نام کلاس آنها <span dir="ltr">`.class-name`</span> و دارای پدر و مادری با این مشخصه <span dir="ltr">`div.some-parent`</span> هستند را انتخاب میکند.</p> + +```CSS +div.some-parent > .class-name {} +``` + + +<p dir='rtl'>یا دستور زیر که همه عناصری را که نام کلاس آنها <span dir="ltr">`.class-name`</span> و داخل عنصری با مشخصه <span dir="ltr">`div.some-parent`</span> هستند را در هر عمقی که باشند (یعنی فرزندی از فرزندان <span dir="ltr">`div.some-parent`</span><span dir="ltr"> باشند) انتخاب میکند.</p> + +```CSS +div.some-parent .class-name {} +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>نکته ای که در اینجا باید به آن توجه کنید این است که این رستور با فاصله ای بین نام دو کلاس همراه است و با مثال زیر که در بالا هم ذکر شد تفاوت دارد.</p> + +```CSS +div.some-parent.class-name {} +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>دستور زیر همه عناصری را که نام کلاس آنها <span dir="ltr">`.this-element`</span> و بلافاصله بعد از عنصری با مشخصه <span dir="ltr">`.i-am-before`</span> قرار دارد را انتخاب میکند.</p> + +```CSS +.i-am-before + .this-element { } +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>هر خواهر یا برادری که بعد از <span dir="ltr">`.i-am-before`</span> بیاید در اینجا لازم نیست بلافاصله بعد از هم قرار بگیرند ولی باید دارای پدر و مادری یکسان باشند.</p> + +```CSS +.i-am-any-before ~ .this-element {} +``` +<p dir='rtl'>در زیر چند نمونه از شبه کلاسها را معرفی میکنیم که به شما اجازه میدهد عناصر را بر اساس رفتار آنها در صفحه انتخاب کنید.</p> +<p dir='rtl'>برای مثال زمانی که اشاره گر ماوس روی عنصری بر روی صفحه قرار دارد.</p> + +```CSS +selector:hover {} +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>یا زمانی از یک لینک بازید کردید.</p> + +```CSS +selected:visited {} +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>یا زمانی از لینکی بازید نشده است.</p> + +```CSS +selected:link {} +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>یا زمانی که روی یک عنصر ورودی متمرکز شده.</p> + +```CSS +selected:focus {} +``` + +<h3 dir='rtl'>واحدها</h3> + +```CSS +selector { + + /* واحدها اندازه */ + width: 50%; /* در اساس درصد */ + font-size: 2em; /* بر اساس اندازه font-size یعنی دو برابر اندازه فونت فعلی */ + width: 200px; /* بر اساس پیکسل */ + font-size: 20pt; /* بر اساس points (نکات) */ + width: 5cm; /* بر اساس سانتیمتر */ + min-width: 50mm; /* بر اساس میلیمتر */ + max-width: 5in; /* بر اساس اینچ. max-(width|height) */ + height: 0.2vh; /* بر اساس ارتفاع دید `vh = نسبت به 1٪ از ارتفاع دید` (CSS3) */ + width: 0.4vw; /* بر اساس عرض دید `vw = نسبت به 1٪ از عرض دید` (CSS3) */ + min-height: 0.1vmin; /* بر اساس کوچکترین مقدار از ارتفاع یا عرض دید (CSS3) */ + max-width: 0.3vmax; /* مانند مثال بالا برای بیشترین مقدار (CSS3) */ + + /* رنگها */ + background-color: #F6E; /* بر اساس short hex */ + background-color: #F262E2; /* بر اساس long hex format */ + background-color: tomato; /* بر اساس نام رنگ */ + background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); /* بر اساس rgb */ + background-color: rgb(10%, 20%, 50%); /* بر اساس درصد rgb , (rgb percent) */ + background-color: rgba(255, 0, 0, 0.3); /* بر اساس rgba (نیمه شفاف) , (semi-transparent rgb) (CSS3) */ + background-color: transparent; /* شفاف */ + background-color: hsl(0, 100%, 50%); /* بر اساس hsl format (CSS3). */ + background-color: hsla(0, 100%, 50%, 0.3); /* بر اساس hsla ,مثل RGBAکه میتوان شفافیت را در آخر انتخاب کرد (CSS3) */ + + + /* عکسها */ + background-image: url(/path-to-image/image.jpg); /* گذاشتن نقل قول داخل url() اختیاری است*/ + + /* فونتها */ + font-family: Arial; + font-family: "Courier New"; /* اگر اسم فونت با فاصله همراه باشد باید داخل نقل قول یک یا دو نوشته شود */ + font-family: "Courier New", Trebuchet, Arial, sans-serif; /* اگر فونت اولی پیدا نشد مرورگر به سراغ نام بعدی میرود */ +} +``` + +<h2 dir='rtl'>نحوه استفاده</h2> + +<p dir='rtl'>هر دستور CSS را که می خواهید در فایلی با پسوند <span dir="ltr">.css</span> ذخیره کنید </p> +<p dir='rtl'>حالا با استفاده از کد زیر آنرا در قسمت `head` داخل فایل html خود تعریف کنید </p> + +```html +<link rel='stylesheet' type='text/css' href='path/to/style.css' /> +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>یا میتوان با استفاده از تگ `style` درون `head` دستورات CSS را به صورت درون برنامه ای تعریف کرد اما توسیه میشود تا جای ممکن از این کار اجتناب کنید. </p> + +```html +<style> + a { color: purple; } +</style> +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>همچنین شما میتوانید دستورات CSS را به عنوان یک مشخصه برای عنصر تعریف کنید ولی تا جای ممکن باید از این کار اجتناب کنید.</p> + +```html +<div style="border: 1px solid red;"> +</div> +``` + +<h2 dir='rtl'>حق تقدم یا اولویت</h2> + +<p dir='rtl'>همانگونه که مشاهده کردید یک مشخصه می تواند به وسیله چندین انتخابگر انتخاب گردد.</p> +<p dir='rtl'>و همچنین یک ویژگی میتواند چندین بار برای یک عنصر تعریف شود.</p> +<p dir='rtl'>در این صورت یک دستور میتواند بر دستورات دیگر حق تقدم یا اولویت پیدا کند.</p> + +<p dir='rtl'>به مثال زیر توجه کنید:</p> + +```CSS +/*A*/ +p.class1[attr='value'] + +/*B*/ +p.class1 {} + +/*C*/ +p.class2 {} + +/*D*/ +p {} + +/*E*/ +p { property: value !important; } + +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>و همچنین به کد زیر:</p> + +```html +<p style='/*F*/ property:value;' class='class1 class2' attr='value'> +</p> + +``` + +<p dir='rtl'>حق تقدم یا اولویت برای مثال بالا به این صورت است:</p> +<p dir='rtl'>توجه داشته باشید که حق تقدم برای هر کدام از ویژگیها است نه برای کل مجموعه.</p> + +<p dir='rtl'>E دارای بیشترین الویت برای اینکه از <span dir="ltr">`!important`</span> استفاده کرده.</p> +<p dir='rtl'>اما توصیه میشود تا جای ممکن از این کار اجتناب کنید مگر اینکه اینکار ضرورت داشته باشد</p> +<p dir='rtl'>اولویت بعدی با F است زیرا که از روش درون برنامه ای استفاده کرده </p> +<p dir='rtl'>اولویت بعدی با A است زیرا که بیشتر از بقیه مشخص تر تعریف شپه </p> +<p dir='rtl'>مشخص تر = مشخص کننده بیشتر. دارای ۳ مشخص کننده: ۱ تگ <span dir="ltr">`p`</span> + ۱ کلاس با نام <span dir="ltr">`class1`</span> + ۱ خاصیت <span dir="ltr">`attr="value"`</span></p> +<p dir='rtl'>اولویت بعدی با C است که مشخصه یکسانی با B دارد ولی بعد از آن تعریف شده است.</p> +<p dir='rtl'>اولویت بعدی با B</p> +<p dir='rtl'>و در آخر D</p> + +<h2 dir='rtl'>سازگاری</h2> + +<p dir='rtl'>بسیار از ویژگیهای CSS2 (و به تدریج CSS3) بر روی تمام مرورگرها و دستگاه ها سازگارند.اما همیشه حیاتی است که سازگاری CSS مورد استفاده خود را با مرورگر هدف چک کنید.</p> + +<p dir='rtl'> یک منبع خوب برای این کار است</p> +[QuirksMode CSS](http://www.quirksmode.org/css/) + +<p dir='rtl'>برای یک تست سازگاری سریع, منبع زیر میتواند کمک بزرگی برای این کار باشد.</p> +[CanIUse](http://caniuse.com/) + +<h2 dir='rtl'> منابع دیگر </h2> + + +[Understanding Style Precedence in CSS: Specificity, Inheritance, and the Cascade](http://www.vanseodesign.com/css/css-specificity-inheritance-cascaade/) + +[QuirksMode CSS](http://www.quirksmode.org/css/) + +[Z-Index - The stacking context](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/Guide/CSS/Understanding_z_index/The_stacking_context) + + diff --git a/forth.html.markdown b/forth.html.markdown index b4a5581b..55d755b2 100644 --- a/forth.html.markdown +++ b/forth.html.markdown @@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ Forth, but most of what is written here should work elsewhere. 3 dup - \ duplicate the top item (1st now equals 2nd): 3 - 3 2 5 swap / \ swap the top with the second element: 5 / 2 6 4 5 rot .s \ rotate the top 3 elements: 4 5 6 -4 0 drop 2 / \ remove the top item (dont print to screen): 4 / 2 +4 0 drop 2 / \ remove the top item (don't print to screen): 4 / 2 1 2 3 nip .s \ remove the second item (similar to drop): 1 3 \ ---------------------- More Advanced Stack Manipulation ---------------------- diff --git a/fsharp.html.markdown b/fsharp.html.markdown index 809a1da2..e345201d 100644 --- a/fsharp.html.markdown +++ b/fsharp.html.markdown @@ -346,7 +346,7 @@ module DataTypeExamples = let trySendEmail email = match email with // use pattern matching | ValidEmailAddress address -> () // send - | InvalidEmailAddress address -> () // dont send + | InvalidEmailAddress address -> () // don't send // The combination of union types and record types together // provide a great foundation for domain driven design. @@ -426,7 +426,7 @@ module ActivePatternExamples = // ----------------------------------- // You can create partial matching patterns as well - // Just use underscore in the defintion, and return Some if matched. + // Just use underscore in the definition, and return Some if matched. let (|MultOf3|_|) i = if i % 3 = 0 then Some MultOf3 else None let (|MultOf5|_|) i = if i % 5 = 0 then Some MultOf5 else None @@ -627,7 +627,3 @@ module NetCompatibilityExamples = For more demonstrations of F#, go to the [Try F#](http://www.tryfsharp.org/Learn) site, or my [why use F#](http://fsharpforfunandprofit.com/why-use-fsharp/) series. Read more about F# at [fsharp.org](http://fsharp.org/). - - - - diff --git a/git.html.markdown b/git.html.markdown index 35f24b2d..6472c462 100644 --- a/git.html.markdown +++ b/git.html.markdown @@ -24,9 +24,12 @@ Version control is a system that records changes to a file(s), over time. ### Centralized Versioning VS Distributed Versioning -* Centralized version control focuses on synchronizing, tracking, and backing up files. -* Distributed version control focuses on sharing changes. Every change has a unique id. -* Distributed systems have no defined structure. You could easily have a SVN style, centralized system, with git. +* Centralized version control focuses on synchronizing, tracking, and backing +up files. +* Distributed version control focuses on sharing changes. Every change has a +unique id. +* Distributed systems have no defined structure. You could easily have a SVN +style, centralized system, with git. [Additional Information](http://git-scm.com/book/en/Getting-Started-About-Version-Control) @@ -35,13 +38,13 @@ Version control is a system that records changes to a file(s), over time. * Can work offline. * Collaborating with others is easy! * Branching is easy! +* Branching is fast! * Merging is easy! * Git is fast. * Git is flexible. ## Git Architecture - ### Repository A set of files, directories, historical records, commits, and heads. Imagine it @@ -52,7 +55,8 @@ A git repository is comprised of the .git directory & working tree. ### .git Directory (component of repository) -The .git directory contains all the configurations, logs, branches, HEAD, and more. +The .git directory contains all the configurations, logs, branches, HEAD, and +more. [Detailed List.](http://gitready.com/advanced/2009/03/23/whats-inside-your-git-directory.html) ### Working Tree (component of repository) @@ -62,16 +66,16 @@ referred to as your working directory. ### Index (component of .git dir) -The Index is the staging area in git. It's basically a layer that separates your working tree -from the Git repository. This gives developers more power over what gets sent -to the Git repository. +The Index is the staging area in git. It's basically a layer that separates +your working tree from the Git repository. This gives developers more power +over what gets sent to the Git repository. ### Commit -A git commit is a snapshot of a set of changes, or manipulations to your Working -Tree. For example, if you added 5 files, and removed 2 others, these changes -will be contained in a commit (or snapshot). This commit can then be pushed to -other repositories, or not! +A git commit is a snapshot of a set of changes, or manipulations to your +Working Tree. For example, if you added 5 files, and removed 2 others, these +changes will be contained in a commit (or snapshot). This commit can then be +pushed to other repositories, or not! ### Branch @@ -85,11 +89,14 @@ functionality to mark release points (v1.0, and so on) ### HEAD and head (component of .git dir) -HEAD is a pointer that points to the current branch. A repository only has 1 *active* HEAD. -head is a pointer that points to any commit. A repository can have any number of heads. +HEAD is a pointer that points to the current branch. A repository only has 1 +*active* HEAD. +head is a pointer that points to any commit. A repository can have any number +of heads. ### Stages of Git -* Modified - Changes have been made to a file but file has not been committed to Git Database yet +* Modified - Changes have been made to a file but file has not been committed +to Git Database yet * Staged - Marks a modified file to go into your next commit snapshot * Committed - Files have been committed to the Git Database @@ -98,14 +105,12 @@ head is a pointer that points to any commit. A repository can have any number of * [Git For Computer Scientists](http://eagain.net/articles/git-for-computer-scientists/) * [Git For Designers](http://hoth.entp.com/output/git_for_designers.html) - ## Commands - ### init -Create an empty Git repository. The Git repository's settings, stored information, -and more is stored in a directory (a folder) named ".git". +Create an empty Git repository. The Git repository's settings, stored +information, and more is stored in a directory (a folder) named ".git". ```bash $ git init @@ -116,7 +121,6 @@ $ git init To configure settings. Whether it be for the repository, the system itself, or global configurations ( global config file is `~/.gitconfig` ). - ```bash # Print & Set Some Basic Config Variables (Global) $ git config --global user.email "MyEmail@Zoho.com" @@ -157,13 +161,11 @@ $ echo "temp/" >> .gitignore $ echo "private_key" >> .gitignore ``` - ### status To show differences between the index file (basically your working copy/repo) and the current HEAD commit. - ```bash # Will display the branch, untracked files, changes and other differences $ git status @@ -174,8 +176,8 @@ $ git help status ### add -To add files to the staging area/index. If you do not `git add` new files to the -staging area/index, they will not be included in commits! +To add files to the staging area/index. If you do not `git add` new files to +the staging area/index, they will not be included in commits! ```bash # add a file in your current working directory @@ -193,7 +195,8 @@ working directory/repo. ### branch -Manage your branches. You can view, edit, create, delete branches using this command. +Manage your branches. You can view, edit, create, delete branches using this +command. ```bash # list existing branches & remotes @@ -220,54 +223,64 @@ Manage your tags ```bash # List tags $ git tag + # Create a annotated tag # The -m specifies a tagging message,which is stored with the tag. # If you don’t specify a message for an annotated tag, # Git launches your editor so you can type it in. $ git tag -a v2.0 -m 'my version 2.0' + # Show info about tag # That shows the tagger information, the date the commit was tagged, # and the annotation message before showing the commit information. $ git show v2.0 + # Push a single tag to remote $ git push origin v2.0 + # Push a lot of tags to remote $ git push origin --tags ``` ### checkout -Updates all files in the working tree to match the version in the index, or specified tree. +Updates all files in the working tree to match the version in the index, or +specified tree. ```bash # Checkout a repo - defaults to master branch $ git checkout + # Checkout a specified branch $ git checkout branchName + # Create a new branch & switch to it # equivalent to "git branch <name>; git checkout <name>" + $ git checkout -b newBranch ``` ### clone Clones, or copies, an existing repository into a new directory. It also adds -remote-tracking branches for each branch in the cloned repo, which allows you to push -to a remote branch. +remote-tracking branches for each branch in the cloned repo, which allows you +to push to a remote branch. ```bash # Clone learnxinyminutes-docs $ git clone https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git + # shallow clone - faster cloning that pulls only latest snapshot $ git clone --depth 1 https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git + # clone only a specific branch $ git clone -b master-cn https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git --single-branch ``` ### commit -Stores the current contents of the index in a new "commit." This commit contains -the changes made and a message created by the user. +Stores the current contents of the index in a new "commit." This commit +contains the changes made and a message created by the user. ```bash # commit with a message @@ -382,7 +395,8 @@ $ git pull origin master $ git pull # Merge in changes from remote branch and rebase -# branch commits onto your local repo, like: "git pull <remote> <branch>, git rebase <branch>" +# branch commits onto your local repo, like: "git pull <remote> <branch>, git +# rebase <branch>" $ git pull origin master --rebase ``` @@ -408,8 +422,8 @@ $ git push ### stash -Stashing takes the dirty state of your working directory and saves it on a stack -of unfinished changes that you can reapply at any time. +Stashing takes the dirty state of your working directory and saves it on a +stack of unfinished changes that you can reapply at any time. Let's say you've been doing some work in your git repo, but you want to pull from the remote. Since you have dirty (uncommited) changes to some files, you @@ -440,7 +454,8 @@ nothing to commit, working directory clean ``` You can see what "hunks" you've stashed so far using `git stash list`. -Since the "hunks" are stored in a Last-In-First-Out stack, our most recent change will be at top. +Since the "hunks" are stored in a Last-In-First-Out stack, our most recent +change will be at top. ```bash $ git stash list @@ -470,7 +485,8 @@ Now you're ready to get back to work on your stuff! ### rebase (caution) -Take all changes that were committed on one branch, and replay them onto another branch. +Take all changes that were committed on one branch, and replay them onto +another branch. *Do not rebase commits that you have pushed to a public repo*. ```bash @@ -484,8 +500,8 @@ $ git rebase master experimentBranch ### reset (caution) Reset the current HEAD to the specified state. This allows you to undo merges, -pulls, commits, adds, and more. It's a great command but also dangerous if you don't -know what you are doing. +pulls, commits, adds, and more. It's a great command but also dangerous if you +don't know what you are doing. ```bash # Reset the staging area, to match the latest commit (leaves dir unchanged) @@ -503,11 +519,12 @@ $ git reset 31f2bb1 # after the specified commit). $ git reset --hard 31f2bb1 ``` + ### revert -Revert can be used to undo a commit. It should not be confused with reset which restores -the state of a project to a previous point. Revert will add a new commit which is the -inverse of the specified commit, thus reverting it. +Revert can be used to undo a commit. It should not be confused with reset which +restores the state of a project to a previous point. Revert will add a new +commit which is the inverse of the specified commit, thus reverting it. ```bash # Revert a specified commit @@ -549,4 +566,3 @@ $ git rm /pather/to/the/file/HelloWorld.c * [Pro Git](http://www.git-scm.com/book/en/v2) * [An introduction to Git and GitHub for Beginners (Tutorial)](http://product.hubspot.com/blog/git-and-github-tutorial-for-beginners) - diff --git a/hy.html.markdown b/hy.html.markdown index fa039bfd..79c16c23 100644 --- a/hy.html.markdown +++ b/hy.html.markdown @@ -3,13 +3,14 @@ language: hy filename: learnhy.hy contributors: - ["Abhishek L", "http://twitter.com/abhishekl"] + - ["Zirak", "http://zirak.me"] --- Hy is a lisp dialect built on top of python. This is achieved by converting hy code to python's abstract syntax tree (ast). This allows hy to call native python code or python to call native hy code as well -This tutorial works for hy ≥ 0.9.12 +This tutorial works for hy ≥ 0.9.12, with some corrections for hy 0.11. ```clojure ;; this gives an gentle introduction to hy for a quick trial head to @@ -89,6 +90,17 @@ True ; => True (foolists 3) ;=> [3 2] (foolists 10 3) ;=> [10 3] +; you can use rest arguments and kwargs too: +(defn something-fancy [wow &rest descriptions &kwargs props] + (print "Look at" wow) + (print "It's" descriptions) + (print "And it also has:" props)) + +(something-fancy "My horse" "amazing" :mane "spectacular") + +; you use apply instead of the splat operators: +(apply something-fancy ["My horse" "amazing"] { "mane" "spectacular" }) + ; anonymous functions are created using `fn' or `lambda' constructs ; which are similiar to `defn' (map (fn [x] (* x x)) [1 2 3 4]) ;=> [1 4 9 16] @@ -102,6 +114,8 @@ True ; => True ; slice lists using slice (slice mylist 1 3) ;=> [2 3] +; or, in hy 0.11, use cut instead: +(cut mylist 1 3) ;=> [2 3] ; get elements from a list or dict using `get' (get mylist 1) ;=> 2 @@ -122,6 +136,22 @@ True ; => True ; a.foo(arg) is called as (.foo a arg) (.split (.strip "hello world ")) ;=> ["hello" "world"] +; there is a shortcut for executing multiple functions on a value called the +; "threading macro", denoted by an arrow: +(-> "hello world " (.strip) (.split)) ;=> ["hello" "world] +; the arrow passes the value along the calls as the first argument, for instance: +(-> 4 (* 3) (+ 2)) +; is the same as: +(+ (* 4 3) 2) + +; there is also a "threading tail macro", which instead passes the value as the +; second argument. compare: +(-> 4 (- 2) (+ 1)) ;=> 3 +(+ (- 4 2) 1) ;=> 3 +; to: +(->> 4 (- 2) (+ 1)) ;=> -1 +(+ 1 (- 2 4)) ;=> -1 + ;; Conditionals ; (if condition (body-if-true) (body-if-false) (if (= passcode "moria") @@ -160,6 +190,14 @@ True ; => True [get-spell (fn [self] self.spell)]]) +; or, in hy 0.11: +(defclass Wizard [object] + (defn --init-- [self spell] + (setv self.spell spell)) + + (defn get-spell [self] + self.spell)) + ;; do checkout hylang.org ``` diff --git a/id-id/json-id.html.markdown b/id-id/json-id.html.markdown index 52e61449..ca346f6c 100644 --- a/id-id/json-id.html.markdown +++ b/id-id/json-id.html.markdown @@ -1,11 +1,12 @@ --- language: json -filename: learnjson.json +filename: learnjson-id.json contributors: - ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"] - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] -translators +translators: - ["Rizky Luthfianto", "https://github.com/rilut"] +lang: id-id --- JSON adalah format pertukaran data yang sangat simpel, kemungkinan besar, diff --git a/it-it/bash-it.html.markdown b/it-it/bash-it.html.markdown index af8823c4..d535babc 100644 --- a/it-it/bash-it.html.markdown +++ b/it-it/bash-it.html.markdown @@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ contributors: - ["Anton Strömkvist", "http://lutic.org/"] - ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"] - ["Gregrory Kielian", "https://github.com/gskielian"] -filename: LearnBash.sh +filename: LearnBash-it.sh translators: - ["Robert Margelli", "http://github.com/sinkswim/"] - ["Tommaso Pifferi", "http://github.com/neslinesli93/"] diff --git a/it-it/git-it.html.markdown b/it-it/git-it.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..521538a1 --- /dev/null +++ b/it-it/git-it.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,498 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: git +contributors: + - ["Jake Prather", "http://github.com/JakeHP"] + - ["Leo Rudberg" , "http://github.com/LOZORD"] + - ["Betsy Lorton" , "http://github.com/schbetsy"] + - ["Bruno Volcov", "http://github.com/volcov"] +translators: + - ["Christian Grasso", "http://chris54721.net"] +filename: LearnGit-it.txt +lang: it-it +--- + +Git è un sistema di +[controllo versione distribuito](https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controllo_versione_distribuito) +e di gestione del codice sorgente. + +Git esegue una serie di _snapshot_ per salvare lo stato di un progetto, così +facendo può fornirti la possibilità di gestire il tuo codice e di salvarne lo +stato assegnando delle versioni. + +## Basi del controllo versione + +### Cos'è il controllo versione? + +Il controllo versione (_Version Control_ o _Versioning_) è un sistema che +registra le modifiche apportate a uno o più file nel tempo. + +### Controllo versione centralizzato e distribuito + +* Il controllo versione centralizzato si concentra sulla sincronizzazione, il + monitoraggio e il backup dei file. +* Il controllo versione distribuito si concentra sulla condivisione delle + modifiche. Ogni modifica ha un identificatore univoco. +* I sistemi distribuiti non hanno una struttura definita. Si potrebbe creare + ad esempio un sistema centralizzato simile a SVN utilizzando Git. + +[Ulteriori informazioni](http://git-scm.com/book/it/v1/Per-Iniziare-Il-Controllo-di-Versione) + +### Perchè usare Git? + +* Consente di lavorare offline. +* Collaborare con altre persone è semplice! +* Utilizzare i branch (rami di sviluppo) è semplice! +* Git è veloce. +* Git è flessibile. + +## Architettura di Git + +### Repository + +Un insieme di file, cartelle, registrazioni della cronologia e versioni. +Immaginalo come una struttura dati del codice, con la caratteristica che ogni +"elemento" del codice ti fornisce accesso alla sua cronologia delle revisioni, +insieme ad altre cose. + +Un repository comprende la cartella .git e il working tree. + +### Cartella .git (componente del repository) + +La cartella .git contiene tutte le configurazioni, i log, i rami e altro. +[Lista dettagliata](http://gitready.com/advanced/2009/03/23/whats-inside-your-git-directory.html) + +### Working Tree (componente del repository) + +Si tratta semplicemente delle cartelle e dei file presenti nel repository. +Spesso viene indicato come "directory di lavoro" ("working directory"). + +### Index (componente della cartella .git) + +L'Index è l'area di staging di Git. Si tratta di un livello che separa il +working tree dal repository. Ciò fornisce agli sviluppatori più controllo su +cosa viene inviato al repository. + +### Commit + +Un commit è uno snapshot di una serie di modifiche apportate al working tree. +Ad esempio, se hai aggiunto 5 file e ne hai rimossi 2, ciò sarà registrato in +un commit. Il commit può essere pushato (inviato) o meno ad altri repository. + +### Branch (ramo) + +Un branch (ramo) è essenzialmente un puntatore all'ultimo commit che hai +effettuato. Effettuando altri commit, il puntatore verrà automaticamente +aggiornato per puntare all'ultimo commit. + +### Tag + +Un tag è un contrassegno applicato a un punto specifico nella cronologia dei +commit. Di solito i tag vengono utilizzati per contrassegnare le versioni +rilasciate (v1.0, v1.1, etc.). + +### HEAD e head (componenti della cartella .git) + +HEAD (in maiuscolo) è un puntatore che punta al branch corrente. Un repository +può avere solo 1 puntatore HEAD *attivo*. + +head (in minuscolo) è un puntatore che può puntare a qualsiasi commit. Un +repository può avere un numero qualsiasi di puntatori head. + +### Stadi di Git +* _Modified_ - Un file è stato modificato, ma non è ancora stato effettuato + un commit per registrare le modifiche nel database di Git +* _Staged_ - Un file modificato è stato contrassegnato per essere incluso nel + prossimo commit +* _Committed_ - È stato effettuato un commit e le modifiche sono state + registrate nel database di Git + +## Comandi + +### init + +Crea un repository Git vuoto. Le impostazioni e le informazioni del repository +sono salvate nella cartella ".git". + +```bash +$ git init +``` + +### config + +Utilizzato per configurare le impostazioni, sia specifiche del repository, sia +a livello globale. Le impostazioni globali sono salvate in `~/.gitconfig`. + +```bash +$ git config --global user.email "email@example.com" +$ git config --global user.name "Nome utente" +``` + +[Ulteriori informazioni su git config](http://git-scm.com/docs/git-config) + +### help + +Fornisce una documentazione molto dettagliata di ogni comando. + +```bash +# Mostra i comandi più comuni +$ git help + +# Mostra tutti i comandi disponibili +$ git help -a + +# Documentazione di un comando specifico +# git help <nome_comando> +$ git help add +$ git help commit +$ git help init +# oppure git <nome_comando> --help +$ git add --help +$ git commit --help +$ git init --help +``` + +### Ignorare file + +Per impedire intenzionalmente che file privati o temporanei vengano inviati +al repository Git. + +```bash +$ echo "temp/" >> .gitignore +$ echo "privato.txt" >> .gitignore +``` + + +### status + +Mostra le differenza tra lo stato attuale del working tree e l'attuale commit +HEAD. + +```bash +$ git status +``` + +### add + +Aggiunge file alla staging area, ovvero li contrassegna per essere inclusi nel +prossimo commit. Ricorda di aggiungere i nuovi file, altrimenti non saranno +inclusi nei commit! + +```bash +# Aggiunge un file nella directory attuale +$ git add HelloWorld.java + +# Aggiunge un file in una sottocartella +$ git add /path/to/file/HelloWorld.c + +# Il comando supporta le espressioni regolari +$ git add ./*.java + +# Aggiunge tutti i file non ancora contrassegnati +$ git add --all +``` + +Questo comando contrassegna soltanto i file, senza effettuare un commit. + +### branch + +Utilizzato per gestire i branch (rami). Puoi visualizzare, modificare, creare o +eliminare branch utilizzando questo comando. + +```bash +# Visualizza i branch e i remote +$ git branch -a + +# Crea un nuovo branch +$ git branch nuovoBranch + +# Elimina un branch +$ git branch -d nomeBranch + +# Rinomina un branch +$ git branch -m nomeBranch nuovoNomeBranch + +# Permette di modificare la descrizione di un branch +$ git branch nomeBranch --edit-description +``` + +### tag + +Utilizzato per gestire i tag. + +```bash +# Visualizza i tag esistenti +$ git tag +# Crea un nuovo tag +# L'opzione -m consente di specificare una descrizione per il tag. +# Se l'opzione -m non viene aggiunta, Git aprirà un editor per consentire +# l'inserimento del messaggio. +$ git tag -a v2.0 -m 'Versione 2.0' +# Mostra informazioni relative a un tag +# Include informazioni sul creatore del tag, la data di creazione, e il +# messaggio assegnato al tag oltre alle informazioni sul commit. +$ git show v2.0 +``` + +### checkout + +Consente di cambiare branch o ripristinare i file a una revisione specifica. +Tutti i file nel working tree vengono aggiornati per corrispondere alla versione +presente nel branch o nel commit specificato. + +```bash +# Effettua il checkout di un repository - il branch predefinito è 'master' +$ git checkout +# Effettua il checkout di un branch specifico +$ git checkout nomeBranch +# Crea un nuovo branch e ne effettua il checkout +# Equivalente a "git branch <nomeBranch>; git checkout <nomeBranch>" +$ git checkout -b nuovoBranch +``` + +### clone + +Clona, o copia, un repository esistente in una nuova directory. Inoltre, +aggiunge dei branch _remote-tracking_, utilizzati per monitorare i branch +remoti corrispondenti a quelli locali, e consentendo così di inviare le +modifiche al repository remoto. + +```bash +# Clona learnxinyminutes-docs +$ git clone https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git +# Clona solo l'ultima revisione di un repository +$ git clone --depth 1 https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git +# Clona solo un branch specifico +$ git clone -b master-cn https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git --single-branch +``` + +### commit + +Effettua uno _snapshot_ dello stato attuale del working tree e registra le +modifiche in un nuovo commit. Il commit contiene, oltre alle modifiche apportate, +anche l'autore e una descrizione. + +```bash +# Crea un nuovo commit con un messaggio +$ git commit -m "Aggiunta la funzione multiplyNumbers() in HelloWorld.c" + +# Aggiunge (git add) automaticamente i file modificati o eliminati (ESCLUSI +# i nuovi file) e quindi effettua il commit +$ git commit -a -m "Modificato foo.php e rimosso bar.php" + +# Modifica l'ultimo commit (il comando elimina il commit precedente e lo +# sostituisce con uno nuovo) +$ git commit --amend -m "Messaggio corretto" +``` + +### diff + +Mostra la differenza tra un file nel working tree e la sua versione nell'index, +in un branch o ad un commit specifico. + +```bash +# Mostra la differenza tra il working tree e l'index +$ git diff + +# Mostra la differenza tra l'index e il commit più recente +$ git diff --cached + +# Mostra la differenza tra il working tree e un commit specifico +$ git diff <commit> + +# Mostra la differenza tra due commit +$ git diff <commit1> <commit2> +``` + +### grep + +Consente di effettuare una ricerca veloce nel repository. + +```bash +# Cerca "variableName" nei file Java +$ git grep 'variableName' -- '*.java' + +# Cerca una riga contenente "arrayListName" E "add" oppure "remove" +$ git grep -e 'arrayListName' --and \( -e add -e remove \) +``` + +Impostazioni relative a `git grep`: + +```bash +# Mostra il numero delle righe +$ git config --global grep.lineNumber true + +# Rende i risultati più leggibili +$ git config --global alias.g "grep --break --heading --line-number" +``` + +### log + +Mostra la cronologia dei commit inviati al repository. + +```bash +# Mostra tutti i commit +$ git log + +# Mostra ogni commit su una sola riga +$ git log --oneline + +# Mostra solo i commit legati ai merge +$ git log --merges +``` + +### merge + +Effettua un "merge", ovvero unisce le modifiche di un branch in quello attuale. + +```bash +# Unisce il branch specificato a quello attuale +$ git merge nomeBranch + +# Genera un commit in ogni caso dopo aver eseguito il merge +$ git merge --no-ff nomeBranch +``` + +### mv + +Rinomina o sposta un file. + +```bash +# Rinomina un file +$ git mv HelloWorld.c HelloNewWorld.c + +# Sposta un file +$ git mv HelloWorld.c ./new/path/HelloWorld.c + +# Forza l'esecuzione del comando +# Se un file "nuovoNomeFile" esiste già nella directory, verrà sovrascritto +$ git mv -f nomeFile nuovoNomeFile +``` + +### pull + +Aggiorna il repository effettuando il merge delle nuove modifiche. + +```bash +# Aggiorna il branch attuale dal remote "origin" +$ git pull + +# Di default, git pull aggiorna il branch attuale effettuando il merge +# delle nuove modifiche presenti nel branch remote-tracking corrispondente +$ git pull + +# Aggiorna le modifiche dal branch remoto, quindi effettua il rebase dei commit +# nel branch locale +# Equivalente a: "git pull <remote> <branch>; git rebase <branch>" +$ git pull origin master --rebase +``` + +### push + +Invia ed effettua il merge delle modifiche da un branch locale ad uno remoto. + +```bash +# Invia ed effettua il merge delle modifiche dal branch "master" +# al remote "origin". +# git push <remote> <branch> +$ git push origin master + +# Di default, git push invia ed effettua il merge delle modifiche +# dal branch attuale al branch remote-tracking corrispondente +$ git push + +# Per collegare il branch attuale ad uno remoto, basta aggiungere l'opzione -u +$ git push -u origin master +``` + +### stash + +Salva lo stato attuale del working tree in una lista di modifiche non ancora +inviate al repository con un commit che possono essere applicate nuovamente +in seguito. + +Questo comando può essere utile se, ad esempio, mentre stai effettuando delle +modifiche non ancora completate, hai bisogno di aggiornare il repository locale +con `git pull`. Poichè non hai ancora effettuato il commit di tutte le modifiche, +non sarà possibile effettuare il pull. Tuttavia, puoi utilizzare `git stash` per +salvare temporaneamente le modifiche e applicarle in seguito. + +```bash +$ git stash +``` + +Ora puoi effettuare il pull: + +```bash +$ git pull +``` + +A questo punto, come già suggerito dall'output del comando `git stash`, puoi +applicare le modifiche: + +```bash +$ git stash apply +``` + +Infine puoi controllare che tutto sia andato bene: + +```bash +$ git status +``` + +Puoi visualizzare gli accantonamenti che hai effettuato finora utilizzando: + +```bash +$ git stash list +``` + +### rebase (attenzione) + +Applica le modifiche effettuate su un branch su un altro branch. +*Non effettuare il rebase di commit che hai già inviato a un repository pubblico!* + +```bash +# Effettua il rebase di experimentBranch in master +$ git rebase master experimentBranch +``` + +[Ulteriori informazioni](https://git-scm.com/book/it/v1/Diramazioni-in-Git-Rifondazione) + +### reset (attenzione) + +Effettua il reset del commit HEAD attuale ad uno stato specifico. +Questo comando consente di annullare `merge`, `pull`, `commit`, `add` e altro. +Tuttavia, può essere pericoloso se non si sa cosa si sta facendo. + +```bash +# Effettua il reset della staging area (annullando le aggiunte e le rimozioni +# di file dal repository, senza modificare il working tree) +$ git reset + +# Effettua il reset completo della staging area, ovvero annulla qualsiasi +# modifica al repository eliminando definitivamente anche tutte le modifiche +# ai file non inviate e ripristinando il working tree +$ git reset --hard + +# Effettua il reset del branch attuale al commit specificato (lasciando il +# working tree intatto) +$ git reset 31f2bb1 + +# Effettua il reset completo del branch attuale al commit specificato, +# eliminando qualsiasi modifica non inviata +$ git reset --hard 31f2bb1 +``` + +### rm + +Consente di rimuovere un file dal working tree e dal repository. +Per eliminare un file solo dal working tree ma non dal repository, è invece +necessario utilizzare `/bin/rm`. + +```bash +# Elimina un file nella directory attuale +$ git rm HelloWorld.c + +# Elimina un file da una sottocartella +$ git rm /pather/to/the/file/HelloWorld.c +``` diff --git a/it-it/ruby-ecosystem-it.html.markdown b/it-it/ruby-ecosystem-it.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..72ab579d --- /dev/null +++ b/it-it/ruby-ecosystem-it.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,144 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: ruby ecosystem +contributors: + - ["Jon Smock", "http://github.com/jonsmock"] + - ["Rafal Chmiel", "http://github.com/rafalchmiel"] +translators: + - ["Cristian Achille", "http://github.com/blackdev1l/"] +--- + +Generalmente chi usa ruby ha l'esigenza di avere differenti versioni di Ruby +installate, gestire le proprie gemme, e le loro dipendenze. + +## Manager Ruby + +Alcune piattaforme hanno Ruby pre-installato o disponibile come pacchetto. +Molti sviluppatori Ruby non usano questi pacchetti, o se lo fanno, li usano solo +per installare dei manager Ruby, i quali permettono di installare e gestire più +versioni di Ruby in base al progetto su cui si lavora. + +Di seguito i più famosi manager Ruby: + +* [RVM](https://rvm.io/) - Installa e permette di utilizzare diverse versioni di + Ruby. RVM Ha anche il concetto di gemsets i quali isolano completamente l'ambiente di sviluppo del progetto. +* [ruby-build](https://github.com/sstephenson/ruby-build) - Installa solamente + multiple versioni di ruby. Usa questo se vuoi maggior controllo sull'installazione di Ruby. +* [rbenv](https://github.com/sstephenson/rbenv) - + Permette solo la scelta di quale versione Ruby utilizzare. Usato insieme a ruby-build. + Utilizza questo per un maggior controllo su quale versione di Ruby utilizzare. +* [chruby](https://github.com/postmodern/chruby) - + Permette solo la scelta di quale Ruby utilizzare, simile a rbenv. + +## Ruby Versions + +Ruby fu creato da Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto, il [BDFL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benevolent_Dictator_for_Life), +(acronimo inglese che sta per "Benevolo dittatore a vita") , seppur +ultimamente non è più del tutto vera; l'implementazione di Ruby +è detta MRI (Matz' Reference Implementation), e dunque quando si legge di una +versione Ruby, essa si riferisce sempre al rilascio di una MRI + +Le tre maggiori versioni di Ruby in uso sono: + +* 2.0.0 - Rilasciata nel febbraio 2013. La maggior parte delle librerie e + framework supportano la 2.0.0 +* 1.9.3 - Rilasciata nel ottobre 2011. QUesta è la versione che molti + svluppatori usano, il supporto è + [concluso](https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/news/2015/02/23/support-for-ruby-1-9-3-has-ended/) +* 1.8.7 - Il supporto per Ruby 1.8.7 è + [concluso](http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/news/2013/06/30/we-retire-1-8-7/). + +I cambiamenti tra la 1.8.7 a la 1.9.x sono maggiori di quelli tra la 1.9.3 a la +2.0.0. Per esempio, nella 1.9 vengono introdotti encodings e bytecode VM. +Esistono ancora dei progetti basati sulla 1.8.7, ma stanno diventando una +minoranza man mano che la community si trasferisce alle versioni 1.92 e +1.9.3 + +## Ruby Implementations + +L'ecosistema Ruby gode di molte implementazioni differenti di Ruby, ognuna con +particolari punti di forza, da chiarire che ogni implementazione è scritta con +un linguaggio diverso, ma esse *sono tutte Ruby*. Ogni implementazione ha +feature extra ma tutte esse possono eseguire file ruby. Per esempio, JRuby è +scritto in Java, ma non devi conoscere java per usarlo. + +Implementazioni mature e compatibili: + +* [MRI](https://github.com/ruby/ruby) - Scritto in C, Questa è l'implementazione + standard di Ruby, per definizione è 100% compatibile (con se stessa). Tutte le + altre implemetazioni mantengono la compatibilità con MRI + (vedere [RubySpec](#rubyspec) sotto). +* [JRuby](http://jruby.org/) - Scritto in Java e Ruby, Questa implementazione è + molto veloce e robusta, la forza di JRuby consiste nell'interoperabilità + tra JVM/Java, permettendo l'utilizzo di struemnti Java già esistenti, progetti + e linguaggi +* [Rubinius](http://rubini.us/) - Scritto principalmente in Ruby con un + c++ bytecode VM, molto matura e veloce, permette alcune feature riguardo VM. + +Mediamente mature e compatibili: + +* [Maglev](http://maglev.github.io/) - Sviluppata sui Gemstone, è una Smalltalk +VM, Smalltalk è degli strumenti molto utili, e questo progetto cerca di portare +questi strumenti nello sviluppo Ruby. +* [RubyMotion](http://www.rubymotion.com/) - Porta ruby nello sviluppo iOS. + +Poco mature e compatibili: + +* [Topaz](http://topazruby.com/) - Scritto in RPython (usando PyPy come + toolchain) Topaz è un progetto ancora giovane e non compatibile, ha le + possibilità di diventare una implementazione Ruby molto performante +* [IronRuby](http://ironruby.net/) - Scritto in C# e prendendo di mira la + piattaforma .NET, lo sviluppo sembra fermo da quando Microsoft ha rimosso il + suo supporto. + +Le implementazioni Ruby possono avere una propria versione, ma hanno sempre come +target una specifica versione di MRI. Molte implementazioni hanno l'abilità di +selezionare una versione specifica di MRI. + +##RubySpec + +La maggior parte delle implementazioni Ruby dipendono pesantemente su +[RubySpec](http://rubyspec.org/). Ruby non ha una specifica ufficiale, quindi la +community ha scritto una specifica eseguibile in Ruby per testare la compatibilità +con MRI. + +## RubyGems + +[RubyGems](http://rubygems.org/) è un package manager gestito dalla communtiy +per Ruby. Rubygems viene installato con Ruby, quindi non c'è bisogno di +scaricarlo separatamente. + +I pacchetti Ruby sono chiamate "gemme", e possono essere hostate dalla community +su RubyGems.org . Ogni gemma contiene il codice sorgente e del metadata, tra cui +la versione, le dipendenze, autor* e licenz*. + +## Bundler + +[Bundler](http://bundler.io/) è un risolvitore di dipendenze, Esso usa il Gemfile +di un progetto per cercare le dipendenze, dopo di che ottiene le dipendenze delle +dipendenze ricorsivamente, Questo procedimento viene eseguito finchè tutte le +dipendenze sono state risolte e scaricate, o si fermerà se un conflitto verrà +trovato. + +Bundler genererà un error se troverà dipendenze in conflitto, Per esempio, +se la gemma A richiede la versione 3 o maggiore della gemma Z, ma la gemma B +richiede la versione 2, Bundler ti notificherà del conflitto. Questo diventa +di aiuto nel momento in cui si hanno molte gemme nel progetto, il che porta a +un grande grafo di dipendenza da risolvere. + +# Testing + +Il testing è un pezzo fondamentale della cultura Ruby, Ruby viene installato con +il proprio testing framework chiamato minitest (O TestUnit per ruby 1.8.x). +Esistono molte librerie con obiettivi differenti + +* [TestUnit](http://ruby-doc.org/stdlib-1.8.7/libdoc/test/unit/rdoc/Test/Unit.html) - Testing frameowrk rilasciato insieme a Ruby 1.8.x +* [minitest](http://ruby-doc.org/stdlib-2.0.0/libdoc/minitest/rdoc/MiniTest.html) - Testing frameowrk rilasciato insieme a Ruby 1.9/2.0 +* [RSpec](http://rspec.info/) - Un testing framework che si concentra nella chiarezza +* [Cucumber](http://cukes.info/) - Un BDD testing framework che estrapola testo formattato in Gherkin + +## Sii cordiale + +La community Ruby è orgogliosa di essere una communtiy aperta, accogliente e +variegata. Matz stesso è estremamente amichevole, e la generosità degli sviluppatori +Ruby è fantastica. diff --git a/java.html.markdown b/java.html.markdown index 50629ce1..48e6ec75 100644 --- a/java.html.markdown +++ b/java.html.markdown @@ -17,9 +17,11 @@ programming language. ```java // Single-line comments start with // + /* Multi-line comments look like this. */ + /** JavaDoc comments look like this. Used to describe the Class or various attributes of a Class. @@ -30,11 +32,12 @@ import java.util.ArrayList; // Import all classes inside of java.security package import java.security.*; -// Each .java file contains one outer-level public class, with the same name as -// the file. +// Each .java file contains one outer-level public class, with the same name +// as the file. public class LearnJava { - // In order to run a java program, it must have a main method as an entry point. + // In order to run a java program, it must have a main method as an entry + // point. public static void main (String[] args) { // Use System.out.println() to print lines. @@ -60,7 +63,8 @@ public class LearnJava { */ // Declare a variable using <type> <name> int fooInt; - // Declare multiple variables of the same type <type> <name1>, <name2>, <name3> + // Declare multiple variables of the same + // type <type> <name1>, <name2>, <name3> int fooInt1, fooInt2, fooInt3; /* @@ -69,7 +73,8 @@ public class LearnJava { // Initialize a variable using <type> <name> = <val> int fooInt = 1; - // Initialize multiple variables of same type with same value <type> <name1>, <name2>, <name3> = <val> + // Initialize multiple variables of same type with same + // value <type> <name1>, <name2>, <name3> = <val> int fooInt1, fooInt2, fooInt3; fooInt1 = fooInt2 = fooInt3 = 1; @@ -119,18 +124,15 @@ public class LearnJava { final double E; E = 2.71828; - // BigInteger - Immutable arbitrary-precision integers // // BigInteger is a data type that allows programmers to manipulate // integers longer than 64-bits. Integers are stored as an array of // of bytes and are manipulated using functions built into BigInteger // - // BigInteger can be initialized using an array of bytes or a string. - + // BigInteger can be initialized using an array of bytes or a string. BigInteger fooBigInteger = new BigInteger(fooByteArray); - // BigDecimal - Immutable, arbitrary-precision signed decimal number // // A BigDecimal takes two parts: an arbitrary precision integer @@ -142,16 +144,13 @@ public class LearnJava { // // BigDecimal can be initialized with an int, long, double or String // or by initializing the unscaled value (BigInteger) and scale (int). - BigDecimal fooBigDecimal = new BigDecimal(fooBigInteger, fooInt); // Be wary of the constructor that takes a float or double as // the inaccuracy of the float/double will be copied in BigDecimal. // Prefer the String constructor when you need an exact value. - BigDecimal tenCents = new BigDecimal("0.1"); - // Strings String fooString = "My String Is Here!"; @@ -184,7 +183,7 @@ public class LearnJava { intArray[1] = 1; System.out.println("intArray @ 1: " + intArray[1]); // => 1 - // Others to check out + // Other data types worth checking out // ArrayLists - Like arrays except more functionality is offered, and // the size is mutable. // LinkedLists - Implementation of doubly-linked list. All of the @@ -212,7 +211,7 @@ public class LearnJava { System.out.println("1+2 = " + (i1 + i2)); // => 3 System.out.println("2-1 = " + (i2 - i1)); // => 1 System.out.println("2*1 = " + (i2 * i1)); // => 2 - System.out.println("1/2 = " + (i1 / i2)); // => 0 (int/int returns an int) + System.out.println("1/2 = " + (i1 / i2)); // => 0 (int/int returns int) System.out.println("1/2 = " + (i1 / (double)i2)); // => 0.5 // Modulo @@ -242,7 +241,7 @@ public class LearnJava { | Bitwise inclusive OR */ - // Incrementations + // Increment operators int i = 0; System.out.println("\n->Inc/Dec-rementation"); // The ++ and -- operators increment and decrement by 1 respectively. @@ -314,7 +313,6 @@ public class LearnJava { // for each loop structure => for (<object> : <iterable>) // reads as: for each element in the iterable // note: the object type must match the element type of the iterable. - for (int bar : fooList) { System.out.println(bar); //Iterates 9 times and prints 1-9 on new lines @@ -364,7 +362,6 @@ public class LearnJava { String bar = (foo < 10) ? "A" : "B"; System.out.println(bar); // Prints A, because the statement is true - //////////////////////////////////////// // Converting Data Types And Typecasting //////////////////////////////////////// @@ -387,7 +384,6 @@ public class LearnJava { // with some more intermediate concepts. Feel free to check it out here: // http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/subclasses.html - /////////////////////////////////////// // Classes And Functions /////////////////////////////////////// @@ -409,7 +405,6 @@ public class LearnJava { // Double Brace Initialization // The Java Language has no syntax for how to create static Collections // in an easy way. Usually you end up in the following way: - private static final Set<String> COUNTRIES = new HashSet<String>(); static { validCodes.add("DENMARK"); @@ -420,7 +415,6 @@ public class LearnJava { // But there's a nifty way to achieve the same thing in an // easier way, by using something that is called Double Brace // Initialization. - private static final Set<String> COUNTRIES = new HashSet<String>() {{ add("DENMARK"); add("SWEDEN"); @@ -436,11 +430,9 @@ public class LearnJava { } // End main method } // End LearnJava class - // You can include other, non-public outer-level classes in a .java file, // but it is not good practice. Instead split classes into separate files. - // Class Declaration Syntax: // <public/private/protected> class <class name> { // // data fields, constructors, functions all inside. @@ -454,7 +446,6 @@ class Bicycle { private int speed; // Private: Only accessible from within the class protected int gear; // Protected: Accessible from the class and subclasses String name; // default: Only accessible from within this package - static String className; // Static class variable // Static block @@ -476,7 +467,6 @@ class Bicycle { speed = 5; name = "Bontrager"; } - // This is a constructor that takes arguments public Bicycle(int startCadence, int startSpeed, int startGear, String name) { @@ -501,23 +491,18 @@ class Bicycle { public void setCadence(int newValue) { cadence = newValue; } - public void setGear(int newValue) { gear = newValue; } - public void speedUp(int increment) { speed += increment; } - public void slowDown(int decrement) { speed -= decrement; } - public void setName(String newName) { name = newName; } - public String getName() { return name; } @@ -566,10 +551,8 @@ public interface Digestible { public void digest(); } - // We can now create a class that implements both of these interfaces. -public class Fruit implements Edible, Digestible { - +public class Fruit implements Edible, Digestible { @Override public void eat() { // ... @@ -585,7 +568,6 @@ public class Fruit implements Edible, Digestible { // interfaces. For example: public class ExampleClass extends ExampleClassParent implements InterfaceOne, InterfaceTwo { - @Override public void InterfaceOneMethod() { } @@ -604,14 +586,13 @@ public class ExampleClass extends ExampleClassParent implements InterfaceOne, // // Method declarations // } -// Marking a class as abstract means that it contains abstract methods that must -// be defined in a child class. Similar to interfaces, abstract classes cannot -// be instantiated, but instead must be extended and the abstract methods -// defined. Different from interfaces, abstract classes can contain a mixture of +// Marking a class as abstract means that it contains abstract methods that +// must be defined in a child class. Similar to interfaces, abstract classes +// cannot be instantiated, but instead must be extended and the abstract +// methods defined. Different from interfaces, abstract classes can contain a // concrete and abstract methods. Methods in an interface cannot have a body, -// unless the method is static, and variables are final by default, unlike an -// abstract class. Also abstract classes CAN have the "main" method. - +// mixture of unless the method is static, and variables are final by default, +// unlike an abstract class. Also abstract classes CAN have the "main" method. public abstract class Animal { public abstract void makeSound(); @@ -656,7 +637,7 @@ class Dog extends Animal // @Override annotation here, since java doesn't allow // overriding of static methods. // What is happening here is called METHOD HIDING. - // Check out this awesome SO post: http://stackoverflow.com/questions/16313649/ + // Check out this SO post: http://stackoverflow.com/questions/16313649/ public static void main(String[] args) { Dog pluto = new Dog(); @@ -695,33 +676,29 @@ public abstract class Mammal() // Final Method Syntax: // <access modifier> final <return type> <function name>(<args>) - // Final methods, like, final classes cannot be overridden by a child class, - // and are therefore the final implementation of the method. + // Final methods, like, final classes cannot be overridden by a child + // class, and are therefore the final implementation of the method. public final boolean isWarmBlooded() { return true; } } - // Enum Type // // An enum type is a special data type that enables for a variable to be a set -// of predefined constants. The variable must be equal to one of the values that -// have been predefined for it. Because they are constants, the names of an enum -// type's fields are in uppercase letters. In the Java programming language, you -// define an enum type by using the enum keyword. For example, you would specify -// a days-of-the-week enum type as: - +// of predefined constants. The variable must be equal to one of the values +// that have been predefined for it. Because they are constants, the names of +// an enum type's fields are in uppercase letters. In the Java programming +// language, you define an enum type by using the enum keyword. For example, +// you would specify a days-of-the-week enum type as: public enum Day { SUNDAY, MONDAY, TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY, THURSDAY, FRIDAY, SATURDAY } // We can use our enum Day like that: - public class EnumTest { - // Variable Enum Day day; @@ -734,16 +711,13 @@ public class EnumTest { case MONDAY: System.out.println("Mondays are bad."); break; - case FRIDAY: System.out.println("Fridays are better."); - break; - + break; case SATURDAY: case SUNDAY: System.out.println("Weekends are best."); - break; - + break; default: System.out.println("Midweek days are so-so."); break; @@ -793,7 +767,6 @@ The links provided here below are just to get an understanding of the topic, fee * [Codingbat.com](http://codingbat.com/java) - **Books**: * [Head First Java](http://www.headfirstlabs.com/books/hfjava/) @@ -802,4 +775,4 @@ The links provided here below are just to get an understanding of the topic, fee * [Objects First with Java](http://www.amazon.com/Objects-First-Java-Practical-Introduction/dp/0132492660) -* [Java The Complete Reference](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0071606300) +* [Java The Complete Reference](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0071606300)
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/julia.html.markdown b/julia.html.markdown index db72e8ba..23d834f4 100644 --- a/julia.html.markdown +++ b/julia.html.markdown @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ filename: learnjulia.jl Julia is a new homoiconic functional language focused on technical computing. While having the full power of homoiconic macros, first-class functions, and low-level control, Julia is as easy to learn and use as Python. -This is based on Julia 0.3. +This is based on Julia 0.4. ```ruby @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ This is based on Julia 0.3. ## 1. Primitive Datatypes and Operators #################################################### -# Everything in Julia is a expression. +# Everything in Julia is an expression. # There are several basic types of numbers. 3 # => 3 (Int64) @@ -272,8 +272,8 @@ values(filled_dict) # Note - Same as above regarding key ordering. # Check for existence of keys in a dictionary with in, haskey -in(("one", 1), filled_dict) # => true -in(("two", 3), filled_dict) # => false +in(("one" => 1), filled_dict) # => true +in(("two" => 3), filled_dict) # => false haskey(filled_dict, "one") # => true haskey(filled_dict, 1) # => false @@ -292,7 +292,7 @@ get(filled_dict,"four",4) # => 4 # Use Sets to represent collections of unordered, unique values empty_set = Set() # => Set{Any}() # Initialize a set with values -filled_set = Set(1,2,2,3,4) # => Set{Int64}(1,2,3,4) +filled_set = Set([1,2,2,3,4]) # => Set{Int64}(1,2,3,4) # Add more values to a set push!(filled_set,5) # => Set{Int64}(5,4,2,3,1) @@ -302,7 +302,7 @@ in(2, filled_set) # => true in(10, filled_set) # => false # There are functions for set intersection, union, and difference. -other_set = Set(3, 4, 5, 6) # => Set{Int64}(6,4,5,3) +other_set = Set([3, 4, 5, 6]) # => Set{Int64}(6,4,5,3) intersect(filled_set, other_set) # => Set{Int64}(3,4,5) union(filled_set, other_set) # => Set{Int64}(1,2,3,4,5,6) setdiff(Set(1,2,3,4),Set(2,3,5)) # => Set{Int64}(1,4) @@ -422,12 +422,10 @@ varargs(1,2,3) # => (1,2,3) # We just used it in a function definition. # It can also be used in a function call, # where it will splat an Array or Tuple's contents into the argument list. -Set([1,2,3]) # => Set{Array{Int64,1}}([1,2,3]) # produces a Set of Arrays -Set([1,2,3]...) # => Set{Int64}(1,2,3) # this is equivalent to Set(1,2,3) +add([5,6]...) # this is equivalent to add(5,6) -x = (1,2,3) # => (1,2,3) -Set(x) # => Set{(Int64,Int64,Int64)}((1,2,3)) # a Set of Tuples -Set(x...) # => Set{Int64}(2,3,1) +x = (5,6) # => (5,6) +add(x...) # this is equivalent to add(5,6) # You can define functions with optional positional arguments @@ -549,12 +547,8 @@ abstract Cat # just a name and point in the type hierarchy # Abstract types cannot be instantiated, but can have subtypes. # For example, Number is an abstract type -subtypes(Number) # => 6-element Array{Any,1}: - # Complex{Float16} - # Complex{Float32} - # Complex{Float64} +subtypes(Number) # => 2-element Array{Any,1}: # Complex{T<:Real} - # ImaginaryUnit # Real subtypes(Cat) # => 0-element Array{Any,1} @@ -572,10 +566,11 @@ subtypes(AbstractString) # 8-element Array{Any,1}: # Every type has a super type; use the `super` function to get it. typeof(5) # => Int64 super(Int64) # => Signed -super(Signed) # => Real +super(Signed) # => Integer +super(Integer) # => Real super(Real) # => Number super(Number) # => Any -super(super(Signed)) # => Number +super(super(Signed)) # => Real super(Any) # => Any # All of these type, except for Int64, are abstract. typeof("fire") # => ASCIIString diff --git a/kotlin.html.markdown b/kotlin.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7b1475a8 --- /dev/null +++ b/kotlin.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,322 @@ +--- +language: kotlin +contributors: + - ["S Webber", "https://github.com/s-webber"] +filename: LearnKotlin.kt +--- + +Kotlin is a Statically typed programming language for the JVM, Android and the +browser. It is 100% interoperable with Java. +[Read more here.](https://kotlinlang.org/) + +```java +// Single-line comments start with // +/* +Multi-line comments look like this. +*/ + +// The "package" keyword works in the same way as in Java. +package com.learnxinyminutes.kotlin + +/* +The entry point to a Kotlin program is a function named "main". +The function is passed an array containing any command line arguments. +*/ +fun main(args: Array<String>) { + /* + Declaring values is done using either "var" or "val". + "val" declarations cannot be reassigned, whereas "vars" can. + */ + val fooVal = 10 // we cannot later reassign fooVal to something else + var fooVar = 10 + fooVar = 20 // fooVar can be reassigned + + /* + In most cases, Kotlin can determine what the type of a variable is, + so we don't have to explicitly specify it every time. + We can explicitly declare the type of a variable like so: + */ + val foo : Int = 7 + + /* + Strings can be represented in a similar way as in Java. + Escaping is done with a backslash. + */ + val fooString = "My String Is Here!"; + val barString = "Printing on a new line?\nNo Problem!"; + val bazString = "Do you want to add a tab?\tNo Problem!"; + println(fooString); + println(barString); + println(bazString); + + /* + A raw string is delimited by a triple quote ("""). + Raw strings can contain newlines and any other characters. + */ + val fooRawString = """ +fun helloWorld(val name : String) { + println("Hello, world!") +} +""" + println(fooRawString) + + /* + Strings can contain template expressions. + A template expression starts with a dollar sign ($). + */ + val fooTemplateString = "$fooString has ${fooString.length} characters" + println(fooTemplateString) + + /* + For a variable to hold null it must be explicitly specified as nullable. + A variable can be specified as nullable by appending a ? to its type. + We can access a nullable variable by using the ?. operator. + We can use the ?: operator to specify an alternative value to use + if a variable is null + */ + var fooNullable: String? = "abc" + println(fooNullable?.length) // => 3 + println(fooNullable?.length ?: -1) // => 3 + fooNullable = null + println(fooNullable?.length) // => null + println(fooNullable?.length ?: -1) // => -1 + + /* + Functions can be declared using the "fun" keyword. + Function arguments are specified in brackets after the function name. + Function arguments can optionally have a default value. + The function return type, if required, is specified after the arguments. + */ + fun hello(name: String = "world") : String { + return "Hello, $name!" + } + println(hello("foo")) // => Hello, foo! + println(hello(name = "bar")) // => Hello, bar! + println(hello()) // => Hello, world! + + /* + A function parameter may be marked with the "vararg" keyword + to allow a variable number of arguments to be passed to the function. + */ + fun varargExample(vararg names: Int) { + println("Argument has ${names.size} elements") + } + varargExample() // => Argument has 0 elements + varargExample(1) // => Argument has 1 elements + varargExample(1, 2, 3) // => Argument has 3 elements + + /* + When a function consists of a single expression then the curly brackets can + be omitted. The body is specified after a = symbol. + */ + fun odd(x: Int): Boolean = x % 2 == 1 + println(odd(6)) // => false + println(odd(7)) // => true + + // If the return type can be inferred then we don't need to specify it. + fun even(x: Int) = x % 2 == 0 + println(even(6)) // => true + println(even(7)) // => false + + // Functions can take functions as arguments and return functions. + fun not(f: (Int) -> Boolean) : (Int) -> Boolean { + return {n -> !f.invoke(n)} + } + // Named functions can be specified as arguments using the :: operator. + val notOdd = not(::odd) + val notEven = not(::even) + // Anonymous functions can be specified as arguments. + val notZero = not {n -> n == 0} + /* + If an anonymous function has only one parameter + then its declaration can be omitted (along with the ->). + The name of the single parameter will be "it". + */ + val notPositive = not {it > 0} + for (i in 0..4) { + println("${notOdd(i)} ${notEven(i)} ${notZero(i)} ${notPositive(i)}") + } + + //The "class" keyword is used to declare classes. + class ExampleClass(val x: Int) { + fun memberFunction(y: Int) : Int { + return x + y + } + + infix fun infixMemberFunction(y: Int) : Int { + return x * y + } + } + /* + To create a new instance we call the constructor. + Note that Kotlin does not have a "new" keyword. + */ + val fooExampleClass = ExampleClass(7) + // Member functions can be called using dot notation. + println(fooExampleClass.memberFunction(4)) // => 11 + /* + If a function has been marked with the "infix" keyword then it can be + called using infix notation. + */ + println(fooExampleClass infixMemberFunction 4) // => 28 + + /* + Data classes are a concise way to create classes that just hold data. + The "hashCode"/"equals" and "toString" methods are automatically generated. + */ + data class DataClassExample (val x: Int, val y: Int, val z: Int) + val fooData = DataClassExample(1, 2, 4) + println(fooData) // => DataClassExample(x=1, y=2, z=4) + + // Data classes have a "copy" function. + val fooCopy = fooData.copy(y = 100) + println(fooCopy) // => DataClassExample(x=1, y=100, z=4) + + // Objects can be destructured into multiple variables. + val (a, b, c) = fooCopy + println("$a $b $c") // => 1 100 4 + + // The "with" function is similar to the JavaScript "with" statement. + data class MutableDataClassExample (var x: Int, var y: Int, var z: Int) + val fooMutableDate = MutableDataClassExample(7, 4, 9) + with (fooMutableDate) { + x -= 2 + y += 2 + z-- + } + println(fooMutableDate) // => MutableDataClassExample(x=5, y=6, z=8) + + /* + We can create a list using the "listOf" function. + The list will be immutable - elements cannot be added or removed. + */ + val fooList = listOf("a", "b", "c") + println(fooList.size) // => 3 + println(fooList.first()) // => a + println(fooList.last()) // => c + // elements can be accessed by index + println(fooList[1]) // => b + + // A mutable list can be created using the "mutableListOf" function. + val fooMutableList = mutableListOf("a", "b", "c") + fooMutableList.add("d") + println(fooMutableList.last()) // => d + println(fooMutableList.size) // => 4 + + // We can create a set using the "setOf" function. + val fooSet = setOf("a", "b", "c") + println(fooSet.contains("a")) // => true + println(fooSet.contains("z")) // => false + + // We can create a map using the "mapOf" function. + val fooMap = mapOf("a" to 8, "b" to 7, "c" to 9) + // Map values can be accessed by their key. + println(fooMap["a"]) // => 8 + + // Kotlin provides higher-order functions for working with collections. + val x = (1..9).map {it * 3} + .filter {it < 20} + .groupBy {it % 2 == 0} + .mapKeys {if (it.key) "even" else "odd"} + println(x) // => {odd=[3, 9, 15], even=[6, 12, 18]} + + // A "for" loop can be used with anything that provides an iterator. + for (c in "hello") { + println(c) + } + + // "while" loops work in the same way as other languages. + var ctr = 0 + while (ctr < 5) { + println(ctr) + ctr++ + } + do { + println(ctr) + ctr++ + } while (ctr < 10) + + // "when" can be used as an alternative to "if-else if" chains. + val i = 10 + when { + i < 7 -> println("first block") + fooString.startsWith("hello") -> println("second block") + else -> println("else block") + } + + // "when" can be used with an argument. + when (i) { + 0, 21 -> println("0 or 21") + in 1..20 -> println("in the range 1 to 20") + else -> println("none of the above") + } + + // "when" can be used as a function that returns a value. + var result = when (i) { + 0, 21 -> "0 or 21" + in 1..20 -> "in the range 1 to 20" + else -> "none of the above" + } + println(result) + + /* + We can check if an object is a particular type by using the "is" operator. + If an object passes a type check then it can be used as that type without + explicitly casting it. + */ + fun smartCastExample(x: Any) : Boolean { + if (x is Boolean) { + // x is automatically cast to Boolean + return x + } else if (x is Int) { + // x is automatically cast to Int + return x > 0 + } else if (x is String) { + // x is automatically cast to String + return x.isNotEmpty() + } else { + return false + } + } + println(smartCastExample("Hello, world!")) // => true + println(smartCastExample("")) // => false + println(smartCastExample(5)) // => true + println(smartCastExample(0)) // => false + println(smartCastExample(true)) // => true + + /* + Extensions are a way to add new functionality to a class. + This is similar to C# extension methods. + */ + fun String.remove(c: Char): String { + return this.filter {it != c} + } + println("Hello, world!".remove('l')) // => Heo, word! + + println(EnumExample.A) // => A + println(ObjectExample.hello()) // => hello +} + +// Enum classes are similar to Java enum types. +enum class EnumExample { + A, B, C +} + +/* +The "object" keyword can be used to create singleton objects. +We cannot assign it to a variable, but we can refer to it by its name. +This is similar to Scala singleton objects. +*/ +object ObjectExample { + fun hello() : String { + return "hello" + } +} + +``` + +### Further Reading + +* [Kotlin tutorials](https://kotlinlang.org/docs/tutorials/) +* [Try Kotlin in your browser](http://try.kotlinlang.org/) +* [A list of Kotlin resources](http://kotlin.link/) diff --git a/latex.html.markdown b/latex.html.markdown index d41f6b2f..0c443c8a 100644 --- a/latex.html.markdown +++ b/latex.html.markdown @@ -178,7 +178,7 @@ We can also insert Tables in the same way as figures. % the {} arguments below describe how each row of the table is drawn. % Again, I have to look these up. Each. And. Every. Time. \begin{tabular}{c|cc} - Number & Last Name & First Name \\ % Column rows are separated by $ + Number & Last Name & First Name \\ % Column rows are separated by & \hline % a horizontal line 1 & Biggus & Dickus \\ 2 & Monty & Python diff --git a/lt-lt/json-lt.html.markdown b/lt-lt/json-lt.html.markdown index 8c97e598..50e52a7a 100644 --- a/lt-lt/json-lt.html.markdown +++ b/lt-lt/json-lt.html.markdown @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ --- language: json -filename: learnjson.json +filename: learnjson-lt.json lang: lt-lt contributors: - ["Zygimantus", "https://github.com/zygimantus"] diff --git a/make.html.markdown b/make.html.markdown index b3425b8a..ab128475 100644 --- a/make.html.markdown +++ b/make.html.markdown @@ -9,16 +9,16 @@ A Makefile defines a graph of rules for creating a target (or targets). Its purpose is to do the minimum amount of work needed to update a
target to the most recent version of the source. Famously written over a
weekend by Stuart Feldman in 1976, it is still widely used (particularly
-on Unix) despite many competitors and criticisms.
+on Unix and Linux) despite many competitors and criticisms.
-There are many varieties of make in existence, this article assumes that
-we are using GNU make which is the standard on Linux.
+There are many varieties of make in existence, however this article
+assumes that we are using GNU make which is the standard on Linux.
```make
# Comments can be written like this.
-# Files should be named Makefile and then be can run as `make <target>`.
+# File should be named Makefile and then can be run as `make <target>`.
# Otherwise we use `make -f "filename" <target>`.
# Warning - only use TABS to indent in Makefiles, never spaces!
@@ -27,13 +27,16 @@ we are using GNU make which is the standard on Linux. # Basics
#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Rules are of the format
+# target: <prerequisite>
+# where prerequisites are optional.
+
# A rule - this rule will only run if file0.txt doesn't exist.
file0.txt:
echo "foo" > file0.txt
# Even comments in these 'recipe' sections get passed to the shell.
# Try `make file0.txt` or simply `make` - first rule is the default.
-
# This rule will only run if file0.txt is newer than file1.txt.
file1.txt: file0.txt
cat file0.txt > file1.txt
@@ -99,8 +102,8 @@ process: ex1.txt file0.txt %.png: %.svg
inkscape --export-png $^
-# Pattern rules will only do anything if make decides to create the \
-target.
+# Pattern rules will only do anything if make decides to create the
+# target.
# Directory paths are normally ignored when matching pattern rules. But
# make will try to use the most appropriate rule available.
@@ -185,7 +188,7 @@ var := hello var2 ::= $(var) hello
#:= and ::= are equivalent.
-# These variables are evaluated procedurely (in the order that they
+# These variables are evaluated procedurally (in the order that they
# appear), thus breaking with the rest of the language !
# This doesn't work
diff --git a/markdown.html.markdown b/markdown.html.markdown index b4ad3202..bdf42368 100644 --- a/markdown.html.markdown +++ b/markdown.html.markdown @@ -7,7 +7,9 @@ filename: markdown.md --- -Markdown was created by John Gruber in 2004. It's meant to be an easy to read and write syntax which converts easily to HTML (and now many other formats as well). +Markdown was created by John Gruber in 2004. It's meant to be an easy to read +and write syntax which converts easily to HTML (and now many other formats as +well). Markdown also varies in implementation from one parser to a next. This guide will attempt to clarify when features are universal or when they are @@ -28,9 +30,10 @@ specific to a certain parser. Markdown is a superset of HTML, so any HTML file is valid Markdown. ```markdown -<!--This means we can use HTML elements in Markdown, such as the comment element, -and they won't be affected by a markdown parser. However, if you create an HTML element -in your markdown file, you cannot use markdown syntax within that element's contents.--> +<!--This means we can use HTML elements in Markdown, such as the comment +element, and they won't be affected by a markdown parser. However, if you +create an HTML element in your markdown file, you cannot use markdown syntax +within that element's contents.--> ``` ## Headings @@ -214,8 +217,8 @@ highlighting of the language you specify after the \`\`\` ## Horizontal rule -Horizontal rules (`<hr/>`) are easily added with three or more asterisks or hyphens, -with or without spaces. +Horizontal rules (`<hr/>`) are easily added with three or more asterisks or +hyphens, with or without spaces. ```markdown *** @@ -298,7 +301,8 @@ in italics, so I do this: \*this text surrounded by asterisks\*. ### Keyboard keys -In GitHub Flavored Markdown, you can use a `<kbd>` tag to represent keyboard keys. +In GitHub Flavored Markdown, you can use a `<kbd>` tag to represent keyboard +keys. ```markdown Your computer crashed? Try sending a diff --git a/ms-my/bash-my.html.markdown b/ms-my/bash-my.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e4e55b2c --- /dev/null +++ b/ms-my/bash-my.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,284 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: bash +contributors: + - ["Max Yankov", "https://github.com/golergka"] + - ["Darren Lin", "https://github.com/CogBear"] + - ["Alexandre Medeiros", "http://alemedeiros.sdf.org"] + - ["Denis Arh", "https://github.com/darh"] + - ["akirahirose", "https://twitter.com/akirahirose"] + - ["Anton Strömkvist", "http://lutic.org/"] + - ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"] + - ["Gregrory Kielian", "https://github.com/gskielian"] + - ["Etan Reisner", "https://github.com/deryni"] +filename: LearnBash-ms.sh +translators: + - ["hack1m", "https://github.com/hack1m"] +lang: ms-my +--- + +Bash adalah nama daripada unix shell, yang mana telah diagihkan sebagai shell untuk sistem operasi GNU dan sebagai shell lalai pada Linux dan Mac OS X. Hampir semua contoh di bawah boleh menjadi sebahagian daripada skrip shell atau dijalankan terus dalam shell. + +[Baca lebih lanjut di sini.](http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/bashref.html) + +```bash +#!/bin/bash +# Baris pertama daripada skrip ialah shebang yang mana memberitahu sistem bagaimana untuk melaksana +# skrip: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shebang_(Unix) +# Seperti yang anda sudah gambarkan, komen bermula dengan #. Shebang juga ialah komen. + +# Contoh mudah hello world: +echo Hello world! + +# Setiap arahan bermula pada baris baru, atau selepas semikolon: +echo 'This is the first line'; echo 'This is the second line' + +# Mengisytihar pembolehubah kelihatan seperti ini: +Variable="Some string" + +# Tetapi bukan seperti ini: +Variable = "Some string" +# Bash akan memutuskan yang pembolehubah adalah arahan ia mesti laksanakan dan memberi ralat +# kerana ia tidak boleh dijumpai. + +# Atau seperti ini: +Variable= 'Some string' +# Bash akan memutuskan yang ‘Beberapa rentetan’ adalah arahan ia mesti laksanakan dan memberi +# ralat kerana ia tidak dijumpai. (Dalam kes ini ‘Variable=' sebahagian dilihat +# sebagai penetapan pembolehubah sah hanya untuk skop ‘Beberapa rentetan’ +# arahan.) + +# Menggunakan pembolehubah: +echo $Variable +echo "$Variable" +echo '$Variable' +# Apabila anda guna pembolehubah itu sendiri - menetapkan, mengeksport, atau lain-lain - anda menulis +# nama ia tanpa $. Atau anda ingin menggunakan nilai pembolehubah, anda mesti guna $. +# Perlu diingatkan ‘(Petikan tunggal) tidak akan memperluaskan pembolehubah! + +# Penggantian rentetan dalam pembolehubah +echo ${Variable/Some/A} +# Ini akan menukarkan sebutan pertama bagi "Some" dengan "A" + +# Subrentetan daripada pembolehubah +Length=7 +echo ${Variable:0:Length} +# Ini akan kembalikan hanya 7 aksara pertama pada nilai + +# Nilai lalai untuk pembolehubah +echo ${Foo:-"DefaultValueIfFooIsMissingOrEmpty"} +# Ini berfungsi untuk null (Foo=) dan rentetan kosong (Foo=“”); sifar (Foo=0) kembali 0. +# Perlu diingatkan ia hanya kembalikan nilai lalai dan tidak mengubah nilai pembolehubah. + +# Pembolehubah terbina: +# Terdapat beberapa pembolehubah terbina berguna, seperti +echo "Last program's return value: $?" +echo "Script's PID: $$" +echo "Number of arguments passed to script: $#" +echo "All arguments passed to script: $@" +echo "Script's arguments separated into different variables: $1 $2..." + +# Membaca nilai dari input: +echo "What's your name?" +read Name # Perlu diingatkan kita tidak perlu isytihar pembolehubah baru +echo Hello, $Name! + +# Kita ada yang biasa jika struktur: +# guna 'man test' untuk maklumat lanjut tentang bersyarat +if [ $Name -ne $USER ] +then + echo "Your name isn't your username" +else + echo "Your name is your username" +fi + +# Terdapat juga pelaksanaan bersyarat +echo "Always executed" || echo "Only executed if first command fails" +echo "Always executed" && echo "Only executed if first command does NOT fail" + +# Untuk guna && dan || bersama kenyataan ‘if’, anda perlu beberapa pasang daripada tanda kurung siku: +if [ $Name == "Steve" ] && [ $Age -eq 15 ] +then + echo "This will run if $Name is Steve AND $Age is 15." +fi + +if [ $Name == "Daniya" ] || [ $Name == "Zach" ] +then + echo "This will run if $Name is Daniya OR Zach." +fi + +# Eskspresi ia ditandai dengan format berikut: +echo $(( 10 + 5 )) + +# Tidak seperti bahasa pengaturcaraan lain, bash adalah shell jadi ia berfungsi dalam konteks +# daripada direktori semasa. Anda boleh menyenaraikan fail dan direktori dalam direktori +# semasa dengan arahan ini: +ls + +# Arahan ini mempunyai opsyen yang mengawal perlaksanaannya: +ls -l # Senarai setiap fail dan direktori pada baris yang berbeza + +# Keputusan arahan sebelum boleh diberikan kepada arahan selepas sebagai input. +# arahan grep menapis input dengan memberi paten. Ini bagaimana kita boleh senaraikan +# fail .txt di dalam direktori semasa: +ls -l | grep "\.txt" + +# Anda boleh mengubah hala arahan input dan output (stdin, stdout, dan stderr). +# Baca dari stdin sampai ^EOF$ dan menulis ganti hello.py dengan baris +# antara “EOF": +cat > hello.py << EOF +#!/usr/bin/env python +from __future__ import print_function +import sys +print("#stdout", file=sys.stdout) +print("#stderr", file=sys.stderr) +for line in sys.stdin: + print(line, file=sys.stdout) +EOF + +# Jalankan hello.py dengan pelbagai penghantaran semula stdin, stdout, dan stderr: +python hello.py < "input.in" +python hello.py > "output.out" +python hello.py 2> "error.err" +python hello.py > "output-and-error.log" 2>&1 +python hello.py > /dev/null 2>&1 +# Output ralat akan menulis ganti fail jika ia wujud, +# jika anda ingin menambah sebaliknya, guna ‘>>”: +python hello.py >> "output.out" 2>> "error.err" + +# Menulis ganti output.out, menambah ke error.err, dan mengira baris: +info bash 'Basic Shell Features' 'Redirections' > output.out 2>> error.err +wc -l output.out error.err + +# Jalankan arahan dan cetak fail Deskriptor (e.g. /dev/fd/123) +# lihat: man fd +echo <(echo "#helloworld") + +# Menulis ganti output.out dengan “#helloworld": +cat > output.out <(echo "#helloworld") +echo "#helloworld" > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | cat > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | tee output.out >/dev/null + +# Membersihkan fail semantara keseluruhan (tambah ‘-i’ untuk interaktif) +rm -v output.out error.err output-and-error.log + +# Arahan boleh digantikan dalam arahan lain menggunakan $(): +# Arahan berikut memaparkan jumlah fail dan direktori dalam +# direktori semasa. +echo "There are $(ls | wc -l) items here." + +# Perkara yang sama boleh dilakukan dengan menggunakan backticks `` tetapi ia tidak boleh bersarang - cara yang terbaik +# ialah menggunakan $( ). +echo "There are `ls | wc -l` items here." + +# Bash menggunakan penyataan case yang berfungsi sama seperti ‘switch’ pada Java dan C++: +case "$Variable" in + # Senarai paten untuk syarat yang ada ingin ketemui + 0) echo "There is a zero.";; + 1) echo "There is a one.";; + *) echo "It is not null.";; +esac + +# ‘for loops iterate' untuk sebanyak mana argumen yang ditetapkan: +# Kandungan dari $Variable dicetakan sebanyak tiga kali. +for Variable in {1..3} +do + echo "$Variable" +done + +# Atau tulis ia cara "traditional for loop": +for ((a=1; a <= 3; a++)) +do + echo $a +done + +# Ia juga boleh digunakan untuk bertindak ke atas fail.. +# Ini akan menjalankan arahan 'cat' pada file1 dan file2 +for Variable in file1 file2 +do + cat "$Variable" +done + +# ..atau output daripada arahan +# Ini akan 'cat' output dari ls. +for Output in $(ls) +do + cat "$Output" +done + +# while loop: +while [ true ] +do + echo "loop body here..." + break +done + +# Anda juga boleh mendefinasikan fungsi +# Definasi: +function foo () +{ + echo "Arguments work just like script arguments: $@" + echo "And: $1 $2..." + echo "This is a function" + return 0 +} + +# atau lebih mudah +bar () +{ + echo "Another way to declare functions!" + return 0 +} + +# Memanggil fungsi +foo "My name is" $Name + +# Terdapat banyak arahan yang berguna yang perlu anda belajar: +# cetak 10 baris terakhir dalam file.txt +tail -n 10 file.txt +# cetak 10 baris pertama dalam file.txt +head -n 10 file.txt +# menyusun baris fail.txt +sort file.txt +# laporan atau meninggalkan garisan berulang, dengan -d ia melaporkan +uniq -d file.txt +# cetak hanya kolum pertama sebelum aksara ',' +cut -d ',' -f 1 file.txt +# menggantikan setiap kewujudan 'okay' dengan 'great' dalam file.txt, (serasi regex) +sed -i 's/okay/great/g' file.txt +# cetak ke stdoout semua baris dalam file.txt yang mana sepadan beberapa regex +# contoh cetak baris yang mana bermula dengan “foo” dan berakhir dengan “bar” +grep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt +# beri opsyen “-c” untuk sebaliknya mencetak jumlah baris sepadan regex +grep -c "^foo.*bar$" file.txt +# jika anda secara literal mahu untuk mencari rentetan, +# dan bukannya regex, guna fgrep (atau grep -F) +fgrep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt + + +# Baca dokumentasi Bash shell terbina dengan 'help' terbina: +help +help help +help for +help return +help source +help . + +# Baca dokumentasi Bash manpage dengan man +apropos bash +man 1 bash +man bash + +# Baca dokumentasi info dengan info (? for help) +apropos info | grep '^info.*(' +man info +info info +info 5 info + +# Baca dokumentasi bash info: +info bash +info bash 'Bash Features' +info bash 6 +info --apropos bash +``` diff --git a/ms-my/sass-my.html.markdown b/ms-my/sass-my.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..68ce4ab3 --- /dev/null +++ b/ms-my/sass-my.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,232 @@ +--- +language: sass +filename: learnsass-ms.scss +contributors: + - ["Laura Kyle", "https://github.com/LauraNK"] +translators: + - ["hack1m", "https://github.com/hack1m"] +lang: ms-my +--- + +Sass ialah bahasa sambungan CSS yang menambah ciri-ciri seperti pembolehubah, bersarang, mixins dan banyak lagi. +Sass (dan prapemproses lain, seperti [Less](http://lesscss.org/)) membantu pembangun untuk menulis kod mampu diselenggara dan DRY (Don't Repeat Yourself). + +Sass mempunyai dua perbezaan pilihan sintaks untuk dipilih. SCSS, yang mana mempunyai sintaks yang sama seperti CSS tetapi dengan ditambah ciri-ciri Sass. Atau Sass (sintaks asal), yang menggunakan indentasi bukannya tanda kurung dakap dan semikolon. +Tutorial ini ditulis menggunakan SCSS. + +```scss + +//Komen baris tunggal dikeluarkan apabila Sass dikompil ke CSS. + +/*Komen multi dikekalkan. */ + + + +/*Pembolehubah +==============================*/ + + + +/* Anda boleh menyimpan nilai CSS (seperti warna) dalam pembolehubah. +Guna simbol '$' untuk membuat pembolehubah. */ + +$primary-color: #A3A4FF; +$secondary-color: #51527F; +$body-font: 'Roboto', sans-serif; + +/* Anda boleh mengguna pembolehubah diseluruh lembaran gaya anda. +Kini jika anda ingin mengubah warna, anda hanya perlu membuat perubahan sekali.*/ + +body { + background-color: $primary-color; + color: $secondary-color; + font-family: $body-font; +} + +/* Ia akan dikompil kepada: */ +body { + background-color: #A3A4FF; + color: #51527F; + font-family: 'Roboto', sans-serif; +} + + +/* Ini jauh lebih mampu diselenggara daripada perlu menukar warna +setiap yang ada diseluruh lembaran gaya anda. */ + + + +/*Mixins +==============================*/ + + + +/* Jika anda jumpa yang anda menulis kod yang sama pada lebih dari satu +elemen, anda mungkin ingin menyimpan kod itu di dalam mixin. + +Guna arahan '@mixin', tambah dengan nama untuk mixin anda.*/ + +@mixin center { + display: block; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + left: 0; + right: 0; +} + +/* Anda boleh guna mixin bersama '@include' dan nama mixin. */ + +div { + @include center; + background-color: $primary-color; +} + +/*Ia akan dikompil kepada: */ +div { + display: block; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + left: 0; + right: 0; + background-color: #A3A4FF; +} + + +/* Anda boleh guna mixins untuk membuat singkatan property. */ + +@mixin size($width, $height) { + width: $width; + height: $height; +} + +/*Yang mana anda boleh seru dengan memberi argumen lebar dan tinggi. */ + +.rectangle { + @include size(100px, 60px); +} + +.square { + @include size(40px, 40px); +} + +/* Ia dikompil kepada: */ +.rectangle { + width: 100px; + height: 60px; +} + +.square { + width: 40px; + height: 40px; +} + + + + +/*Extend (Inheritance) +==============================*/ + + + +/*Extend ialah jalan untuk berkongsi sifat dengan satu pemilih dengan yang lain. */ + +.display { + @include size(5em, 5em); + border: 5px solid $secondary-color; +} + +.display-success { + @extend .display; + border-color: #22df56; +} + +/* Dikompil kepada: */ +.display, .display-success { + width: 5em; + height: 5em; + border: 5px solid #51527F; +} + +.display-success { + border-color: #22df56; +} + + + + +/*Bersarang +==============================*/ + + + +/*Sass membenarkan anda untuk sarangkan pemilih dengan pemilih */ + +ul { + list-style-type: none; + margin-top: 2em; + + li { + background-color: #FF0000; + } +} + +/* '&' akan digantikan dengan pemilih induk. */ +/* Anda juga boleh sarangkan kelas-pseudo. */ +/* Perlu diingat terlebih bersarang akan membuat kod anda kurang mampu diselenggara. +Sebagai contoh: */ + +ul { + list-style-type: none; + margin-top: 2em; + + li { + background-color: red; + + &:hover { + background-color: blue; + } + + a { + color: white; + } + } +} + +/* Dikompil kepada: */ + +ul { + list-style-type: none; + margin-top: 2em; +} + +ul li { + background-color: red; +} + +ul li:hover { + background-color: blue; +} + +ul li a { + color: white; +} + + + + +``` + + + +## SASS atau Sass? +Adakah anda tertanya-tanya sama ada Sass adalah akronim atau tidak? Anda mungkin tidak perlu, tetapi saya akan memberitahu. Nama bahasa ini adalah perkataan, "Sass", dan tidak akronim. +Kerana orang sentiasa menulis ia sebagai "Sass", pencipta bahasa bergurau memanggilnya "Syntactically Awesome StyleSheets". + +## Berlatih Sass +Jika anda ingin bermain dengan Sass di pelayar anda, lihat [SassMeister](http://sassmeister.com/). +Anda boleh guna salah satu sintaks, hanya pergi ke tetapan dan pilih sama ada Sass atau SCSS. + + +## Bacaan lanjut +* [Dokumentasi Rasmi](http://sass-lang.com/documentation/file.SASS_REFERENCE.html) +* [The Sass Way](http://thesassway.com/) menyediakan tutorial (asas-lanjutan) dan artikel. diff --git a/ms-my/xml-my.html.markdown b/ms-my/xml-my.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a9d7509b --- /dev/null +++ b/ms-my/xml-my.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,130 @@ +--- +language: xml +filename: learnxml-ms.xml +contributors: + - ["João Farias", "https://github.com/JoaoGFarias"] +translators: + - ["hack1m", "https://github.com/hack1m"] +lang: ms-my +--- + +XML adalah bahasa markup direka untuk menyimpan dan mengangkutan data. + +Tidak seperti HTML, XML tidak menyatakan bagaimana paparan atau mengformat data, hanya membawanya. + +* Sintaks XML + +```xml +<!-- Komen di XML seperti ini --> + +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> +<bookstore> + <book category="COOKING"> + <title lang="en">Everyday Italian</title> + <author>Giada De Laurentiis</author> + <year>2005</year> + <price>30.00</price> + </book> + <book category="CHILDREN"> + <title lang="en">Harry Potter</title> + <author>J K. Rowling</author> + <year>2005</year> + <price>29.99</price> + </book> + <book category="WEB"> + <title lang="en">Learning XML</title> + <author>Erik T. Ray</author> + <year>2003</year> + <price>39.95</price> + </book> +</bookstore> + +<!-- Di atas adalah fail XML biasa. + Ia bermula dengan perisytiharan, memaklumkan beberapa metadata (pilihan). + + XML menggunakan struktur pokok, Di atas, nod akar ialah ‘bookstore’, yang mana mempunyai tiga nod anak, semua ‘books’. Nod itu mempunyai lebih nod anak (atau anak-anak), dan seterusnya… + + Nod dibuat menggunakan tag pembuka/penutup, dan anak-anak hanya nod antara + pembuka dan penutup tag.--> + + + <!-- XML membawa dua jenis data: + 1 - Atribut -> Iaitu metadata mengenai nod. + Biasanya, penghurai XML menggunakan informasi untuk menyimpan data dengan betul. + Ia mempunyai ciri-ciri yang dipaparkan bersama format name=“value” dalam tag + pembuka. + + 2 - Elemen -> Iaitu data tulen. + Iaitu apa penghurai akan menerima daripada fail XML. + Elemen memaparkan diantara pembuka dan penutup tag. —> + + +<!-- Di bawah, elemen dengan dua atribut --> +<file type="gif" id="4293">computer.gif</file> + + +``` + +* Dokumen Format sempurna x Pengesahan + +Satu dokumen XML adalah format sempurna jika ia adalah sintaksis yang betul. +Walau bagaimanapun, ia mungkin menyuntik lebih banyak kekangan dalam dokumen itu, +menggunakan definasi dokumen, seperti DTD dan Skema XML. + +Satu dokumen XML yang mana mengikut definasi dokumen dipanggil sah, +mengenai dokumen itu. + +Dengan alat ini, anda boleh menyemak data XML di luar logik aplikasi. + +```xml + +<!-- Dibawah, anda boleh melihat versi ringkas daripada dokumen bookstore, + dengan tambahan definisi DTD. --> + +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> +<!DOCTYPE note SYSTEM "Bookstore.dtd"> +<bookstore> + <book category="COOKING"> + <title >Everyday Italian</title> + <price>30.00</price> + </book> +</bookstore> + +<!-- DTD boleh menjadi sesuatu seperti ini: --> + +<!DOCTYPE note +[ +<!ELEMENT bookstore (book+)> +<!ELEMENT book (title,price)> +<!ATTLIST book category CDATA "Literature"> +<!ELEMENT title (#PCDATA)> +<!ELEMENT price (#PCDATA)> +]> + + +<!-- DTD bermula dengan pengisytiharan. + Berikut, nod akar diisytihar, memerlukan 1 atau lebih nod anak ‘book’. + Setiap ‘book’ harus mengandungi betul-betul satu ‘title’ dan ‘price’ dan atribut + dipanggil ‘category’, bersama “Literature" sebagai nilai lalai ia. + Nod ‘title’ dan ‘price’ mengandungi aksara data terhurai.-—> + +<!-- DTD boleh diisytiharkan di dalam fail XML itu sendiri. --> + +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE note +[ +<!ELEMENT bookstore (book+)> +<!ELEMENT book (title,price)> +<!ATTLIST book category CDATA "Literature"> +<!ELEMENT title (#PCDATA)> +<!ELEMENT price (#PCDATA)> +]> + +<bookstore> + <book category="COOKING"> + <title >Everyday Italian</title> + <price>30.00</price> + </book> +</bookstore> +``` diff --git a/nim.html.markdown b/nim.html.markdown index 4901ebfe..5d00304d 100644 --- a/nim.html.markdown +++ b/nim.html.markdown @@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ that gives the programmer power without compromises on runtime efficiency. Nim is efficient, expressive, and elegant. -```javascript +```nim var # Declare (and assign) variables, letter: char = 'n' # with or without type annotations lang = "N" & "im" diff --git a/nl-nl/coffeescript-nl.html.markdown b/nl-nl/coffeescript-nl.html.markdown index dc0b1e19..390e6572 100644 --- a/nl-nl/coffeescript-nl.html.markdown +++ b/nl-nl/coffeescript-nl.html.markdown @@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ contributors: translators: - ["Jelle Besseling", "https://github.com/Jell-E"] - ["D.A.W. de Waal", "http://github.com/diodewaal"] + - ["Sam van Kampen", "http://tehsvk.net"] filename: coffeescript-nl.coffee lang: nl-nl --- @@ -13,10 +14,10 @@ lang: nl-nl CoffeeScript is een kleine programmeertaal die direct compileert naar JavaScript en er is geen interpretatie tijdens het uitvoeren. CoffeeScript probeert om leesbare, goed geformatteerde en goed draaiende -JavaScript code te genereren, die in elke JavaScript runtime werkt, als een +JavaScript code te genereren, die in elke JavaScript-runtime werkt, als een opvolger van JavaScript. -Op [de CoffeeScript website](http://coffeescript.org/), staat een +Op [de CoffeeScript-website](http://coffeescript.org/), staat een volledigere tutorial voor CoffeeScript. ``` coffeescript @@ -26,7 +27,7 @@ volledigere tutorial voor CoffeeScript. ### Blokken commentaar maak je zo, ze vertalen naar JavaScripts */ en /* -in de uitvoer van de CoffeeScript compiler. +in de uitvoer van de CoffeeScript-compiler. Het is belangrijk dat je ongeveer snapt hoe JavaScript werkt voordat je verder gaat. @@ -43,7 +44,7 @@ getal = -42 if tegengestelde #=> if(tegengestelde) { getal = -42; } kwadraat = (x) -> x * x #=> var kwadraat = function(x) { return x * x; } vul = (houder, vloeistof = "koffie") -> - "Nu de #{houder} met #{koffie} aan het vullen..." + "Nu de #{houder} met #{vloeistof} aan het vullen..." #=>var vul; # #vul = function(houder, vloeistof) { @@ -80,7 +81,7 @@ wedstrijd = (winnaar, lopers...) -> alert "Ik wist het!" if elvis? #=> if(typeof elvis !== "undefined" && elvis !== null) { alert("I knew it!"); } -# Lijst abstractie: +# Lijstabstracties: derdemachten = (wiskunde.derdemacht num for num in lijst) #=>derdemachten = (function() { # var _i, _len, _results; diff --git a/nl-nl/json-nl.html.markdown b/nl-nl/json-nl.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..906112ff --- /dev/null +++ b/nl-nl/json-nl.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +--- +language: json +filename: learnjson-nl.json +contributors: + - ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"] + - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] + - ["himanshu", "https://github.com/himanshu81494"] +translators: + - ["Niels van Velzen", "https://nielsvanvelzen.me"] +lang: nl-nl +--- + +Gezien JSON een zeer eenvouding formaat heeft zal dit een van de simpelste +Learn X in Y Minutes ooit zijn. + +JSON heeft volgens de specificaties geen commentaar, ondanks dat hebben de +meeste parsers support voor C-stijl (`//`, `/* */`) commentaar. +Sommige parsers staan zelfs trailing komma's toe. +(Een komma na het laatste element in een array of ahter de laatste eigenshap van een object). +Het is wel beter om dit soort dingen te vermijden omdat het niet overal zal werken. + +In het voorbeeld zal alleen 100% geldige JSON gebruikt worden. + +Data types gesupport door JSON zijn: nummers, strings, booleans, arrays, objecten en null. +Gesupporte browsers zijn: Firefox(Mozilla) 3.5, Internet Explorer 8, Chrome, Opera 10, Safari 4. +De extensie voor JSON bestanden is ".json". De MIME type is "application/json" +Enkele nadelen van JSON zijn het gebrek een type definities en een manier van DTD. + +```json +{ + "sleutel": "waarde", + + "sleutels": "zijn altijd in quotes geplaatst", + "nummers": 0, + "strings": "Hallø, wereld. Alle unicode karakters zijn toegestaan, samen met \"escaping\".", + "boolean": true, + "niks": null, + + "groot nummer": 1.2e+100, + + "objecten": { + "commentaar": "In JSON gebruik je vooral objecten voor je strutuur", + + "array": [0, 1, 2, 3, "Arrays kunnen alles in zich hebben.", 5], + + "nog een object": { + "commentaar": "Objecten kunnen genest worden, erg handig." + } + }, + + "dwaasheid": [ + { + "bronnen van kalium": ["bananen"] + }, + [ + [1, 0, 0, 0], + [0, 1, 0, 0], + [0, 0, 1, "neo"], + [0, 0, 0, 1] + ] + ], + + "alternatieve stijl": { + "commentaar": "Kijk dit!" + , "De komma positie": "maakt niet uit zolang het er maar is" + , "nog meer commentaar": "wat leuk" + }, + + "dat was kort": "En nu ben je klaar, dit was alles wat je moet weten over JSON." +} +``` diff --git a/nl-nl/json.html.markdown b/nl-nl/json.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..bedfb70a --- /dev/null +++ b/nl-nl/json.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +language: json +filename: learnjson-nl.json +contributors: + - ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"] + - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] +translators: + - ["Mathieu De Coster", "https://github.com/m-decoster"] +lang: nl-nl +--- + +Aangezien JSON een extreem eenvoudig datauitwisselingsformaat is, zal dit waarschijnlijk +de meest eenvoudige Learn X in Y Minutes ooit zijn. + +Puur JSON heeft geen commentaar, maar de meeste parsers zullen commentaar in de stijl +van C (`//`, `/* */`) aanvaarden. In dit voorbeeld zal alles 100% correcte JSON zijn. +Gelukkig spreekt het meeste voor zichzelf. + +```json +{ + "key": "value", + + "keys": "moeten altijd tussen dubbele aanhalingstekens staan", + "getallen": 0, + "strings": "Hellø, world. Alle Unicode-karakters zijn toegelaten, zo ook \"escaping\".", + "heeft json booleans?": true, + "niets": null, + + "groot getal": 1.2e+100, + + "objecten": { + "commentaar": "De meeste structuur wordt gemaakt met objecten.", + + "array": [0, 1, 2, 3, "Arrays kunnen eender wat bevatten.", 5], + + "nog een object": { + "commentaar": "Hoe handig, we kunnen objecten nesten." + } + }, + + "dwaasheid": [ + { + "bronnen van kalium": ["bananen"] + }, + [ + [1, 0, 0, 0], + [0, 1, 0, 0], + [0, 0, 1, "neo"], + [0, 0, 0, 1] + ] + ], + + "alternatieve stijl": { + "commentaar": "kijk hier eens naar!" + , "komma locatie": "maakt niet uit - zo lang het voor de value komt, is alles in orde" + , "nog commentaar": "hoe leuk" + }, + + "dat was kort": "Je bent klaar. Je kent nu alles dat JSON kan aanbieden." +} +``` diff --git a/nl-nl/typescript-nl.html.markdown b/nl-nl/typescript-nl.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..dcea2a4d --- /dev/null +++ b/nl-nl/typescript-nl.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,174 @@ +--- +language: TypeScript +contributors: + - ["Philippe Vlérick", "https://github.com/pvlerick"] +filename: learntypescript-nl.ts +translators: + - ["Niels van Velzen", "https://nielsvanvelzen.me"] +lang: nl-nl +--- + +TypeScript is een taal gericht op het versoepelen van de ontwikkeling van +grote applicaties gemaakt in JavaScript. +TypeScript voegt veelgebruikte technieken zoals klassen, modules, interfaces, +generieken en statische typen toe aan JavaScript. +TypeScript is een superset van JavaScript: alle JavaScript code is geldige +TypeScript code waardoor de overgang van JavaScript naar TypeScript wordt versoepeld. + +Dit artikel focust zich alleen op de extra's van TypeScript tegenover [JavaScript] (../javascript-nl/). + +Om de compiler van TypeScript te kunnen proberen kun je naar de [Playground] (http://www.typescriptlang.org/Playground) gaan. +Hier kun je automatisch aangevulde code typen in TypeScript en de JavaScript variant bekijken. + +```js +// Er zijn 3 basis typen in TypeScript +var isKlaar: boolean = false; +var lijnen: number = 42; +var naam: string = "Peter"; + +// Wanneer het type onbekend is gebruik je "Any" +var nietZeker: any = 4; +nietZeker = "misschien een string"; +nietZeker = false; // Toch een boolean + +// Voor collecties zijn er "typed arrays" +var lijst: number[] = [1, 2, 3]; +// of generieke arrays +var lijst: Array<number> = [1, 2, 3]; + +// Voor enumeraties: +enum Kleur {Rood, Groen, Blauw}; +var c: Kleur = Kleur.Groen; + +// Als laatst, "void" wordt gebruikt voor als een functie geen resultaat geeft +function groteVerschrikkelijkeMelding(): void { + alert("Ik ben een vervelende melding!"); +} + +// Functies zijn eersteklas ?, supporten de lambda "fat arrow" syntax en +// gebruiken gebruiken "type inference" + +// Het volgende is allemaal hetzelfde +var f1 = function(i: number): number { return i * i; } +var f2 = function(i: number) { return i * i; } +var f3 = (i: number): number => { return i * i; } +var f4 = (i: number) => { return i * i; } +// Omdat we maar 1 lijn gebruiken hoeft het return keyword niet gebruikt te worden +var f5 = (i: number) => i * i; + +// Interfaces zijn structureel, elk object wat de eigenschappen heeft +// is een gebruiker van de interface +interface Persoon { + naam: string; + // Optionele eigenschappen worden gemarkeerd met "?" + leeftijd?: number; + // En natuurlijk functies + verplaats(): void; +} + +// Object die gebruikt maakt van de "Persoon" interface +// Kan gezien worden als persoon sinds het de naam en verplaats eigenschappen bevat +var p: Persoon = { naam: "Bobby", verplaats: () => {} }; +// Object met de optionele leeftijd eigenschap +var geldigPersoon: Persoon = { naam: "Bobby", leeftijd: 42, verplaats: () => {} }; +// Ongeldig persoon vanwege de leeftijds type +var ongeldigPersoon: Persoon = { naam: "Bobby", leeftijd: true }; + +// Interfaces kunnen ook een functie ype beschrijven +interface ZoekFunc { + (bron: string, subString: string): boolean; +} +// Alleen de parameters types zijn belangrijk, namen maken niet uit. +var mySearch: ZoekFunc; +mySearch = function(src: string, sub: string) { + return src.search(sub) != -1; +} + +// Classes - leden zijn standaard publiek +class Punt { + // Eigenschappen + x: number; + + // Constructor - de publieke / prive trefwoorden in deze context zullen + // eigenschappen in de klasse kunnen aanmaken zonder ze te defineren. + // In dit voorbeeld zal "y" net als "x" gedefineerd worden met minder code. + // Standaard waardes zijn ook gesupport + + constructor(x: number, public y: number = 0) { + this.x = x; + } + + // Functies + dist(): number { return Math.sqrt(this.x * this.x + this.y * this.y); } + + // Statische leden + static origin = new Punt(0, 0); +} + +var p1 = new Punt(10 ,20); +var p2 = new Punt(25); // y zal de waarde 0 krijgen + +// Overnemen +class Punt3D extends Punt { + constructor(x: number, y: number, public z: number = 0) { + super(x, y); // Constructor van ouder aanroepen (Punt) + } + + // Overschrijven + dist(): number { + var d = super.dist(); + return Math.sqrt(d * d + this.z * this.z); + } +} + +// Modules werken ongeveer hetzelfde als namespaces +// met "." kan je submodules defineren +module Geometrie { + export class Vierkant { + constructor(public zijLengte: number = 0) { + } + + oppervlakte() { + return Math.pow(this.zijLengte, 2); + } + } +} + +var s1 = new Geometrie.Vierkant(5); + +// Local alias for referencing a module +import G = Geometrie; + +var s2 = new G.Vierkant(10); + +// Generieken +// Classes +class Tupel<T1, T2> { + constructor(public item1: T1, public item2: T2) { + } +} + +// Interfaces +interface Paar<T> { + item1: T; + item2: T; +} + +// En functies +var paarNaarTupel = function<T>(p: Paar<T>) { + return new Tupel(p.item1, p.item2); +}; + +var tupel = paarNaarTupel({ item1: "hallo", item2: "wereld" }); + +// Refferentie naar een definitie bestand: +/// <reference path="jquery.d.ts" /> + +``` + +## Verder lezen (engels) + * [TypeScript Official website] (http://www.typescriptlang.org/) + * [TypeScript language specifications (pdf)] (http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=267238) + * [Anders Hejlsberg - Introducing TypeScript on Channel 9] (http://channel9.msdn.com/posts/Anders-Hejlsberg-Introducing-TypeScript) + * [Source Code on GitHub] (https://github.com/Microsoft/TypeScript) + * [Definitely Typed - repository for type definitions] (http://definitelytyped.org/) diff --git a/paren.html.markdown b/paren.html.markdown index cde14853..701cadfd 100644 --- a/paren.html.markdown +++ b/paren.html.markdown @@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ language: Paren filename: learnparen.paren contributors: - ["KIM Taegyoon", "https://github.com/kimtg"] + - ["Claudson Martins", "https://github.com/claudsonm"] --- [Paren](https://bitbucket.org/ktg/paren) is a dialect of Lisp. It is designed to be an embedded language. @@ -77,7 +78,7 @@ some-var ; => 5 ;; Accessing a previously unassigned variable is an exception ; x ; => Unknown variable: x : nil -;; Local binding: Use lambda calculus! `a' and `b' are bound to `1' and `2' only within the (fn ...) +;; Local binding: Use lambda calculus! 'a' and 'b' are bound to '1' and '2' only within the (fn ...) ((fn (a b) (+ a b)) 1 2) ; => 3 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; @@ -88,12 +89,12 @@ some-var ; => 5 ;; Lists are vector-like data structures. (Random access is O(1).) (cons 1 (cons 2 (cons 3 (list)))) ; => (1 2 3) -;; `list' is a convenience variadic constructor for lists +;; 'list' is a convenience variadic constructor for lists (list 1 2 3) ; => (1 2 3) ;; and a quote can also be used for a literal list value (quote (+ 1 2)) ; => (+ 1 2) -;; Can still use `cons' to add an item to the beginning of a list +;; Can still use 'cons' to add an item to the beginning of a list (cons 0 (list 1 2 3)) ; => (0 1 2 3) ;; Lists are a very basic type, so there is a *lot* of functionality for @@ -106,7 +107,7 @@ some-var ; => 5 ;; 3. Functions ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; -;; Use `fn' to create functions. +;; Use 'fn' to create functions. ;; A function always returns the value of its last expression (fn () "Hello World") ; => (fn () Hello World) : fn @@ -117,7 +118,7 @@ some-var ; => 5 (set hello-world (fn () "Hello World")) (hello-world) ; => "Hello World" -;; You can shorten this using the function definition syntatcic sugae: +;; You can shorten this using the function definition syntactic sugar: (defn hello-world2 () "Hello World") ;; The () in the above is the list of arguments for the function @@ -134,7 +135,7 @@ some-var ; => 5 ;; 4. Equality ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; -;; for numbers use `==' +;; for numbers use '==' (== 3 3.0) ; => true (== 2 1) ; => false @@ -166,7 +167,7 @@ some-var ; => 5 ;; 6. Mutation ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; -;; Use `set' to assign a new value to a variable or a place +;; Use 'set' to assign a new value to a variable or a place (set n 5) ; => 5 (set n (inc n)) ; => 6 n ; => 6 diff --git a/perl6.html.markdown b/perl6.html.markdown index 5082a433..b5a25a41 100644 --- a/perl6.html.markdown +++ b/perl6.html.markdown @@ -824,7 +824,7 @@ say why-not[^5]; #=> 5 15 25 35 45 # (they exist in other langages such as C as `static`) sub fixed-rand { state $val = rand; - say $rand; + say $val; } fixed-rand for ^10; # will print the same number 10 times diff --git a/php.html.markdown b/php.html.markdown index 6944390c..6c2b38c8 100644 --- a/php.html.markdown +++ b/php.html.markdown @@ -539,10 +539,23 @@ class MyClass print 'MyClass'; } - //final keyword would make a function unoverridable + // final keyword would make a function unoverridable final function youCannotOverrideMe() { } + + // Magic Methods + + // what to do if Object is treated as a String + public function __toString() { + return $property; + } + + // opposite to __construct() + // called when object is no longer referenced + public function __destruct() { + print "Destroying"; + } /* * Declaring class properties or methods as static makes them accessible without diff --git a/pt-br/bash-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/bash-pt.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a604e7b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/pt-br/bash-pt.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,282 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: bash +contributors: + - ["Max Yankov", "https://github.com/golergka"] + - ["Darren Lin", "https://github.com/CogBear"] + - ["Alexandre Medeiros", "http://alemedeiros.sdf.org"] + - ["Denis Arh", "https://github.com/darh"] + - ["akirahirose", "https://twitter.com/akirahirose"] + - ["Anton Strömkvist", "http://lutic.org/"] +translators: + - ["Davidson Mizael", "https://github.com/davidsonmizael"] +filename: LearnBash-pt_br.sh +lang: pt-br +--- + +Tutorial de shell em português + +Bash é o nome do shell do Unix, que também é distribuido como shell do sistema +operacional GNU e como shell padrão para Linux e Mac OS X. Praticamente todos +os exemplos abaixo podem fazer parte de um shell script e pode ser executados +diretamente no shell. + +[Leia mais sobre](http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/bashref.html) + +```bash +#!/bin/bash +# A primeira linha do script é o shebang, que conta para o sistema como executar +# o script: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shebang_(Unix) +# Como você já deve ter percebido, comentários começam com #. +# Shebang também é um comentário. + +# Exemplo simples de hello world: +echo Hello World! + +# Cada comando começa com uma nova linha, ou após um ponto virgula: +echo 'Essa é a primeira linha'; echo 'Essa é a segunda linha' + +# A declaração de variáveis é mais ou menos assim +Variavel="Alguma string" + +# Mas não assim: +Variavel = "Alguma string" +# Bash interpretará Variavel como um comando e tentará executar e lhe retornar +# um erro porque o comando não pode ser encontrado. + +# Ou assim: +Variavel= 'Alguma string' +# Bash interpretará 'Alguma string' como um comando e tentará executar e lhe retornar +# um erro porque o comando não pode ser encontrado. (Nesse caso a a parte 'Variavel=' +# é vista com uma declaração de variável valida apenas para o escopo do comando 'Uma string'). + +# Usando a variável: +echo $Variavel +echo "$Variavel" +echo '$Variavel' +# Quando você usa a variável em si — declarando valor, exportando, etc — você escreve +# seu nome sem o $. Se você quer usar o valor da variável você deve usar o $. +# Note que ' (aspas simples) não expandirão as variáveis! + +# Substituição de strings em variáveis +echo ${Variavel/Alguma/Uma} +# Isso substituirá a primeira ocorrência de "Alguma" por "Uma" + +# Substring de uma variável +Tamanho=7 +echo ${Variavel:0:Tamanho} +# Isso retornará apenas os 7 primeiros caractéres da variável + +# Valor padrão de uma variável +echo ${Foo:-"ValorPadraoSeFooNaoExistirOuEstiverVazia"} +# Isso funciona para nulo (Foo=) e (Foo=""); zero (Foo=0) retorna 0. +# Note que isso apenas retornar o valor padrão e não mudar o valor da variável. + +# Variáveis internas +# Tem algumas variáveis internas bem uteis, como +echo "O ultimo retorno do programa: $?" +echo "PID do script: $$" +echo "Numero de argumentos passados para o script $#" +echo "Todos os argumentos passados para o script $@" +echo "Os argumentos do script em variáveis diferentes: $1, $2..." + +# Lendo o valor do input: +echo "Qual o seu nome?" +read Nome # Note que nós não precisamos declarar a variável +echo Ola, $Nome + +# Nós temos a estrutura if normal: +# use 'man test' para mais infomações para as condicionais +if [ $Nome -ne $USER ] +then + echo "Seu nome não é o seu username" +else + echo "Seu nome é seu username" +fi + +# Tem também execução condicional +echo "Sempre executado" || echo "Somente executado se o primeiro falhar" +echo "Sempre executado" && "Só executado se o primeiro NÃO falhar" + +# Para usar && e || com o if, você precisa multiplicar os pares de colchetes +if [ $Nome == "Estevao"] && [ $Idade -eq 15] +then + echo "Isso vai rodar se $Nome é igual Estevao E $Idade é 15." +fi + +fi [ $Nome == "Daniela" ] || [ $Nome = "Jose" ] +then + echo "Isso vai rodar se $Nome é Daniela ou Jose." +fi + +# Expressões são denotadas com o seguinte formato +echo $(( 10 + 5)) + +# Diferentemente das outras linguagens de programação, bash é um shell, então ele +# funciona no diretório atual. Você pode listar os arquivos e diretórios no diretório +# atual com o comando ls: +ls + +#Esse comando tem opções que controlam sua execução +ls -l # Lista todo arquivo e diretorio em linhas separadas + +# Os resultados do comando anterior pode ser passado para outro comando como input. +# O comando grep filtra o input com o padrão passado. É assim que listamos apenas +# os arquivos .txt no diretório atual: +ls -l | grep "\.txt" + +# Você pode redirecionar o comando de input e output (stdin, stdout e stderr). +# Lê o stdin até ^EOF$ e sobrescreve hello.py com as linhas entre "EOF": +cat > hello.py << EOF +#!/usr/bin/env python +from __future__ imprt print_function +import sys +print("#stdout", file=sys.stdout) +print("stderr", file=sys.stderr) +for line in sys.stdin: + print(line, file=sys.stdout) +EOF + +# Rode hello.py com várias instruções stdin, stdout e stderr: +python hello.py < "input.in" +python hello.py > "ouput.out" +python hello.py 2> "error.err" +python hello.py > "output-and-error.log" 2>&1 +python hello.py > /dev/null 2>&1 +# O erro no output sobrescreverá o arquivo se existir, +# se ao invés disso você quiser complementar, use ">>": +python hello.py >> "output.out" 2>> "error.err" + +# Sobrescreve output.out, complemente para error.err e conta as linhas +info bash 'Basic Shell Features' 'Redirections' > output.out 2>> error.err +wc -l output.out error.err + +#Roda um comando e imprime o desencriptador (e.g. /dev/fd/123) +# veja: man fd +echo <(echo "#helloworld") + +# Sobrescreve ouput.out com "#helloworld": +cat > output.out <(echo "#helloworld") +echo "#helloworld" > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | cat > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | tee output.out > /dev/null + +# Limpa os arquivos temporarios detalhando quais foram deletados (use '-i' para confirmar exlusão) +rm -v output.out error.err output-and-error.log + +# Comando podem ser substituidos por outros comandos usando $( ): +# O comand oa seguir mostra o número de arquivos e diretórios no diretorio atual +echo "Existem $(ls | wc -l) itens aqui." + +# O mesmo pode ser feito usando crase `` mas elas não podem ser aninhadas - dá se +# preferência ao uso do $( ) +echo "Existem `ls | wc -l` itens aqui." + +# Bash usa o comando case que funciona de uma maneira similar ao switch de Java e C++: +case "$Variavel" in + # Lista de parametros para condições que você quer encontrar + 0) echo "Isso é um Zero.";; + 1) echo "Isso é um Um.";; + *) echo "Isso não é null.";; +esac + +# loops for iteragem para quantos argumentos passados: +# O conteudo de $Variavel é exibido três vezes. +for Variavel in {1..3} +do + echo "$Variavel" +done + +# Ou use o loop da "maneira tradicional": +for ((a=1; a <= 3; a++)) +do + echo $a +done + +# Eles também podem ser usados em arquivos... +# Isso irá rodar o comando 'cat' em arquivo1 e arquivo2 +for Variavel in arquivo1 arquivo2 +do + cat "$Variavel" +done + +# ...ou o output de um comando +# Isso irá usar cat no output do ls. +for Output in $(ls) +do + cat "$Output" +done + +# loop while: +while [ true ] +do + echo "corpo do loop aqui..." + break +done + +# Você também pode usar funções +# Definição: +function foo() { + echo "Argumentos funcionam bem assim como os dos scripts: $@" + echo "E: $1 $2..." + echo "Isso é uma função" + return 0 +} + +# ou simplesmente +bar () { + echo "Outro jeito de declarar funções!" + return 0 +} + +# Chamando sua função +foo "Meu nome é" $Nome + +# Existe um monte de comandos úteis que você deveria aprender: +# exibe as 10 ultimas linhas de arquivo.txt +tail -n 10 arquivo.txt +# exibe as primeiras 10 linhas de arquivo.txt +head -n 10 arquivo.txt +# ordena as linhas de arquivo.txt +sort arquivo.txt +# reporta ou omite as linhas repetidas, com -d você as reporta +uniq -d arquivo.txt +# exibe apenas a primeira coluna após o caráctere ',' +cut -d ',' -f 1 arquivo.txt +# substitui todas as ocorrencias de 'okay' por 'legal' em arquivo.txt (é compativel com regex) +sed -i 's/okay/legal/g' file.txt +# exibe para o stdout todas as linhas do arquivo.txt que encaixam com o regex +# O exemplo exibe linhas que começam com "foo" e terminam com "bar" +grep "^foo.*bar$" arquivo.txt +# passe a opção "-c" para ao invês de imprimir o numero da linha que bate com o regex +grep -c "^foo.*bar$" arquivo.txt +# se você quer literalmente procurar por uma string, +# e não pelo regex, use fgrep (ou grep -F) +fgrep "^foo.*bar$" arquivo.txt + + +# Leia a documentação interna do shell Bash com o comando interno 'help': +help +help help +help for +help return +help source +help . + +# Leia a página principal da documentação com man +apropos bash +man 1 bash +man bash + +# Leia a documentação de informação com info (? para ajuda) +apropos info | grep '^info.*(' +man info +info info +info 5 info + +#Leia a documentação informativa do Bash: +info bash +info bash 'Bash Features' +info bash 6 +info --apropos bash +``` diff --git a/pt-br/csharp.html.markdown b/pt-br/csharp.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..547f4817 --- /dev/null +++ b/pt-br/csharp.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,896 @@ +--- +language: c# +filename: csharp-pt.cs +contributors: + - ["Robson Alves", "http://robsonalves.net/"] +lang: pt-br +--- + +C# é uma linguagem elegante e altamente tipado orientada a objetos que permite aos desenvolvedores criarem uma variedade de aplicações seguras e robustas que são executadas no .NET Framework. + +[Read more here.](http://msdn.microsoft.com/pt-br/library/vstudio/z1zx9t92.aspx) + +```c# +// Comentário de linha única começa com // +/* +Múltipas linhas é desta forma +*/ +/// <summary> +/// Esta é uma documentação comentário XML que pode ser usado para gerar externo +/// documentação ou fornecer ajuda de contexto dentro de um IDE +/// </summary> +//public void MethodOrClassOrOtherWithParsableHelp() {} + +// Especificar qual namespace seu código irá usar +// Os namespaces a seguir são padrões do .NET Framework Class Library +using System; +using System.Collections.Generic; +using System.Dynamic; +using System.Linq; +using System.Net; +using System.Threading.Tasks; +using System.IO; + +// Mas este aqui não é : +using System.Data.Entity; +// Para que consiga utiliza-lo, você precisa adicionar novas referências +// Isso pode ser feito com o gerenciador de pacotes NuGet : `Install-Package EntityFramework` + +// Namespaces são escopos definidos para organizar o códgo em "pacotes" or "módulos" +// Usando este código a partir de outra arquivo de origem: using Learning.CSharp; +namespace Learning.CSharp +{ + // Cada .cs deve conter uma classe com o mesmo nome do arquivo + // você está autorizado a contrariar isto, mas evite por sua sanidade. + public class AprenderCsharp + { + // Sintaxe Básica - Pule para as CARACTERÍSTICAS INTERESSANTES se você ja usou Java ou C++ antes. + public static void Syntax() + { + // Use Console.WriteLine para apresentar uma linha + Console.WriteLine("Hello World"); + Console.WriteLine( + "Integer: " + 10 + + " Double: " + 3.14 + + " Boolean: " + true); + + // Para apresentar sem incluir uma nova linha, use Console.Write + Console.Write("Hello "); + Console.Write("World"); + + /////////////////////////////////////////////////// + // Tpos e Variáveis + // + // Declare uma variável usando <tipo> <nome> + /////////////////////////////////////////////////// + + // Sbyte - Signed 8-bit integer + // (-128 <= sbyte <= 127) + sbyte fooSbyte = 100; + + // Byte - Unsigned 8-bit integer + // (0 <= byte <= 255) + byte fooByte = 100; + + // Short - 16-bit integer + // Signed - (-32,768 <= short <= 32,767) + // Unsigned - (0 <= ushort <= 65,535) + short fooShort = 10000; + ushort fooUshort = 10000; + + // Integer - 32-bit integer + int fooInt = 1; // (-2,147,483,648 <= int <= 2,147,483,647) + uint fooUint = 1; // (0 <= uint <= 4,294,967,295) + + // Long - 64-bit integer + long fooLong = 100000L; // (-9,223,372,036,854,775,808 <= long <= 9,223,372,036,854,775,807) + ulong fooUlong = 100000L; // (0 <= ulong <= 18,446,744,073,709,551,615) + // Numbers default to being int or uint depending on size. + // L is used to denote that this variable value is of type long or ulong + + // Double - Double-precision 64-bit IEEE 754 Floating Point + double fooDouble = 123.4; // Precision: 15-16 digits + + // Float - Single-precision 32-bit IEEE 754 Floating Point + float fooFloat = 234.5f; // Precision: 7 digits + // f is used to denote that this variable value is of type float + + // Decimal - a 128-bits data type, with more precision than other floating-point types, + // suited for financial and monetary calculations + decimal fooDecimal = 150.3m; + + // Boolean - true & false + bool fooBoolean = true; // or false + + // Char - A single 16-bit Unicode character + char fooChar = 'A'; + + // Strings - ao contrário dos anteriores tipos base, que são todos os tipos de valor, + // Uma string é um tipo de referência. Ou seja, você pode configurá-lo como nulo + string fooString = "\"escape\" quotes and add \n (new lines) and \t (tabs)"; + Console.WriteLine(fooString); + + // Você pode acessar todos os caracteres de string com um indexador: + char charFromString = fooString[1]; // => 'e' + // Strings são imutáveis: você não pode fazer fooString[1] = 'X'; + + // Compare strings com sua atual cultura, ignorando maiúsculas e minúsculas + string.Compare(fooString, "x", StringComparison.CurrentCultureIgnoreCase); + + // Formatando, baseado no sprintf + string fooFs = string.Format("Check Check, {0} {1}, {0} {1:0.0}", 1, 2); + + // Datas e formatações + DateTime fooDate = DateTime.Now; + Console.WriteLine(fooDate.ToString("hh:mm, dd MMM yyyy")); + + // Você pode juntar um string em mais de duas linhas com o símbolo @. Para escapar do " use "" + string bazString = @"Here's some stuff +on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried"; + + // Use const ou read-only para fazer uma variável imutável + // os valores da const são calculados durante o tempo de compilação + const int HoursWorkPerWeek = 9001; + + /////////////////////////////////////////////////// + // Estrutura de Dados + /////////////////////////////////////////////////// + + // Matrizes - zero indexado + // O tamanho do array pode ser decidido ainda na declaração + // O formato para declarar uma matriz é o seguinte: + // <tipodado>[] <var nome> = new <tipodado>[<array tamanho>]; + int[] intArray = new int[10]; + + // Outra forma de declarar & inicializar uma matriz + int[] y = { 9000, 1000, 1337 }; + + // Indexando uma matriz - Acessando um elemento + Console.WriteLine("intArray @ 0: " + intArray[0]); + // Matriz são alteráveis + intArray[1] = 1; + + // Listas + // Listas são usadas frequentemente tanto quanto matriz por serem mais flexiveis + // O formato de declarar uma lista é o seguinte: + // List<tipodado> <var nome> = new List<tipodado>(); + List<int> intList = new List<int>(); + List<string> stringList = new List<string>(); + List<int> z = new List<int> { 9000, 1000, 1337 }; // inicializar + // O <> são para genéricos - Confira está interessante seção do material + + // Lista não possuem valores padrão. + // Um valor deve ser adicionado antes e depois acessado pelo indexador + intList.Add(1); + Console.WriteLine("intList @ 0: " + intList[0]); + + // Outras estruturas de dados para conferir: + // Pilha/Fila + // Dicionário (uma implementação de map de hash) + // HashSet + // Read-only Coleção + // Tuple (.Net 4+) + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Operadores + /////////////////////////////////////// + Console.WriteLine("\n->Operators"); + + int i1 = 1, i2 = 2; // Forma curta para declarar diversas variáveis + + // Aritmética é clara + Console.WriteLine(i1 + i2 - i1 * 3 / 7); // => 3 + + // Modulo + Console.WriteLine("11%3 = " + (11 % 3)); // => 2 + + // Comparações de operadores + Console.WriteLine("3 == 2? " + (3 == 2)); // => falso + Console.WriteLine("3 != 2? " + (3 != 2)); // => verdadeiro + Console.WriteLine("3 > 2? " + (3 > 2)); // => verdadeiro + Console.WriteLine("3 < 2? " + (3 < 2)); // => falso + Console.WriteLine("2 <= 2? " + (2 <= 2)); // => verdadeiro + Console.WriteLine("2 >= 2? " + (2 >= 2)); // => verdadeiro + + // Operadores bit a bit (bitwise) + /* + ~ Unário bitwise complemento + << Signed left shift + >> Signed right shift + & Bitwise AND + ^ Bitwise exclusivo OR + | Bitwise inclusivo OR + */ + + // Incrementações + int i = 0; + Console.WriteLine("\n->Inc/Dec-rementation"); + Console.WriteLine(i++); //i = 1. Post-Incrementation + Console.WriteLine(++i); //i = 2. Pre-Incrementation + Console.WriteLine(i--); //i = 1. Post-Decrementation + Console.WriteLine(--i); //i = 0. Pre-Decrementation + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Estrutura de Controle + /////////////////////////////////////// + Console.WriteLine("\n->Control Structures"); + + // Declaração if é como a linguagem C + int j = 10; + if (j == 10) + { + Console.WriteLine("I get printed"); + } + else if (j > 10) + { + Console.WriteLine("I don't"); + } + else + { + Console.WriteLine("I also don't"); + } + + // Operador Ternário + // Um simples if/else pode ser escrito da seguinte forma + // <condição> ? <verdadeiro> : <falso> + int toCompare = 17; + string isTrue = toCompare == 17 ? "True" : "False"; + + // While loop + int fooWhile = 0; + while (fooWhile < 100) + { + //Iterated 100 times, fooWhile 0->99 + fooWhile++; + } + + // Do While Loop + int fooDoWhile = 0; + do + { + // Inicia a interação 100 vezes, fooDoWhile 0->99 + if (false) + continue; // pule a intereção atual para apróxima + + fooDoWhile++; + + if (fooDoWhile == 50) + break; // Interrompe o laço inteiro + + } while (fooDoWhile < 100); + + //estrutura de loop for => for(<declaração para começar>; <condicional>; <passos>) + for (int fooFor = 0; fooFor < 10; fooFor++) + { + //Iterado 10 vezes, fooFor 0->9 + } + + // For Each Loop + // Estrutura do foreach => foreach(<Tipo Iterador> <Nome do Iterador> in <enumerable>) + // O laço foreach percorre sobre qualquer objeto que implementa IEnumerable ou IEnumerable<T> + // Toda a coleção de tipos (Array, List, Dictionary...) no .Net framework + // implementa uma ou mais destas interfaces. + // (O ToCharArray() pode ser removido, por que uma string também implementa IEnumerable) + foreach (char character in "Hello World".ToCharArray()) + { + //Iterated over all the characters in the string + } + + // Switch Case + // Um switch funciona com os tipos de dados byte, short, char, e int. + // Isto também funcional com tipos enumeradors (discutidos em Tipos Enum), + // A classe String, and a few special classes that wrap + // tipos primitívos: Character, Byte, Short, and Integer. + int month = 3; + string monthString; + switch (month) + { + case 1: + monthString = "January"; + break; + case 2: + monthString = "February"; + break; + case 3: + monthString = "March"; + break; + // You can assign more than one case to an action + // But you can't add an action without a break before another case + // (if you want to do this, you would have to explicitly add a goto case x + case 6: + case 7: + case 8: + monthString = "Summer time!!"; + break; + default: + monthString = "Some other month"; + break; + } + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Converting Data Types And Typecasting + /////////////////////////////////////// + + // Converting data + + // Convert String To Integer + // this will throw a FormatException on failure + int.Parse("123");//returns an integer version of "123" + + // try parse will default to type default on failure + // in this case: 0 + int tryInt; + if (int.TryParse("123", out tryInt)) // Function is boolean + Console.WriteLine(tryInt); // 123 + + // Convert Integer To String + // Convert class has a number of methods to facilitate conversions + Convert.ToString(123); + // or + tryInt.ToString(); + + // Casting + // Cast decimal 15 to a int + // and then implicitly cast to long + long x = (int) 15M; + } + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // CLASSES - see definitions at end of file + /////////////////////////////////////// + public static void Classes() + { + // See Declaration of objects at end of file + + // Use new to instantiate a class + Bicycle trek = new Bicycle(); + + // Call object methods + trek.SpeedUp(3); // You should always use setter and getter methods + trek.Cadence = 100; + + // ToString is a convention to display the value of this Object. + Console.WriteLine("trek info: " + trek.Info()); + + // Instantiate a new Penny Farthing + PennyFarthing funbike = new PennyFarthing(1, 10); + Console.WriteLine("funbike info: " + funbike.Info()); + + Console.Read(); + } // End main method + + // CONSOLE ENTRY A console application must have a main method as an entry point + public static void Main(string[] args) + { + OtherInterestingFeatures(); + } + + // + // INTERESTING FEATURES + // + + // DEFAULT METHOD SIGNATURES + + public // Visibility + static // Allows for direct call on class without object + int // Return Type, + MethodSignatures( + int maxCount, // First variable, expects an int + int count = 0, // will default the value to 0 if not passed in + int another = 3, + params string[] otherParams // captures all other parameters passed to method + ) + { + return -1; + } + + // Methods can have the same name, as long as the signature is unique + // A method that differs only in return type is not unique + public static void MethodSignatures( + ref int maxCount, // Pass by reference + out int count) + { + count = 15; // out param must be assigned before control leaves the method + } + + // GENERICS + // The classes for TKey and TValue is specified by the user calling this function. + // This method emulates the SetDefault of Python + public static TValue SetDefault<TKey, TValue>( + IDictionary<TKey, TValue> dictionary, + TKey key, + TValue defaultItem) + { + TValue result; + if (!dictionary.TryGetValue(key, out result)) + return dictionary[key] = defaultItem; + return result; + } + + // You can narrow down the objects that are passed in + public static void IterateAndPrint<T>(T toPrint) where T: IEnumerable<int> + { + // We can iterate, since T is a IEnumerable + foreach (var item in toPrint) + // Item is an int + Console.WriteLine(item.ToString()); + } + + public static void OtherInterestingFeatures() + { + // OPTIONAL PARAMETERS + MethodSignatures(3, 1, 3, "Some", "Extra", "Strings"); + MethodSignatures(3, another: 3); // explicity set a parameter, skipping optional ones + + // BY REF AND OUT PARAMETERS + int maxCount = 0, count; // ref params must have value + MethodSignatures(ref maxCount, out count); + + // EXTENSION METHODS + int i = 3; + i.Print(); // Defined below + + // NULLABLE TYPES - great for database interaction / return values + // any value type (i.e. not a class) can be made nullable by suffixing a ? + // <type>? <var name> = <value> + int? nullable = null; // short hand for Nullable<int> + Console.WriteLine("Nullable variable: " + nullable); + bool hasValue = nullable.HasValue; // true if not null + + // ?? is syntactic sugar for specifying default value (coalesce) + // in case variable is null + int notNullable = nullable ?? 0; // 0 + + // IMPLICITLY TYPED VARIABLES - you can let the compiler work out what the type is: + var magic = "magic is a string, at compile time, so you still get type safety"; + // magic = 9; will not work as magic is a string, not an int + + // GENERICS + // + var phonebook = new Dictionary<string, string>() { + {"Sarah", "212 555 5555"} // Add some entries to the phone book + }; + + // Calling SETDEFAULT defined as a generic above + Console.WriteLine(SetDefault<string,string>(phonebook, "Shaun", "No Phone")); // No Phone + // nb, you don't need to specify the TKey and TValue since they can be + // derived implicitly + Console.WriteLine(SetDefault(phonebook, "Sarah", "No Phone")); // 212 555 5555 + + // LAMBDA EXPRESSIONS - allow you to write code in line + Func<int, int> square = (x) => x * x; // Last T item is the return value + Console.WriteLine(square(3)); // 9 + + // ERROR HANDLING - coping with an uncertain world + try + { + var funBike = PennyFarthing.CreateWithGears(6); + + // will no longer execute because CreateWithGears throws an exception + string some = ""; + if (true) some = null; + some.ToLower(); // throws a NullReferenceException + } + catch (NotSupportedException) + { + Console.WriteLine("Not so much fun now!"); + } + catch (Exception ex) // catch all other exceptions + { + throw new ApplicationException("It hit the fan", ex); + // throw; // A rethrow that preserves the callstack + } + // catch { } // catch-all without capturing the Exception + finally + { + // executes after try or catch + } + + // DISPOSABLE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT - let you handle unmanaged resources easily. + // Most of objects that access unmanaged resources (file handle, device contexts, etc.) + // implement the IDisposable interface. The using statement takes care of + // cleaning those IDisposable objects for you. + using (StreamWriter writer = new StreamWriter("log.txt")) + { + writer.WriteLine("Nothing suspicious here"); + // At the end of scope, resources will be released. + // Even if an exception is thrown. + } + + // PARALLEL FRAMEWORK + // http://blogs.msdn.com/b/csharpfaq/archive/2010/06/01/parallel-programming-in-net-framework-4-getting-started.aspx + var websites = new string[] { + "http://www.google.com", "http://www.reddit.com", + "http://www.shaunmccarthy.com" + }; + var responses = new Dictionary<string, string>(); + + // Will spin up separate threads for each request, and join on them + // before going to the next step! + Parallel.ForEach(websites, + new ParallelOptions() {MaxDegreeOfParallelism = 3}, // max of 3 threads + website => + { + // Do something that takes a long time on the file + using (var r = WebRequest.Create(new Uri(website)).GetResponse()) + { + responses[website] = r.ContentType; + } + }); + + // This won't happen till after all requests have been completed + foreach (var key in responses.Keys) + Console.WriteLine("{0}:{1}", key, responses[key]); + + // DYNAMIC OBJECTS (great for working with other languages) + dynamic student = new ExpandoObject(); + student.FirstName = "First Name"; // No need to define class first! + + // You can even add methods (returns a string, and takes in a string) + student.Introduce = new Func<string, string>( + (introduceTo) => string.Format("Hey {0}, this is {1}", student.FirstName, introduceTo)); + Console.WriteLine(student.Introduce("Beth")); + + // IQUERYABLE<T> - almost all collections implement this, which gives you a lot of + // very useful Map / Filter / Reduce style methods + var bikes = new List<Bicycle>(); + bikes.Sort(); // Sorts the array + bikes.Sort((b1, b2) => b1.Wheels.CompareTo(b2.Wheels)); // Sorts based on wheels + var result = bikes + .Where(b => b.Wheels > 3) // Filters - chainable (returns IQueryable of previous type) + .Where(b => b.IsBroken && b.HasTassles) + .Select(b => b.ToString()); // Map - we only this selects, so result is a IQueryable<string> + + var sum = bikes.Sum(b => b.Wheels); // Reduce - sums all the wheels in the collection + + // Create a list of IMPLICIT objects based on some parameters of the bike + var bikeSummaries = bikes.Select(b=>new { Name = b.Name, IsAwesome = !b.IsBroken && b.HasTassles }); + // Hard to show here, but you get type ahead completion since the compiler can implicitly work + // out the types above! + foreach (var bikeSummary in bikeSummaries.Where(b => b.IsAwesome)) + Console.WriteLine(bikeSummary.Name); + + // ASPARALLEL + // And this is where things get wicked - combines linq and parallel operations + var threeWheelers = bikes.AsParallel().Where(b => b.Wheels == 3).Select(b => b.Name); + // this will happen in parallel! Threads will automagically be spun up and the + // results divvied amongst them! Amazing for large datasets when you have lots of + // cores + + // LINQ - maps a store to IQueryable<T> objects, with delayed execution + // e.g. LinqToSql - maps to a database, LinqToXml maps to an xml document + var db = new BikeRepository(); + + // execution is delayed, which is great when querying a database + var filter = db.Bikes.Where(b => b.HasTassles); // no query run + if (42 > 6) // You can keep adding filters, even conditionally - great for "advanced search" functionality + filter = filter.Where(b => b.IsBroken); // no query run + + var query = filter + .OrderBy(b => b.Wheels) + .ThenBy(b => b.Name) + .Select(b => b.Name); // still no query run + + // Now the query runs, but opens a reader, so only populates are you iterate through + foreach (string bike in query) + Console.WriteLine(result); + + + + } + + } // End LearnCSharp class + + // You can include other classes in a .cs file + + public static class Extensions + { + // EXTENSION FUNCTIONS + public static void Print(this object obj) + { + Console.WriteLine(obj.ToString()); + } + } + + // Class Declaration Syntax: + // <public/private/protected/internal> class <class name>{ + // //data fields, constructors, functions all inside. + // //functions are called as methods in Java. + // } + + public class Bicycle + { + // Bicycle's Fields/Variables + public int Cadence // Public: Can be accessed from anywhere + { + get // get - define a method to retrieve the property + { + return _cadence; + } + set // set - define a method to set a proprety + { + _cadence = value; // Value is the value passed in to the setter + } + } + private int _cadence; + + protected virtual int Gear // Protected: Accessible from the class and subclasses + { + get; // creates an auto property so you don't need a member field + set; + } + + internal int Wheels // Internal: Accessible from within the assembly + { + get; + private set; // You can set modifiers on the get/set methods + } + + int _speed; // Everything is private by default: Only accessible from within this class. + // can also use keyword private + public string Name { get; set; } + + // Enum is a value type that consists of a set of named constants + // It is really just mapping a name to a value (an int, unless specified otherwise). + // The approved types for an enum are byte, sbyte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, or ulong. + // An enum can't contain the same value twice. + public enum BikeBrand + { + AIST, + BMC, + Electra = 42, //you can explicitly set a value to a name + Gitane // 43 + } + // We defined this type inside a Bicycle class, so it is a nested type + // Code outside of this class should reference this type as Bicycle.Brand + + public BikeBrand Brand; // After declaring an enum type, we can declare the field of this type + + // Decorate an enum with the FlagsAttribute to indicate that multiple values can be switched on + [Flags] // Any class derived from Attribute can be used to decorate types, methods, parameters etc + public enum BikeAccessories + { + None = 0, + Bell = 1, + MudGuards = 2, // need to set the values manually! + Racks = 4, + Lights = 8, + FullPackage = Bell | MudGuards | Racks | Lights + } + + // Usage: aBike.Accessories.HasFlag(Bicycle.BikeAccessories.Bell) + // Before .NET 4: (aBike.Accessories & Bicycle.BikeAccessories.Bell) == Bicycle.BikeAccessories.Bell + public BikeAccessories Accessories { get; set; } + + // Static members belong to the type itself rather then specific object. + // You can access them without a reference to any object: + // Console.WriteLine("Bicycles created: " + Bicycle.bicyclesCreated); + public static int BicyclesCreated { get; set; } + + // readonly values are set at run time + // they can only be assigned upon declaration or in a constructor + readonly bool _hasCardsInSpokes = false; // read-only private + + // Constructors are a way of creating classes + // This is a default constructor + public Bicycle() + { + this.Gear = 1; // you can access members of the object with the keyword this + Cadence = 50; // but you don't always need it + _speed = 5; + Name = "Bontrager"; + Brand = BikeBrand.AIST; + BicyclesCreated++; + } + + // This is a specified constructor (it contains arguments) + public Bicycle(int startCadence, int startSpeed, int startGear, + string name, bool hasCardsInSpokes, BikeBrand brand) + : base() // calls base first + { + Gear = startGear; + Cadence = startCadence; + _speed = startSpeed; + Name = name; + _hasCardsInSpokes = hasCardsInSpokes; + Brand = brand; + } + + // Constructors can be chained + public Bicycle(int startCadence, int startSpeed, BikeBrand brand) : + this(startCadence, startSpeed, 0, "big wheels", true, brand) + { + } + + // Function Syntax: + // <public/private/protected> <return type> <function name>(<args>) + + // classes can implement getters and setters for their fields + // or they can implement properties (this is the preferred way in C#) + + // Method parameters can have default values. + // In this case, methods can be called with these parameters omitted + public void SpeedUp(int increment = 1) + { + _speed += increment; + } + + public void SlowDown(int decrement = 1) + { + _speed -= decrement; + } + + // properties get/set values + // when only data needs to be accessed, consider using properties. + // properties may have either get or set, or both + private bool _hasTassles; // private variable + public bool HasTassles // public accessor + { + get { return _hasTassles; } + set { _hasTassles = value; } + } + + // You can also define an automatic property in one line + // this syntax will create a backing field automatically. + // You can set an access modifier on either the getter or the setter (or both) + // to restrict its access: + public bool IsBroken { get; private set; } + + // Properties can be auto-implemented + public int FrameSize + { + get; + // you are able to specify access modifiers for either get or set + // this means only Bicycle class can call set on Framesize + private set; + } + + // It's also possible to define custom Indexers on objects. + // All though this is not entirely useful in this example, you + // could do bicycle[0] which yields "chris" to get the first passenger or + // bicycle[1] = "lisa" to set the passenger. (of this apparent quattrocycle) + private string[] passengers = { "chris", "phil", "darren", "regina" }; + + public string this[int i] + { + get { + return passengers[i]; + } + + set { + return passengers[i] = value; + } + } + + //Method to display the attribute values of this Object. + public virtual string Info() + { + return "Gear: " + Gear + + " Cadence: " + Cadence + + " Speed: " + _speed + + " Name: " + Name + + " Cards in Spokes: " + (_hasCardsInSpokes ? "yes" : "no") + + "\n------------------------------\n" + ; + } + + // Methods can also be static. It can be useful for helper methods + public static bool DidWeCreateEnoughBycles() + { + // Within a static method, we only can reference static class members + return BicyclesCreated > 9000; + } // If your class only needs static members, consider marking the class itself as static. + + + } // end class Bicycle + + // PennyFarthing is a subclass of Bicycle + class PennyFarthing : Bicycle + { + // (Penny Farthings are those bicycles with the big front wheel. + // They have no gears.) + + // calling parent constructor + public PennyFarthing(int startCadence, int startSpeed) : + base(startCadence, startSpeed, 0, "PennyFarthing", true, BikeBrand.Electra) + { + } + + protected override int Gear + { + get + { + return 0; + } + set + { + throw new InvalidOperationException("You can't change gears on a PennyFarthing"); + } + } + + public static PennyFarthing CreateWithGears(int gears) + { + var penny = new PennyFarthing(1, 1); + penny.Gear = gears; // Oops, can't do this! + return penny; + } + + public override string Info() + { + string result = "PennyFarthing bicycle "; + result += base.ToString(); // Calling the base version of the method + return result; + } + } + + // Interfaces only contain signatures of the members, without the implementation. + interface IJumpable + { + void Jump(int meters); // all interface members are implicitly public + } + + interface IBreakable + { + bool Broken { get; } // interfaces can contain properties as well as methods & events + } + + // Class can inherit only one other class, but can implement any amount of interfaces + class MountainBike : Bicycle, IJumpable, IBreakable + { + int damage = 0; + + public void Jump(int meters) + { + damage += meters; + } + + public bool Broken + { + get + { + return damage > 100; + } + } + } + + /// <summary> + /// Used to connect to DB for LinqToSql example. + /// EntityFramework Code First is awesome (similar to Ruby's ActiveRecord, but bidirectional) + /// http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/data/jj193542.aspx + /// </summary> + public class BikeRepository : DbContext + { + public BikeRepository() + : base() + { + } + + public DbSet<Bicycle> Bikes { get; set; } + } +} // End Namespace +``` + +## Topics Not Covered + + * Attributes + * async/await, yield, pragma directives + * Web Development + * ASP.NET MVC & WebApi (new) + * ASP.NET Web Forms (old) + * WebMatrix (tool) + * Desktop Development + * Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) (new) + * Winforms (old) + +## Further Reading + + * [DotNetPerls](http://www.dotnetperls.com) + * [C# in Depth](http://manning.com/skeet2) + * [Programming C#](http://shop.oreilly.com/product/0636920024064.do) + * [LINQ](http://shop.oreilly.com/product/9780596519254.do) + * [MSDN Library](http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/618ayhy6.aspx) + * [ASP.NET MVC Tutorials](http://www.asp.net/mvc/tutorials) + * [ASP.NET Web Matrix Tutorials](http://www.asp.net/web-pages/tutorials) + * [ASP.NET Web Forms Tutorials](http://www.asp.net/web-forms/tutorials) + * [Windows Forms Programming in C#](http://www.amazon.com/Windows-Forms-Programming-Chris-Sells/dp/0321116208) + * [C# Coding Conventions](http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/vstudio/ff926074.aspx) diff --git a/pt-br/git-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/git-pt.html.markdown index 981da503..ea3570d6 100644 --- a/pt-br/git-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/git-pt.html.markdown @@ -5,8 +5,12 @@ lang: pt-br filename: LearnGit.txt contributors: - ["Jake Prather", "http://github.com/JakeHP"] + - ["Leo Rudberg" , "http://github.com/LOZORD"] + - ["Betsy Lorton" , "http://github.com/schbetsy"] + - ["Bruno Volcov", "http://github.com/volcov"] translators: - ["Suzane Sant Ana", "http://github.com/suuuzi"] + - ["Bruno Volcov", "http://github.com/volcov"] --- Git é um sistema distribuido de gestão para código fonte e controle de versões. @@ -84,6 +88,11 @@ Um *branch* é essencialmente uma referência que aponta para o último *commit* efetuado. Na medida que são feitos novos commits, esta referência é atualizada automaticamente e passa a apontar para o commit mais recente. +### *Tag* + +Uma tag é uma marcação em um ponto específico da história. Geralmente as +pessoas usam esta funcionalidade para marcar pontos de release (v2.0, e por aí vai) + ### *HEAD* e *head* (componentes do diretório .git) *HEAD* é a referência que aponta para o *branch* em uso. Um repositório só tem @@ -196,6 +205,29 @@ $ git branch -m myBranchName myNewBranchName $ git branch myBranchName --edit-description ``` +### Tag + +Gerencia as *tags* + +```bash +# Listar tags +$ git tag +# Criar uma tag anotada. +# O parâmetro -m define uma mensagem, que é armazenada com a tag. +# Se você não especificar uma mensagem para uma tag anotada, +# o Git vai rodar seu editor de texto para você digitar alguma coisa. +$ git tag -a v2.0 -m 'minha versão 2.0' +# Mostrar informações sobre a tag +# O comando mostra a informação da pessoa que criou a tag, +# a data de quando o commit foi taggeado, +# e a mensagem antes de mostrar a informação do commit. +$ git show v2.0 +# Enviar uma tag para o repositório remoto +$ git push origin v2.0 +# Enviar várias tags para o repositório remoto +$ git push origin --tags +``` + ### checkout Atualiza todos os arquivos no diretório do projeto para que fiquem iguais diff --git a/pt-br/java-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/java-pt.html.markdown index 3c9512aa..db087a5f 100644 --- a/pt-br/java-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/java-pt.html.markdown @@ -214,42 +214,42 @@ public class LearnJava { //Iteração feita 10 vezes, fooFor 0->9 } System.out.println("Valor do fooFor: " + fooFor); - - // O Loop For Each + + // O Loop For Each // Itera automaticamente por um array ou lista de objetos. int[] fooList = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}; //estrutura do loop for each => for(<objeto> : <array_de_objeto>) //lê-se: para cada objeto no array //nota: o tipo do objeto deve ser o mesmo do array. - + for( int bar : fooList ){ //System.out.println(bar); //Itera 9 vezes e imprime 1-9 em novas linhas } - + // Switch // Um switch funciona com os tipos de dados: byte, short, char e int // Ele também funciona com tipos enumerados (vistos em tipos Enum) // como também a classe String e algumas outras classes especiais // tipos primitivos: Character, Byte, Short e Integer - int mes = 3; - String mesString; - switch (mes){ + int mes = 3; + String mesString; + switch (mes){ case 1: - mesString = "Janeiro"; + mesString = "Janeiro"; break; case 2: - mesString = "Fevereiro"; + mesString = "Fevereiro"; break; case 3: - mesString = "Março"; + mesString = "Março"; break; default: - mesString = "Algum outro mês"; + mesString = "Algum outro mês"; break; } System.out.println("Resultado do Switch: " + mesString); - + // Condição de forma abreviada. // Você pode usar o operador '?' para atribuições rápidas ou decisões lógicas. // Lê-se "Se (declaração) é verdadeira, use <primeiro valor> @@ -287,9 +287,9 @@ public class LearnJava { // Classes e Métodos /////////////////////////////////////// - System.out.println("\n->Classes e Métodos"); + System.out.println("\n->Classes e Métodos"); - // (segue a definição da classe Bicicleta) + // (segue a definição da classe Bicicleta) // Use o new para instanciar uma classe Bicicleta caloi = new Bicicleta(); // Objeto caloi criado. @@ -318,9 +318,9 @@ class Bicicleta { // Atributos/Variáveis da classe Bicicleta. public int ritmo; // Public: Pode ser acessada em qualquer lugar. - private int velocidade; // Private: Apenas acessível a classe. + private int velocidade; // Private: Apenas acessível a classe. protected int catraca; // Protected: Acessível a classe e suas subclasses. - String nome; // default: Apenas acessível ao pacote. + String nome; // default: Apenas acessível ao pacote. // Construtores são uma forma de criação de classes // Este é o construtor padrão. @@ -388,7 +388,7 @@ class Bicicleta { // Velocipede é uma subclasse de bicicleta. class Velocipede extends Bicicleta { // (Velocípedes são bicicletas com rodas dianteiras grandes - // Elas não possuem catraca.) + // Elas não possuem catraca.) public Velocipede(int ritmoInicial, int velocidadeInicial){ // Chame o construtor do pai (construtor de Bicicleta) com o comando super. @@ -626,11 +626,11 @@ Os links fornecidos aqui abaixo são apenas para ter uma compreensão do tema, u Outros tópicos para pesquisar: -* [Tutorial Java para Sun Trail / Oracle](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/index.html) +* [Tutorial Java para Sun Trail / Oracle](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/index.html) * [Modificadores de acesso do Java](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/javaOO/accesscontrol.html) -* [Coceitos de Programação Orientada à Objetos](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/concepts/index.html): +* [Coceitos de Programação Orientada à Objetos](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/concepts/index.html): * [Herança](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/subclasses.html) * [Polimorfismo](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/polymorphism.html) * [Abstração](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/abstract.html) @@ -646,3 +646,9 @@ Outros tópicos para pesquisar: Livros: * [Use a cabeça, Java] (http://www.headfirstlabs.com/books/hfjava/) + +Apostila: + +* [Java e Orientação a Objetos] (http://www.caelum.com.br/apostila-java-orientacao-objetos/) + +* [Java para Desenvolvimento Web] (https://www.caelum.com.br/apostila-java-web/) diff --git a/pt-br/paren-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/paren-pt.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..464a69d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/pt-br/paren-pt.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,196 @@ +--- +language: Paren +filename: learnparen-pt.paren +contributors: + - ["KIM Taegyoon", "https://github.com/kimtg"] +translators: + - ["Claudson Martins", "https://github.com/claudsonm"] +lang: pt-br +--- + +[Paren](https://bitbucket.org/ktg/paren) é um dialeto do Lisp. É projetado para ser uma linguagem embutida. + +Alguns exemplos foram retirados de <http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/racket/>. + +```scheme +;;; Comentários +# Comentários + +;; Comentários de única linha começam com um ponto e vírgula ou cerquilha + +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; +;; 1. Tipos de Dados Primitivos e Operadores +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; + +;;; Números +123 ; inteiro +3.14 ; double +6.02e+23 ; double +(int 3.14) ; => 3 : inteiro +(double 123) ; => 123 : double + +;; O uso de funções é feito da seguinte maneira (f x y z ...) +;; onde f é uma função e x, y, z, ... são os operandos +;; Se você quiser criar uma lista literal de dados, use (quote) para impedir +;; que sejam interpretados +(quote (+ 1 2)) ; => (+ 1 2) +;; Agora, algumas operações aritméticas +(+ 1 1) ; => 2 +(- 8 1) ; => 7 +(* 10 2) ; => 20 +(^ 2 3) ; => 8 +(/ 5 2) ; => 2 +(% 5 2) ; => 1 +(/ 5.0 2) ; => 2.5 + +;;; Booleanos +true ; para verdadeiro +false ; para falso +(! true) ; => falso +(&& true false (prn "não chega aqui")) ; => falso +(|| false true (prn "não chega aqui")) ; => verdadeiro + +;;; Caracteres são inteiros. +(char-at "A" 0) ; => 65 +(chr 65) ; => "A" + +;;; Strings são arrays de caracteres de tamanho fixo. +"Olá, mundo!" +"Sebastião \"Tim\" Maia" ; Contra-barra é um caractere de escape +"Foo\tbar\r\n" ; Inclui os escapes da linguagem C: \t \r \n + +;; Strings podem ser concatenadas também! +(strcat "Olá " "mundo!") ; => "Olá mundo!" + +;; Uma string pode ser tratada como uma lista de caracteres +(char-at "Abacaxi" 0) ; => 65 + +;; A impressão é muito fácil +(pr "Isso é" "Paren. ") (prn "Prazer em conhecê-lo!") + +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; +;; 2. Variáveis +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; +;; Você pode criar ou definir uma variável usando (set) +;; o nome de uma variável pode conter qualquer caracter, exceto: ();#" +(set alguma-variavel 5) ; => 5 +alguma-variavel ; => 5 + +;; Acessar uma variável ainda não atribuída gera uma exceção +; x ; => Unknown variable: x : nil + +;; Ligações locais: Utiliza cálculo lambda! +;; 'a' e 'b' estão ligados a '1' e '2' apenas dentro de (fn ...) +((fn (a b) (+ a b)) 1 2) ; => 3 + +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; +;; 3. Coleções +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; + +;;; Listas + +;; Listas são estruturas de dados semelhantes a vetores. (A classe de comportamento é O(1).) +(cons 1 (cons 2 (cons 3 (list)))) ; => (1 2 3) +;; 'list' é uma variação conveniente para construir listas +(list 1 2 3) ; => (1 2 3) +;; Um quote também pode ser usado para uma lista de valores literais +(quote (+ 1 2)) ; => (+ 1 2) + +;; Você ainda pode utilizar 'cons' para adicionar um item ao início da lista +(cons 0 (list 1 2 3)) ; => (0 1 2 3) + +;; Listas são um tipo muito básico, portanto existe *enorme* funcionalidade +;; para elas, veja alguns exemplos: +(map inc (list 1 2 3)) ; => (2 3 4) +(filter (fn (x) (== 0 (% x 2))) (list 1 2 3 4)) ; => (2 4) +(length (list 1 2 3 4)) ; => 4 + +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; +;; 3. Funções +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; + +;; Use 'fn' para criar funções. +;; Uma função sempre retorna o valor de sua última expressão +(fn () "Olá Mundo") ; => (fn () Olá Mundo) : fn + +;; Use parênteses para chamar todas as funções, incluindo uma expressão lambda +((fn () "Olá Mundo")) ; => "Olá Mundo" + +;; Atribuir uma função a uma variável +(set ola-mundo (fn () "Olá Mundo")) +(ola-mundo) ; => "Olá Mundo" + +;; Você pode encurtar isso utilizando a definição de função açúcar sintático: +(defn ola-mundo2 () "Olá Mundo") + +;; Os () acima é a lista de argumentos para a função +(set ola + (fn (nome) + (strcat "Olá " nome))) +(ola "Steve") ; => "Olá Steve" + +;; ... ou equivalente, usando a definição açucarada: +(defn ola2 (nome) + (strcat "Olá " name)) + +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; +;; 4. Igualdade +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; + +;; Para números utilize '==' +(== 3 3.0) ; => verdadeiro +(== 2 1) ; => falso + +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; +;; 5. Controle de Fluxo +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; + +;;; Condicionais + +(if true ; Testa a expressão + "isso é verdade" ; Então expressão + "isso é falso") ; Senão expressão +; => "isso é verdade" + +;;; Laços de Repetição + +;; O laço for é para número +;; (for SÍMBOLO INÍCIO FIM SALTO EXPRESSÃO ..) +(for i 0 10 2 (pr i "")) ; => Imprime 0 2 4 6 8 10 +(for i 0.0 10 2.5 (pr i "")) ; => Imprime 0 2.5 5 7.5 10 + +;; Laço while +((fn (i) + (while (< i 10) + (pr i) + (++ i))) 0) ; => Imprime 0123456789 + +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; +;; 6. Mutação +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; + +;; Use 'set' para atribuir um novo valor a uma variável ou local +(set n 5) ; => 5 +(set n (inc n)) ; => 6 +n ; => 6 +(set a (list 1 2)) ; => (1 2) +(set (nth 0 a) 3) ; => 3 +a ; => (3 2) + +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; +;; 7. Macros +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; + +;; Macros lhe permitem estender a sintaxe da linguagem. +;; Os macros no Paren são fáceis. +;; Na verdade, (defn) é um macro. +(defmacro setfn (nome ...) (set nome (fn ...))) +(defmacro defn (nome ...) (def nome (fn ...))) + +;; Vamos adicionar uma notação infixa +(defmacro infix (a op ...) (op a ...)) +(infix 1 + 2 (infix 3 * 4)) ; => 15 + +;; Macros não são higiênicos, você pode sobrescrever as variáveis já existentes! +;; Eles são transformações de códigos. +``` diff --git a/pt-br/ruby-ecosystem-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/ruby-ecosystem-pt.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..da4f6f37 --- /dev/null +++ b/pt-br/ruby-ecosystem-pt.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,147 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: ruby ecosystem +contributors: + - ["Jon Smock", "http://github.com/jonsmock"] + - ["Rafal Chmiel", "http://github.com/rafalchmiel"] +translators: + - ["Claudson Martins", "http://github.com/claudsonm"] +lang: pt-br + +--- + +Pessoas utilizando Ruby geralmente têm uma forma de instalar diferentes versões +do Ruby, gerenciar seus pacotes (ou gemas) e as dependências das gemas. + +## Gerenciadores Ruby + +Algumas plataformas possuem o Ruby pré-instalado ou disponível como um pacote. +A maioria dos "rubistas" não os usam, e se usam, é apenas para inicializar outro +instalador ou implementação do Ruby. Ao invés disso, rubistas tendêm a instalar +um gerenciador para instalar e alternar entre diversas versões do Ruby e seus +ambientes de projeto. + +Abaixo estão os gerenciadores Ruby mais populares: + +* [RVM](https://rvm.io/) - Instala e alterna entre os rubies. RVM também possui + o conceito de gemsets para isolar os ambientes dos projetos completamente. +* [ruby-build](https://github.com/sstephenson/ruby-build) - Apenas instala os + rubies. Use este para um melhor controle sobre a instalação de seus rubies. +* [rbenv](https://github.com/sstephenson/rbenv) - Apenas alterna entre os rubies. + Usado com o ruby-build. Use este para um controle mais preciso sobre a forma + como os rubies são carregados. +* [chruby](https://github.com/postmodern/chruby) - Apenas alterna entre os rubies. + A concepção é bastante similar ao rbenv. Sem grandes opções sobre como os + rubies são instalados. + +## Versões do Ruby + +O Ruby foi criado por Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto, que continua a ser uma espécie +de [BDFL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benevolent_Dictator_for_Life), embora +isso esteja mudando recentemente. Como resultado, a implementação de referência +do Ruby é chamada de MRI (Matz' Reference Implementation), e quando você ver uma +versão do Ruby, ela está se referindo a versão de lançamento do MRI. + +As três principais versões do Ruby em uso são: + +* 2.0.0 - Lançada em Fevereiro de 2013. Maioria das principais bibliotecas e + suporte a frameworks 2.0.0. +* 1.9.3 - Lançada em Outubro de 2011. Está é a versão mais utilizada pelos rubistas + atualmente. Também [aposentada](https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/news/2015/02/23/support-for-ruby-1-9-3-has-ended/). +* 1.8.7 - O Ruby 1.8.7 foi + [aposentado](http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/news/2013/06/30/we-retire-1-8-7/). + +A diferença entre a versão 1.8.7 para 1.9.x é muito maior do que a da 1.9.3 para +a 2.0.0. Por exemplo, a série 1.9 introduziu encodes e uma VM bytecode. Ainda +existem projetos na versão 1.8.7, mas eles estão tornando-se uma pequena minoria +pois a maioria da comunidade migrou para a versão, pelo menos, 1.9.2 ou 1.9.3. + +## Implementações Ruby + +O ecossistema Ruby conta com várias diferentes implementações do Ruby, cada uma +com pontos fortes e estados de compatibilidade. Para ser claro, as diferentes +implementações são escritas em diferentes linguagens, mas *todas elas são Ruby*. +Cada implementação possui hooks especiais e recursos extra, mas todas elas +executam arquivos normais do Ruby tranquilamente. Por exemplo, JRuby é escrita +em Java, mas você não precisa saber Java para utilizá-la. + +Muito maduras/compatíveis: + +* [MRI](https://github.com/ruby/ruby) - Escrita em C, esta é a implementação de + referência do Ruby. Por definição, é 100% compatível (consigo mesma). Todos os + outros rubies mantêm compatibilidade com a MRI (veja [RubySpec](#rubyspec) abaixo). +* [JRuby](http://jruby.org/) - Escrita em Java e Ruby, esta implementação + robusta é um tanto rápida. Mais importante ainda, o ponto forte do JRuby é a + interoperabilidade com JVM/Java, aproveitando ferramentas JVM, projetos, e + linguagens existentes. +* [Rubinius](http://rubini.us/) - Escrita principalmente no próprio Ruby, com + uma VM bytecode em C++. Também madura e rápida. Por causa de sua implementação + em Ruby, ela expõe muitos recursos da VM na rubyland. + +Medianamente maduras/compatíveis: + +* [Maglev](http://maglev.github.io/) - Construída em cima da Gemstone, uma + máquina virtual Smalltalk. O Smalltalk possui algumas ferramentas impressionantes, + e este projeto tenta trazer isso para o desenvolvimento Ruby. +* [RubyMotion](http://www.rubymotion.com/) - Traz o Ruby para o desenvolvimento iOS. + +Pouco maduras/compatíveis: + +* [Topaz](http://topazruby.com/) - Escrita em RPython (usando o conjunto de + ferramentas PyPy), Topaz é bastante jovem e ainda não compatível. Parece ser + promissora como uma implementação Ruby de alta performance. +* [IronRuby](http://ironruby.net/) - Escrita em C# visando a plataforma .NET, + o trabalho no IronRuby parece ter parado desde que a Microsoft retirou seu apoio. + +Implementações Ruby podem ter seus próprios números de lançamento, mas elas +sempre focam em uma versão específica da MRI para compatibilidade. Diversas +implementações têm a capacidade de entrar em diferentes modos (1.8 ou 1.9, por +exemplo) para especificar qual versão da MRI focar. + +## RubySpec + +A maioria das implementações Ruby dependem fortemente da [RubySpec](http://rubyspec.org/). +Ruby não tem uma especificação oficial, então a comunidade tem escrito +especificações executáveis em Ruby para testar a compatibilidade de suas +implementações com a MRI. + +## RubyGems + +[RubyGems](http://rubygems.org/) é um gerenciador de pacotes para Ruby mantido +pela comunidade. RubyGems vem com o Ruby, portanto não é preciso baixar separadamente. + +Os pacotes do Ruby são chamados de "gemas", e elas podem ser hospedadas pela +comunidade em RubyGems.org. Cada gema contém seu código-fonte e alguns metadados, +incluindo coisas como versão, dependências, autor(es) e licença(s). + +## Bundler + +[Bundler](http://bundler.io/) é um gerenciador de dependências para as gemas. +Ele usa a Gemfile de um projeto para encontrar dependências, e então busca as +dependências dessas dependências de forma recursiva. Ele faz isso até que todas +as dependências sejam resolvidas e baixadas, ou para se encontrar um conflito. + +O Bundler gerará um erro se encontrar um conflito entre dependências. Por exemplo, +se a gema A requer versão 3 ou maior que a gema Z, mas a gema B requer a versão +2, o Bundler irá notificá-lo que há um conflito. Isso se torna extremamente útil +quando diversas gemas começam a referenciar outras gemas (que referem-se a outras +gemas), o que pode formar uma grande cascata de dependências a serem resolvidas. + +# Testes + +Testes são uma grande parte da cultura do Ruby. O Ruby vem com o seu próprio +framework de teste de unidade chamado minitest (ou TestUnit para Ruby versão 1.8.x). +Existem diversas bibliotecas de teste com diferentes objetivos. + +* [TestUnit](http://ruby-doc.org/stdlib-1.8.7/libdoc/test/unit/rdoc/Test/Unit.html) - + Framework de testes "Unit-style" para o Ruby 1.8 (built-in) +* [minitest](http://ruby-doc.org/stdlib-2.0.0/libdoc/minitest/rdoc/MiniTest.html) - + Framework de testes para o Ruby 1.9/2.0 (built-in) +* [RSpec](http://rspec.info/) - Um framework de testes que foca na expressividade +* [Cucumber](http://cukes.info/) - Um framework de testes BDD que analisa testes Gherkin formatados + +## Seja Legal + +A comunidade Ruby orgulha-se de ser uma comunidade aberta, diversa, e receptiva. +O próprio Matz é extremamente amigável, e a generosidade dos rubistas em geral +é incrível. diff --git a/pt-br/yaml-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/yaml-pt.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..341ae675 --- /dev/null +++ b/pt-br/yaml-pt.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,142 @@ +--- +language: yaml +contributors: + - ["Adam Brenecki", "https://github.com/adambrenecki"] +translators: + - ["Rodrigo Russo", "https://github.com/rodrigozrusso"] +filename: learnyaml-pt.yaml +lang: pt-br +--- + +YAML é uma linguagem de serialização de dados projetado para ser diretamente gravável e +legível por seres humanos. + +É um estrito subconjunto de JSON, com a adição de sintaticamente +novas linhas e recuo significativos, como Python. Ao contrário de Python, no entanto, +YAML não permite caracteres de tabulação literais em tudo. + +```yaml +# Commentários em YAML são como este. + +################### +# TIPOS ESCALARES # +################### + +# Nosso objeto raiz (que continua por todo o documento) será um mapa, +# o que equivale a um dicionário, hash ou objeto em outras linguagens. +chave: valor +outra_chave: Outro valor vai aqui. +u_valor_numerico: 100 +notacao_cientifica: 1e+12 +boleano: true +valor_nulo: null +chave com espaco: valor +# Observe que strings não precisam de aspas. Porém, elas podem ter. +porem: "Uma string, entre aspas." +"Chaves podem estar entre aspas tambem.": "É útil se você quiser colocar um ':' na sua chave." + +# Seqüências de várias linhas podem ser escritos como um 'bloco literal' (utilizando |), +# ou em um 'bloco compacto' (utilizando '>'). +bloco_literal: | + Todo esse bloco de texto será o valor da chave 'bloco_literal', + preservando a quebra de com linhas. + + O literal continua até de-dented, e a primeira identação é + removida. + + Quaisquer linhas que são 'mais identadas' mantém o resto de suas identações - + estas linhas serão identadas com 4 espaços. +estilo_compacto: > + Todo esse bloco de texto será o valor de 'estilo_compacto', mas esta + vez, todas as novas linhas serão substituídas com espaço simples. + + Linhas em branco, como acima, são convertidas em um carater de nova linha. + + Linhas 'mais-indentadas' mantém suas novas linhas também - + este texto irá aparecer em duas linhas. + +#################### +# TIPOS DE COLEÇÃO # +#################### + +# Texto aninhado é conseguido através de identação. +um_mapa_aninhado: + chave: valor + outra_chave: Outro valor + outro_mapa_aninhado: + ola: ola + +# Mapas não tem que ter chaves com string. +0.25: uma chave com valor flutuante + +# As chaves podem ser também objetos multi linhas, utilizando ? para indicar o começo de uma chave. +? | + Esta é uma chave + que tem várias linhas +: e este é o seu valor + +# também permite tipos de coleção de chaves, mas muitas linguagens de programação +# vão reclamar. + +# Sequências (equivalente a listas ou arrays) semelhante à isso: +uma_sequencia: + - Item 1 + - Item 2 + - 0.5 # sequencias podem conter tipos diferentes. + - Item 4 + - chave: valor + outra_chave: outro_valor + - + - Esta é uma sequencia + - dentro de outra sequencia + +# Como YAML é um super conjunto de JSON, você também pode escrever mapas JSON de estilo e +# sequencias: +mapa_json: {"chave": "valor"} +json_seq: [3, 2, 1, "decolar"] + +########################## +# RECURSOS EXTRA DO YAML # +########################## + +# YAML também tem um recurso útil chamado "âncoras", que permitem que você facilmente duplique +# conteúdo em seu documento. Ambas estas chaves terão o mesmo valor: +conteudo_ancora: & nome_ancora Essa string irá aparecer como o valor de duas chaves. +outra_ancora: * nome_ancora + +# YAML também tem tags, que você pode usar para declarar explicitamente os tipos. +string_explicita: !! str 0,5 +# Alguns analisadores implementam tags específicas de linguagem, como este para Python de +# Tipo de número complexo. +numero_complexo_em_python: !! python / complex 1 + 2j + +#################### +# YAML TIPOS EXTRA # +#################### + +# Strings e números não são os únicos que escalares YAML pode entender. +# Data e 'data e hora' literais no formato ISO também são analisados. +datetime: 2001-12-15T02: 59: 43.1Z +datetime_com_espacos 2001/12/14: 21: 59: 43.10 -5 +Data: 2002/12/14 + +# A tag !!binary indica que a string é na verdade um base64-encoded (condificado) +# representação de um blob binário. +gif_file: !!binary | + R0lGODlhDAAMAIQAAP//9/X17unp5WZmZgAAAOfn515eXvPz7Y6OjuDg4J+fn5 + OTk6enp56enmlpaWNjY6Ojo4SEhP/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/+ + +f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++SH+Dk1hZGUgd2l0aCBHSU1QACwAAAAADAAMAAAFLC + AgjoEwnuNAFOhpEMTRiggcz4BNJHrv/zCFcLiwMWYNG84BwwEeECcgggoBADs= + +# YAML também tem um tipo de conjunto, o que se parece com isso: +set: + ? item1 + ? item2 + ? item3 + +# Como Python, são apenas conjuntos de mapas com valors nulos; o acima é equivalente a: +set2: + item1: nulo + item2: nulo + item3: nulo +``` diff --git a/python.html.markdown b/python.html.markdown index 2e7fd8be..28b0a7ae 100644 --- a/python.html.markdown +++ b/python.html.markdown @@ -8,20 +8,22 @@ contributors: filename: learnpython.py --- -Python was created by Guido Van Rossum in the early 90s. It is now one of the most popular -languages in existence. I fell in love with Python for its syntactic clarity. It's basically -executable pseudocode. +Python was created by Guido Van Rossum in the early 90s. It is now one of the +most popular languages in existence. I fell in love with Python for its +syntactic clarity. It's basically executable pseudocode. -Feedback would be highly appreciated! You can reach me at [@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) or louiedinh [at] [google's email service] +Feedback would be highly appreciated! You can reach me at [@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) +or louiedinh [at] [google's email service] -Note: This article applies to Python 2.7 specifically, but should be applicable -to Python 2.x. Python 2.7 is reaching end of life and will stop being maintained in 2020, -it is though recommended to start learning Python with Python 3. -For Python 3.x, take a look at the [Python 3 tutorial](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/python3/). +Note: This article applies to Python 2.7 specifically, but should be applicable +to Python 2.x. Python 2.7 is reaching end of life and will stop being +maintained in 2020, it is though recommended to start learning Python with +Python 3. For Python 3.x, take a look at the [Python 3 tutorial](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/python3/). -It is also possible to write Python code which is compatible with Python 2.7 and 3.x at the same time, -using Python [`__future__` imports](https://docs.python.org/2/library/__future__.html). `__future__` imports -allow you to write Python 3 code that will run on Python 2, so check out the Python 3 tutorial. +It is also possible to write Python code which is compatible with Python 2.7 +and 3.x at the same time, using Python [`__future__` imports](https://docs.python.org/2/library/__future__.html). `__future__` imports +allow you to write Python 3 code that will run on Python 2, so check out the +Python 3 tutorial. ```python @@ -32,6 +34,7 @@ allow you to write Python 3 code that will run on Python 2, so check out the Pyt as comments """ + #################################################### ## 1. Primitive Datatypes and Operators #################################################### @@ -188,6 +191,7 @@ some_other_var # Raises a name error # Equivalent of C's '?:' ternary operator "yahoo!" if 3 > 2 else 2 # => "yahoo!" + # Lists store sequences li = [] # You can start with a prefilled list @@ -441,6 +445,7 @@ with open("myfile.txt") as f: for line in f: print line + #################################################### ## 4. Functions #################################################### @@ -464,7 +469,6 @@ def varargs(*args): varargs(1, 2, 3) # => (1, 2, 3) - # You can define functions that take a variable number of # keyword args, as well, which will be interpreted as a dict by using ** def keyword_args(**kwargs): @@ -657,6 +661,12 @@ math.sqrt == m.sqrt == sqrt # => True import math dir(math) +# If you have a Python script named math.py in the same +# folder as your current script, the file math.py will +# be loaded instead of the built-in Python module. +# This happens because the local folder has priority +# over Python's built-in libraries. + #################################################### ## 7. Advanced @@ -692,7 +702,6 @@ for i in double_numbers(xrange_): # message from functools import wraps - def beg(target_function): @wraps(target_function) def wrapper(*args, **kwargs): @@ -703,13 +712,11 @@ def beg(target_function): return wrapper - @beg def say(say_please=False): msg = "Can you buy me a beer?" return msg, say_please - print say() # Can you buy me a beer? print say(say_please=True) # Can you buy me a beer? Please! I am poor :( ``` diff --git a/python3.html.markdown b/python3.html.markdown index d88ccec1..ea29fdba 100644 --- a/python3.html.markdown +++ b/python3.html.markdown @@ -716,6 +716,11 @@ math.sqrt(16) == m.sqrt(16) # => True import math dir(math) +# If you have a Python script named math.py in the same +# folder as your current script, the file math.py will +# be loaded instead of the built-in Python module. +# This happens because the local folder has priority +# over Python's built-in libraries. #################################################### ## 7. Advanced diff --git a/pythonstatcomp.html.markdown b/pythonstatcomp.html.markdown index 0b02dca8..8ee3aa64 100644 --- a/pythonstatcomp.html.markdown +++ b/pythonstatcomp.html.markdown @@ -1,8 +1,8 @@ --- -language: Statistical computing with Python +category: tool +tool: Statistical Computing with Python contributors: - ["e99n09", "https://github.com/e99n09"] -filename: pythonstatcomp.py --- This is a tutorial on how to do some typical statistical programming tasks using Python. It's intended for people basically familiar with Python and experienced at statistical programming in a language like R, Stata, SAS, SPSS, or MATLAB. diff --git a/r.html.markdown~ b/r.html.markdown~ new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ee9e7c90 --- /dev/null +++ b/r.html.markdown~ @@ -0,0 +1,807 @@ +--- +language: R +contributors: + - ["e99n09", "http://github.com/e99n09"] +<<<<<<< HEAD +======= + - ["isomorphismes", "http://twitter.com/isomorphisms"] + - ["kalinn", "http://github.com/kalinn"] +>>>>>>> 6e38442b857a9d8178b6ce6713b96c52bf4426eb +filename: learnr.r +--- + +R is a statistical computing language. It has lots of libraries for uploading and cleaning data sets, running statistical procedures, and making graphs. You can also run `R` commands within a LaTeX document. + +```r + +# Comments start with number symbols. + +# You can't make multi-line comments, +# but you can stack multiple comments like so. + +# in Windows you can use CTRL-ENTER to execute a line. +# on Mac it is COMMAND-ENTER + + + +############################################################################# +# Stuff you can do without understanding anything about programming +############################################################################# + +# In this section, we show off some of the cool stuff you can do in +# R without understanding anything about programming. Do not worry +# about understanding everything the code does. Just enjoy! + +data() # browse pre-loaded data sets +data(rivers) # get this one: "Lengths of Major North American Rivers" +ls() # notice that "rivers" now appears in the workspace +head(rivers) # peek at the data set +# 735 320 325 392 524 450 + +length(rivers) # how many rivers were measured? +# 141 +summary(rivers) # what are some summary statistics? +# Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. +# 135.0 310.0 425.0 591.2 680.0 3710.0 + +# make a stem-and-leaf plot (a histogram-like data visualization) +stem(rivers) + +# The decimal point is 2 digit(s) to the right of the | +# +# 0 | 4 +# 2 | 011223334555566667778888899900001111223333344455555666688888999 +# 4 | 111222333445566779001233344567 +# 6 | 000112233578012234468 +# 8 | 045790018 +# 10 | 04507 +# 12 | 1471 +# 14 | 56 +# 16 | 7 +# 18 | 9 +# 20 | +# 22 | 25 +# 24 | 3 +# 26 | +# 28 | +# 30 | +# 32 | +# 34 | +# 36 | 1 + +stem(log(rivers)) # Notice that the data are neither normal nor log-normal! +# Take that, Bell curve fundamentalists. + +# The decimal point is 1 digit(s) to the left of the | +# +# 48 | 1 +# 50 | +# 52 | 15578 +# 54 | 44571222466689 +# 56 | 023334677000124455789 +# 58 | 00122366666999933445777 +# 60 | 122445567800133459 +# 62 | 112666799035 +# 64 | 00011334581257889 +# 66 | 003683579 +# 68 | 0019156 +# 70 | 079357 +# 72 | 89 +# 74 | 84 +# 76 | 56 +# 78 | 4 +# 80 | +# 82 | 2 + +# make a histogram: +hist(rivers, col="#333333", border="white", breaks=25) # play around with these parameters +hist(log(rivers), col="#333333", border="white", breaks=25) # you'll do more plotting later + +# Here's another neat data set that comes pre-loaded. R has tons of these. +data(discoveries) +plot(discoveries, col="#333333", lwd=3, xlab="Year", + main="Number of important discoveries per year") +plot(discoveries, col="#333333", lwd=3, type = "h", xlab="Year", + main="Number of important discoveries per year") + +# Rather than leaving the default ordering (by year), +# we could also sort to see what's typical: +sort(discoveries) +# [1] 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 +# [26] 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 +# [51] 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 +# [76] 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 9 10 12 + +stem(discoveries, scale=2) +# +# The decimal point is at the | +# +# 0 | 000000000 +# 1 | 000000000000 +# 2 | 00000000000000000000000000 +# 3 | 00000000000000000000 +# 4 | 000000000000 +# 5 | 0000000 +# 6 | 000000 +# 7 | 0000 +# 8 | 0 +# 9 | 0 +# 10 | 0 +# 11 | +# 12 | 0 + +max(discoveries) +# 12 +summary(discoveries) +# Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. +# 0.0 2.0 3.0 3.1 4.0 12.0 + +# Roll a die a few times +round(runif(7, min=.5, max=6.5)) +# 1 4 6 1 4 6 4 +# Your numbers will differ from mine unless we set the same random.seed(31337) + +# Draw from a standard Gaussian 9 times +rnorm(9) +# [1] 0.07528471 1.03499859 1.34809556 -0.82356087 0.61638975 -1.88757271 +# [7] -0.59975593 0.57629164 1.08455362 + + + +################################################## +# Data types and basic arithmetic +################################################## + +# Now for the programming-oriented part of the tutorial. +# In this section you will meet the important data types of R: +# integers, numerics, characters, logicals, and factors. +# There are others, but these are the bare minimum you need to +# get started. + +# INTEGERS +# Long-storage integers are written with L +5L # 5 +class(5L) # "integer" +# (Try ?class for more information on the class() function.) +# In R, every single value, like 5L, is considered a vector of length 1 +length(5L) # 1 +# You can have an integer vector with length > 1 too: +c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L) # 4 5 8 3 +length(c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L)) # 4 +class(c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L)) # "integer" + +# NUMERICS +# A "numeric" is a double-precision floating-point number +5 # 5 +class(5) # "numeric" +# Again, everything in R is a vector; +# you can make a numeric vector with more than one element +c(3,3,3,2,2,1) # 3 3 3 2 2 1 +# You can use scientific notation too +5e4 # 50000 +6.02e23 # Avogadro's number +1.6e-35 # Planck length +# You can also have infinitely large or small numbers +class(Inf) # "numeric" +class(-Inf) # "numeric" +# You might use "Inf", for example, in integrate(dnorm, 3, Inf); +# this obviates Z-score tables. + +# BASIC ARITHMETIC +# You can do arithmetic with numbers +# Doing arithmetic on a mix of integers and numerics gives you another numeric +10L + 66L # 76 # integer plus integer gives integer +53.2 - 4 # 49.2 # numeric minus numeric gives numeric +2.0 * 2L # 4 # numeric times integer gives numeric +3L / 4 # 0.75 # integer over numeric gives numeric +3 %% 2 # 1 # the remainder of two numerics is another numeric +# Illegal arithmetic yeilds you a "not-a-number": +0 / 0 # NaN +class(NaN) # "numeric" +# You can do arithmetic on two vectors with length greater than 1, +# so long as the larger vector's length is an integer multiple of the smaller +c(1,2,3) + c(1,2,3) # 2 4 6 +# Since a single number is a vector of length one, scalars are applied +# elementwise to vectors +(4 * c(1,2,3) - 2) / 2 # 1 3 5 +# Except for scalars, use caution when performing arithmetic on vectors with +# different lengths. Although it can be done, +c(1,2,3,1,2,3) * c(1,2) # 1 4 3 2 2 6 +# Matching lengths is better practice and easier to read +c(1,2,3,1,2,3) * c(1,2,1,2,1,2) + +# CHARACTERS +# There's no difference between strings and characters in R +"Horatio" # "Horatio" +class("Horatio") # "character" +class('H') # "character" +# Those were both character vectors of length 1 +# Here is a longer one: +c('alef', 'bet', 'gimmel', 'dalet', 'he') +# => +# "alef" "bet" "gimmel" "dalet" "he" +length(c("Call","me","Ishmael")) # 3 +# You can do regex operations on character vectors: +substr("Fortuna multis dat nimis, nulli satis.", 9, 15) # "multis " +gsub('u', 'ø', "Fortuna multis dat nimis, nulli satis.") # "Fortøna møltis dat nimis, nølli satis." +# R has several built-in character vectors: +letters +# => +# [1] "a" "b" "c" "d" "e" "f" "g" "h" "i" "j" "k" "l" "m" "n" "o" "p" "q" "r" "s" +# [20] "t" "u" "v" "w" "x" "y" "z" +month.abb # "Jan" "Feb" "Mar" "Apr" "May" "Jun" "Jul" "Aug" "Sep" "Oct" "Nov" "Dec" + +# LOGICALS +# In R, a "logical" is a boolean +class(TRUE) # "logical" +class(FALSE) # "logical" +# Their behavior is normal +TRUE == TRUE # TRUE +TRUE == FALSE # FALSE +FALSE != FALSE # FALSE +FALSE != TRUE # TRUE +# Missing data (NA) is logical, too +class(NA) # "logical" +# Use | and & for logic operations. +# OR +TRUE | FALSE # TRUE +# AND +TRUE & FALSE # FALSE +# Applying | and & to vectors returns elementwise logic operations +c(TRUE,FALSE,FALSE) | c(FALSE,TRUE,FALSE) # TRUE TRUE FALSE +c(TRUE,FALSE,TRUE) & c(FALSE,TRUE,TRUE) # FALSE FALSE TRUE +# You can test if x is TRUE +isTRUE(TRUE) # TRUE +# Here we get a logical vector with many elements: +c('Z', 'o', 'r', 'r', 'o') == "Zorro" # FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE +c('Z', 'o', 'r', 'r', 'o') == "Z" # TRUE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE + +# FACTORS +# The factor class is for categorical data +# Factors can be ordered (like childrens' grade levels) or unordered (like gender) +factor(c("female", "female", "male", NA, "female")) +# female female male <NA> female +# Levels: female male +# The "levels" are the values the categorical data can take +# Note that missing data does not enter the levels +levels(factor(c("male", "male", "female", NA, "female"))) # "female" "male" +# If a factor vector has length 1, its levels will have length 1, too +length(factor("male")) # 1 +length(levels(factor("male"))) # 1 +# Factors are commonly seen in data frames, a data structure we will cover later +data(infert) # "Infertility after Spontaneous and Induced Abortion" +levels(infert$education) # "0-5yrs" "6-11yrs" "12+ yrs" + +# NULL +# "NULL" is a weird one; use it to "blank out" a vector +class(NULL) # NULL +parakeet = c("beak", "feathers", "wings", "eyes") +parakeet +# => +# [1] "beak" "feathers" "wings" "eyes" +parakeet <- NULL +parakeet +# => +# NULL + +# TYPE COERCION +# Type-coercion is when you force a value to take on a different type +as.character(c(6, 8)) # "6" "8" +as.logical(c(1,0,1,1)) # TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE +# If you put elements of different types into a vector, weird coercions happen: +c(TRUE, 4) # 1 4 +c("dog", TRUE, 4) # "dog" "TRUE" "4" +as.numeric("Bilbo") +# => +# [1] NA +# Warning message: +# NAs introduced by coercion + +# Also note: those were just the basic data types +# There are many more data types, such as for dates, time series, etc. + + + +################################################## +# Variables, loops, if/else +################################################## + +# A variable is like a box you store a value in for later use. +# We call this "assigning" the value to the variable. +# Having variables lets us write loops, functions, and if/else statements + +# VARIABLES +# Lots of way to assign stuff: +x = 5 # this is possible +y <- "1" # this is preferred +TRUE -> z # this works but is weird + +# LOOPS +# We've got for loops +for (i in 1:4) { + print(i) +} +# We've got while loops +a <- 10 +while (a > 4) { + cat(a, "...", sep = "") + a <- a - 1 +} +# Keep in mind that for and while loops run slowly in R +# Operations on entire vectors (i.e. a whole row, a whole column) +# or apply()-type functions (we'll discuss later) are preferred + +# IF/ELSE +# Again, pretty standard +if (4 > 3) { + print("4 is greater than 3") +} else { + print("4 is not greater than 3") +} +# => +# [1] "4 is greater than 3" + +# FUNCTIONS +# Defined like so: +jiggle <- function(x) { + x = x + rnorm(1, sd=.1) #add in a bit of (controlled) noise + return(x) +} +# Called like any other R function: +jiggle(5) # 5±ε. After set.seed(2716057), jiggle(5)==5.005043 + + + +########################################################################### +# Data structures: Vectors, matrices, data frames, and arrays +########################################################################### + +# ONE-DIMENSIONAL + +# Let's start from the very beginning, and with something you already know: vectors. +vec <- c(8, 9, 10, 11) +vec # 8 9 10 11 +# We ask for specific elements by subsetting with square brackets +# (Note that R starts counting from 1) +vec[1] # 8 +letters[18] # "r" +LETTERS[13] # "M" +month.name[9] # "September" +c(6, 8, 7, 5, 3, 0, 9)[3] # 7 +# We can also search for the indices of specific components, +which(vec %% 2 == 0) # 1 3 +# grab just the first or last few entries in the vector, +head(vec, 1) # 8 +tail(vec, 2) # 10 11 +# or figure out if a certain value is in the vector +any(vec == 10) # TRUE +# If an index "goes over" you'll get NA: +vec[6] # NA +# You can find the length of your vector with length() +length(vec) # 4 +# You can perform operations on entire vectors or subsets of vectors +vec * 4 # 16 20 24 28 +vec[2:3] * 5 # 25 30 +any(vec[2:3] == 8) # FALSE +# and R has many built-in functions to summarize vectors +mean(vec) # 9.5 +var(vec) # 1.666667 +sd(vec) # 1.290994 +max(vec) # 11 +min(vec) # 8 +sum(vec) # 38 +# Some more nice built-ins: +5:15 # 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 +seq(from=0, to=31337, by=1337) +# => +# [1] 0 1337 2674 4011 5348 6685 8022 9359 10696 12033 13370 14707 +# [13] 16044 17381 18718 20055 21392 22729 24066 25403 26740 28077 29414 30751 + +# TWO-DIMENSIONAL (ALL ONE CLASS) + +# You can make a matrix out of entries all of the same type like so: +mat <- matrix(nrow = 3, ncol = 2, c(1,2,3,4,5,6)) +mat +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 1 4 +# [2,] 2 5 +# [3,] 3 6 +# Unlike a vector, the class of a matrix is "matrix", no matter what's in it +class(mat) # => "matrix" +# Ask for the first row +mat[1,] # 1 4 +# Perform operation on the first column +3 * mat[,1] # 3 6 9 +# Ask for a specific cell +mat[3,2] # 6 + +# Transpose the whole matrix +t(mat) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] +# [1,] 1 2 3 +# [2,] 4 5 6 + +# Matrix multiplication +mat %*% t(mat) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] +# [1,] 17 22 27 +# [2,] 22 29 36 +# [3,] 27 36 45 + +# cbind() sticks vectors together column-wise to make a matrix +mat2 <- cbind(1:4, c("dog", "cat", "bird", "dog")) +mat2 +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] "1" "dog" +# [2,] "2" "cat" +# [3,] "3" "bird" +# [4,] "4" "dog" +class(mat2) # matrix +# Again, note what happened! +# Because matrices must contain entries all of the same class, +# everything got converted to the character class +c(class(mat2[,1]), class(mat2[,2])) + +# rbind() sticks vectors together row-wise to make a matrix +mat3 <- rbind(c(1,2,4,5), c(6,7,0,4)) +mat3 +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] +# [1,] 1 2 4 5 +# [2,] 6 7 0 4 +# Ah, everything of the same class. No coercions. Much better. + +# TWO-DIMENSIONAL (DIFFERENT CLASSES) + +# For columns of different types, use a data frame +# This data structure is so useful for statistical programming, +# a version of it was added to Python in the package "pandas". + +students <- data.frame(c("Cedric","Fred","George","Cho","Draco","Ginny"), + c(3,2,2,1,0,-1), + c("H", "G", "G", "R", "S", "G")) +names(students) <- c("name", "year", "house") # name the columns +class(students) # "data.frame" +students +# => +# name year house +# 1 Cedric 3 H +# 2 Fred 2 G +# 3 George 2 G +# 4 Cho 1 R +# 5 Draco 0 S +# 6 Ginny -1 G +class(students$year) # "numeric" +class(students[,3]) # "factor" +# find the dimensions +nrow(students) # 6 +ncol(students) # 3 +dim(students) # 6 3 +# The data.frame() function converts character vectors to factor vectors +# by default; turn this off by setting stringsAsFactors = FALSE when +# you create the data.frame +?data.frame + +# There are many twisty ways to subset data frames, all subtly unalike +students$year # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 +students[,2] # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 +students[,"year"] # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 + +# An augmented version of the data.frame structure is the data.table +# If you're working with huge or panel data, or need to merge a few data +# sets, data.table can be a good choice. Here's a whirlwind tour: +install.packages("data.table") # download the package from CRAN +require(data.table) # load it +students <- as.data.table(students) +students # note the slightly different print-out +# => +# name year house +# 1: Cedric 3 H +# 2: Fred 2 G +# 3: George 2 G +# 4: Cho 1 R +# 5: Draco 0 S +# 6: Ginny -1 G +students[name=="Ginny"] # get rows with name == "Ginny" +# => +# name year house +# 1: Ginny -1 G +students[year==2] # get rows with year == 2 +# => +# name year house +# 1: Fred 2 G +# 2: George 2 G +# data.table makes merging two data sets easy +# let's make another data.table to merge with students +founders <- data.table(house=c("G","H","R","S"), + founder=c("Godric","Helga","Rowena","Salazar")) +founders +# => +# house founder +# 1: G Godric +# 2: H Helga +# 3: R Rowena +# 4: S Salazar +setkey(students, house) +setkey(founders, house) +students <- founders[students] # merge the two data sets by matching "house" +setnames(students, c("house","houseFounderName","studentName","year")) +students[,order(c("name","year","house","houseFounderName")), with=F] +# => +# studentName year house houseFounderName +# 1: Fred 2 G Godric +# 2: George 2 G Godric +# 3: Ginny -1 G Godric +# 4: Cedric 3 H Helga +# 5: Cho 1 R Rowena +# 6: Draco 0 S Salazar + +# data.table makes summary tables easy +students[,sum(year),by=house] +# => +# house V1 +# 1: G 3 +# 2: H 3 +# 3: R 1 +# 4: S 0 + +# To drop a column from a data.frame or data.table, +# assign it the NULL value +students$houseFounderName <- NULL +students +# => +# studentName year house +# 1: Fred 2 G +# 2: George 2 G +# 3: Ginny -1 G +# 4: Cedric 3 H +# 5: Cho 1 R +# 6: Draco 0 S + +# Drop a row by subsetting +# Using data.table: +students[studentName != "Draco"] +# => +# house studentName year +# 1: G Fred 2 +# 2: G George 2 +# 3: G Ginny -1 +# 4: H Cedric 3 +# 5: R Cho 1 +# Using data.frame: +students <- as.data.frame(students) +students[students$house != "G",] +# => +# house houseFounderName studentName year +# 4 H Helga Cedric 3 +# 5 R Rowena Cho 1 +# 6 S Salazar Draco 0 + +# MULTI-DIMENSIONAL (ALL ELEMENTS OF ONE TYPE) + +# Arrays creates n-dimensional tables +# All elements must be of the same type +# You can make a two-dimensional table (sort of like a matrix) +array(c(c(1,2,4,5),c(8,9,3,6)), dim=c(2,4)) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] +# [1,] 1 4 8 3 +# [2,] 2 5 9 6 +# You can use array to make three-dimensional matrices too +array(c(c(c(2,300,4),c(8,9,0)),c(c(5,60,0),c(66,7,847))), dim=c(3,2,2)) +# => +# , , 1 +# +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 2 8 +# [2,] 300 9 +# [3,] 4 0 +# +# , , 2 +# +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 5 66 +# [2,] 60 7 +# [3,] 0 847 + +# LISTS (MULTI-DIMENSIONAL, POSSIBLY RAGGED, OF DIFFERENT TYPES) + +# Finally, R has lists (of vectors) +list1 <- list(time = 1:40) +list1$price = c(rnorm(40,.5*list1$time,4)) # random +list1 +# You can get items in the list like so +list1$time # one way +list1[["time"]] # another way +list1[[1]] # yet another way +# => +# [1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 +# [34] 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 +# You can subset list items like any other vector +list1$price[4] + +# Lists are not the most efficient data structure to work with in R; +# unless you have a very good reason, you should stick to data.frames +# Lists are often returned by functions that perform linear regressions + +################################################## +# The apply() family of functions +################################################## + +# Remember mat? +mat +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 1 4 +# [2,] 2 5 +# [3,] 3 6 +# Use apply(X, MARGIN, FUN) to apply function FUN to a matrix X +# over rows (MAR = 1) or columns (MAR = 2) +# That is, R does FUN to each row (or column) of X, much faster than a +# for or while loop would do +apply(mat, MAR = 2, jiggle) +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 3 15 +# [2,] 7 19 +# [3,] 11 23 +# Other functions: ?lapply, ?sapply + +# Don't feel too intimidated; everyone agrees they are rather confusing + +# The plyr package aims to replace (and improve upon!) the *apply() family. +install.packages("plyr") +require(plyr) +?plyr + + + +######################### +# Loading data +######################### + +# "pets.csv" is a file on the internet +# (but it could just as easily be be a file on your own computer) +pets <- read.csv("http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/pets.csv") +pets +head(pets, 2) # first two rows +tail(pets, 1) # last row + +# To save a data frame or matrix as a .csv file +write.csv(pets, "pets2.csv") # to make a new .csv file +# set working directory with setwd(), look it up with getwd() + +# Try ?read.csv and ?write.csv for more information + + + +######################### +# Statistical Analysis +######################### + +# Linear regression! +linearModel <- lm(price ~ time, data = list1) +linearModel # outputs result of regression +# => +# Call: +# lm(formula = price ~ time, data = list1) +# +# Coefficients: +# (Intercept) time +# 0.1453 0.4943 +summary(linearModel) # more verbose output from the regression +# => +# Call: +# lm(formula = price ~ time, data = list1) +# +# Residuals: +# Min 1Q Median 3Q Max +# -8.3134 -3.0131 -0.3606 2.8016 10.3992 +# +# Coefficients: +# Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|) +# (Intercept) 0.14527 1.50084 0.097 0.923 +# time 0.49435 0.06379 7.749 2.44e-09 *** +# --- +# Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1 +# +# Residual standard error: 4.657 on 38 degrees of freedom +# Multiple R-squared: 0.6124, Adjusted R-squared: 0.6022 +# F-statistic: 60.05 on 1 and 38 DF, p-value: 2.44e-09 +coef(linearModel) # extract estimated parameters +# => +# (Intercept) time +# 0.1452662 0.4943490 +summary(linearModel)$coefficients # another way to extract results +# => +# Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|) +# (Intercept) 0.1452662 1.50084246 0.09678975 9.234021e-01 +# time 0.4943490 0.06379348 7.74920901 2.440008e-09 +summary(linearModel)$coefficients[,4] # the p-values +# => +# (Intercept) time +# 9.234021e-01 2.440008e-09 + +# GENERAL LINEAR MODELS +# Logistic regression +set.seed(1) +list1$success = rbinom(length(list1$time), 1, .5) # random binary +glModel <- glm(success ~ time, data = list1, + family=binomial(link="logit")) +glModel # outputs result of logistic regression +# => +# Call: glm(formula = success ~ time, +# family = binomial(link = "logit"), data = list1) +# +# Coefficients: +# (Intercept) time +# 0.17018 -0.01321 +# +# Degrees of Freedom: 39 Total (i.e. Null); 38 Residual +# Null Deviance: 55.35 +# Residual Deviance: 55.12 AIC: 59.12 +summary(glModel) # more verbose output from the regression +# => +# Call: +# glm(formula = success ~ time, +# family = binomial(link = "logit"), data = list1) + +# Deviance Residuals: +# Min 1Q Median 3Q Max +# -1.245 -1.118 -1.035 1.202 1.327 +# +# Coefficients: +# Estimate Std. Error z value Pr(>|z|) +# (Intercept) 0.17018 0.64621 0.263 0.792 +# time -0.01321 0.02757 -0.479 0.632 +# +# (Dispersion parameter for binomial family taken to be 1) +# +# Null deviance: 55.352 on 39 degrees of freedom +# Residual deviance: 55.121 on 38 degrees of freedom +# AIC: 59.121 +# +# Number of Fisher Scoring iterations: 3 + + +######################### +# Plots +######################### + +# BUILT-IN PLOTTING FUNCTIONS +# Scatterplots! +plot(list1$time, list1$price, main = "fake data") +# Plot regression line on existing plot +abline(linearModel, col = "red") +# Get a variety of nice diagnostics +plot(linearModel) +# Histograms! +hist(rpois(n = 10000, lambda = 5), col = "thistle") +# Barplots! +barplot(c(1,4,5,1,2), names.arg = c("red","blue","purple","green","yellow")) + +# GGPLOT2 +# But these are not even the prettiest of R's plots +# Try the ggplot2 package for more and better graphics +install.packages("ggplot2") +require(ggplot2) +?ggplot2 +pp <- ggplot(students, aes(x=house)) +pp + geom_histogram() +ll <- as.data.table(list1) +pp <- ggplot(ll, aes(x=time,price)) +pp + geom_point() +# ggplot2 has excellent documentation (available http://docs.ggplot2.org/current/) + + + +``` + +## How do I get R? + +* Get R and the R GUI from [http://www.r-project.org/](http://www.r-project.org/) +* [RStudio](http://www.rstudio.com/ide/) is another GUI diff --git a/ro-ro/bash-ro.html.markdown b/ro-ro/bash-ro.html.markdown index debeb67a..32a878b2 100644 --- a/ro-ro/bash-ro.html.markdown +++ b/ro-ro/bash-ro.html.markdown @@ -12,166 +12,171 @@ lang: ro-ro filename: LearnBash-ro.sh --- -Bash este numele shell-ului unix, care a fost de asemenea distribuit drept shell pentru sistemul de operare GNU si ca shell implicit pentru Linux si Mac OS X. +Bash este numele shell-ului UNIX, care a fost de asemenea distribuit drept shell pentru sistemul de operare GNU și ca shell implicit pentru Linux si Mac OS X. Aproape toate exemplele de mai jos pot fi parte dintr-un script sau pot fi executate direct in linia de comanda. -[Citeste mai multe:](http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/bashref.html) +[Citește mai multe:](http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/bashref.html) ```bash #!/bin/bash # Prima linie din script se numeste "shebang" -# care spune systemului cum sa execute scriptul +# care spune sistemului cum să execute scriptul # http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shebang_(Unix) -# Dupa cum te-ai prins deja, comentariile incep cu #. +# După cum te-ai prins deja, comentariile încep cu #. # Shebang este de asemenea un comentariu. # Exemplu simplu de hello world: echo Hello world! -# Fiecare comanda incepe pe o linie noua, sau dupa punct si virgula ; +# Fiecare comandă începe pe o linie nouă, sau după punct și virgula ; echo 'Prima linie'; echo 'A doua linie' # Declararea unei variabile se face astfel: -VARIABLE="Niste text" +VARIABLE="Niște text" -# DAR nu asa: +# DAR nu așa: VARIABLE = "Niste text" -# Bash va crede ca VARIABLE este o comanda care trebuie executata si va -# returna o eroare pentru ca nu va putea fi gasita. +# Bash va crede că VARIABLE este o comandă care trebuie executată și va +# returna o eroare pentru că nu va putea fi găsita. # Folosind variabila: echo $VARIABLE echo "$VARIABLE" echo '$VARIABLE' -# Atunci cand folosesti variabila, o atribui, o exporti sau altfel, -# numele ei se scrie fara $. -# Daca vrei sa folosesti valoarea variabilei, atunci trebuie sa folosesti $. -# Atentie la faptul ca ' (apostrof) nu va inlocui variabla cu valoarea ei. +# Atunci când folosesti variabila, o atribui, o exporți sau altfel, +# numele ei se scrie fără $. +# Daca vrei sa folosesti valoarea variabilei, atunci trebuie să folosești $. +# Atentie la faptul că ' (apostrof) nu va inlocui variabla cu valoarea ei. -# Inlocuirea de caractere in variabile -echo ${VARIABLE/Some/A} -# Asta va inlocui prima aparitie a "Some" cu "A" in variabila de mai sus. +# Inlocuirea de caractere în variabile +echo ${VARIABLE/Niște/Un} +# Asta va înlocui prima apariție a "Niște" cu "Un" în variabila de mai sus. -# Substring dintr-o variabila +# Substring dintr-o variabilă echo ${VARIABLE:0:7} # Asta va returna numai primele 7 caractere din variabila. # Valoarea implicita a unei variabile: -echo ${FOO:-"ValoareaImplicitaDacaFOOLipsesteSauEGoala"} -# Asta functioneaza pentru null (FOO=), -# sir de caractere gol (FOO=""), zero (FOO=0) returneaza 0 +echo ${FOO:-"ValoareaImplicitaDacaFOOLipseșteSauEGoală"} +# Asta functionează pentru null (FOO=), +# sir de caractere gol (FOO=""), zero (FOO=0) returnează 0 # Variabile pre-existente -echo "Ulima valoare returnata de ultimul program rulat: $?" -echo "ID-ul procesului (PID) care ruleaza scriptul: $$" -echo "Numarul de argumente: $#" +echo "Ulima valoare returnată de ultimul program rulat: $?" +echo "ID-ul procesului (PID) care rulează scriptul: $$" +echo "Numărul de argumente: $#" echo "Argumentele scriptului: $@" -echo "Argumentele scriptului separate in variabile: $1 $2..." +echo "Argumentele scriptului separate în variabile: $1 $2..." -# Citind o valoare din consola -echo "Care e numele tau?" -read NAME # Observa faptul ca nu a trebuit sa declaram o variabila noua +# Citind o valoare din consolă +echo "Care e numele tău?" +read NAME # Observă faptul că nu a trebuit să declarăm o variabilă nouă echo Salut, $NAME! # Avem obisnuita instructiune "if" -# Foloseste "man test" pentru mai multe informatii -# despre instructinea conditionala +# Folosește "man test" pentru mai multe informații +# despre instrucținea conditionala if [ $NAME -ne $USER ] then - echo "Numele tau este username-ul tau" + echo "Numele tău este username-ul tău" else - echo "Numele tau nu este username-ul tau" + echo "Numele tău nu este username-ul tău" fi -# Este de asemenea si executarea conditionala de comenzi -echo "Intotdeauna executat" || echo "Executat daca prima instructiune esueaza" -echo "Intotdeauna executat" && echo "Executat daca prima instructiune NU esueaza" +# Există, de asemenea, și executarea conditională de comenzi +echo "Întotdeauna executat" || echo "Executat dacă prima instrucțiune eșuează" +echo "Întotdeauna executat" && echo "Executat dacă prima instrucțiune NU esuează" -# Expresiile apar in urmatorul format +# Expresiile apar în urmatorul format echo $(( 10 + 5 )) -# Spre deosebire de alte limbaje de programare bash este un shell - asa ca -# functioneaza in contextul directorului curent. Poti vedea fisiere si directoare +# Spre deosebire de alte limbaje de programare, bash este un shell - așa că +# funcționează in contextul directorului curent. Poți vedea fișiere și directoare # din directorul curent folosind comanda "ls": ls -# Aceste comenzi au optiuni care la controleaza executia -ls -l # Listeaza fiecare fisier si director pe o linie separata +# Aceste comenzi au optiuni care le controlează execuțiă +ls -l # Listează fiecare fișier și director pe o linie separată # Rezultatele comenzii anterioare pot fi -# trimise urmatoarei comenzi drept argument -# Comanda grep filtreaza argumentele trimise cu sabloane. +# trimise următoarei comenzi drept argument +# Comanda grep filtrează argumentele trimise cu sabloane. # Astfel putem vedea fiserele .txt din directorul curent. ls -l | grep "\.txt" -# De asemenea poti redirectiona o comanda, input si error output -python2 hello.py < "input.in" -python2 hello.py > "output.out" -python2 hello.py 2> "error.err" -# Output-ul va suprascrie fisierul daca acesta exista. -# Daca vrei sa fie concatenate poti folosi ">>" - -# Comenzile pot fi inlocuite in interiorul altor comenzi folosind $( ): -# Urmatoarea comanda afiseaza numarul de fisiere -# si directoare din directorul curent -echo "Sunt $(ls | wc -l) fisiere aici." - -# Acelasi lucru se poate obtine folosind apostrf-ul inversat ``, -# dar nu pot fi folosite unele in interiorul celorlalte asa ca modalitatea -# preferata este de a folosi $( ) -echo "Sunt `ls | wc -l` fisiere aici." - -# Bash foloseste o instructiune 'case' care functioneaza -# in mod similar cu instructiunea switch din Java si C++ +# De asemenea, poți redirecționa date de intrare spre sau erori/date de ieșire +# dinspre o comandă +python2 hello.py < "intrare.in" +python2 hello.py > "ieșire.out" +python2 hello.py 2> "erori.err" +# Output-ul va suprascrie fișierul dacă acesta există. +# Daca vrei să fie concatenate datele poți folosi ">>" în loc de ">" + +# Comenzile pot fi înlocuite în interiorul altor comenzi folosind $( ): +# Urmatoarea comandă afișează numărul de fișiere +# și directoare din directorul curent +echo "Sunt $(ls | wc -l) fișiere aici." + +# Același lucru se poate obține folosind apostroful inversat ``, +# dar nu pot fi folosite limbricate, așa ca modalitatea +# preferată este de a folosi $( ) +echo "Sunt `ls | wc -l` fișiere aici." + +# Bash folosește o instrucțiune 'case' care funcționeaza +# în mod similar cu instructiunea switch din Java si C++ case "$VARIABLE" in 0) echo "Este un zero.";; 1) echo "Este un unu.";; *) echo "Nu este null";; esac -# Instructiunea for parcurge toate elementele trimise: -# Continutul variabilei $VARIABLE este printat de 3 ori +# Instrucțiunea 'for' parcurge toate elementele trimise: +# Conținutul variabilei $VARIABLE este printat de 3 ori for VARIABLE in {1..3} do echo "$VARIABLE" done -# while loop: +# Buclă while: while [true] do - echo "in interiorul iteratiei aici..." + echo "în interiorul iterației aici..." break done -# De asemenea poti defini functii -# Definitie: +# De asemenea poți defini funcții +# Definiție: function foo () { - echo "Argumentele functioneaza ca si argumentele scriptului: $@" + echo "Argumentele funcționeaza ca și argumentele scriptului: $@" echo "Si: $1 $2..." - echo "Asta este o functie" + echo "Asta este o funcție" return 0 } -# sau mai simplu +# sau mai simplu: bar () { - echo "Alta metoda de a declara o functie" + echo "Altă metodă de a declara o funcție" return 0 } -# Invocarea unei functii +# Invocarea unei funcții: foo "Numele meu este: " $NAME -# Sunt o multime de comenzi utile pe care ar trebui sa le inveti: +# Sunt o multime de comenzi utile pe care ar trebui să le inveți: tail -n 10 file.txt -# printeaza ultimele 10 linii din fisierul file.txt +# afișează ultimele 10 linii din fișierul file.txt + head -n 10 file.txt -# printeaza primele 10 linii din fisierul file.txt +# afișează primele 10 linii din fișierul file.txt + sort file.txt -# sorteaza liniile din file.txt +# sortează liniile din file.txt + uniq -d file.txt -# raporteaza sau omite liniile care se repeta, cu -d le raporteaza +# raporteaza sau omite liniile care se repetă. Cu -d le raporteaza + cut -d ',' -f 1 file.txt -# printeaza doar prima coloana inainte de caracterul "," +# printează doar prima coloană inainte de caracterul "," ``` diff --git a/ro-ro/coffeescript-ro.html.markdown b/ro-ro/coffeescript-ro.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..695274d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/ro-ro/coffeescript-ro.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,102 @@ +--- +language: coffeescript +contributors: + - ["Tenor Biel", "http://github.com/L8D"] + - ["Xavier Yao", "http://github.com/xavieryao"] +translators: + - ["Bogdan Lazar", "http://twitter.com/tricinel"] +filename: coffeescript-ro.coffee +lang: ro-ro +--- + +CoffeeScript este un limbaj de programare care este compilat in Javascript. Nu exista un interpretator la runtime-ul aplicatiei. Fiind unul din successorii Javascript, CoffeeScript incearca sa compileze Javascript usor de citit si performant. + +Mai cititi si [website-ul CoffeeScript](http://coffeescript.org/), care contine un tutorial complet Coffeescript. + +```coffeescript +# CoffeeScript este un limbaj de hipster. +# Se foloseste de trendurile multor limbaje moderne de programare. +# Comentarii sunt ca in Ruby sau Python. + +### +Comentariile in bloc sunt create cu `###`, iar acestea sunt transformate in `/*` si `*/` pentru Javascript + +Ar trebuie sa intelegeti Javascript pentru a continua cu acest ghid. +### + +# Atribuirea valorilor: +numar = 42 #=> var numar = 42; +opus = true #=> var opus = true; + +# Conditii: +numar = -42 if opus #=> if(opus) { numar = -42; } + +# Functii: +laPatrat = (x) -> x * x #=> var laPatrat = function(x) { return x * x; } + +plin = (recipient, lichid = "cafea") -> + "Umplem #{recipient} cu #{cafea}..." +#=>var plin; +# +#plin = function(recipient, lichid) { +# if (lichid == null) { +# lichid = "cafea"; +# } +# return "Umplem " + recipient + " cu " + lichid + "..."; +#}; + +# Liste: +lista = [1..5] #=> var lista = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; + +# Obiecte: +matematica = + radacina: Math.sqrt + laPatrat: laPatrat + cub: (x) -> x * square x +#=> var matematica = { +# "radacina": Math.sqrt, +# "laPatrat": laPatrat, +# "cub": function(x) { return x * square(x); } +# }; + +# Splats: +cursa = (castigator, alergatori...) -> + print castigator, alergatori +#=>cursa = function() { +# var alergatori, castigator; +# castigator = arguments[0], alergatori = 2 <= arguments.length ? __slice.call(arguments, 1) : []; +# return print(castigator, alergatori); +# }; + +# Verificarea existentei: +alert "Stiam eu!" if elvis? +#=> if(typeof elvis !== "undefined" && elvis !== null) { alert("Stiam eu!"); } + +# Operatiuni cu matrice: +cuburi = (math.cube num for num in list) +#=>cuburi = (function() { +# var _i, _len, _results; +# _results = []; +# for (_i = 0, _len = list.length; _i < _len; _i++) { +# num = list[_i]; +# _results.push(math.cube(num)); +# } +# return _results; +# })(); + +alimente = ['broccoli', 'spanac', 'ciocolata'] +mananca aliment for aliment in alimente when aliment isnt 'ciocolata' +#=>alimente = ['broccoli', 'spanac', 'ciocolata']; +# +#for (_k = 0, _len2 = alimente.length; _k < _len2; _k++) { +# aliment = alimente[_k]; +# if (aliment !== 'ciocolata') { +# eat(aliment); +# } +#} +``` + +## Resurse aditionale + +- [Smooth CoffeeScript](http://autotelicum.github.io/Smooth-CoffeeScript/) +- [CoffeeScript Ristretto](https://leanpub.com/coffeescript-ristretto/read) diff --git a/ro-ro/json-ro.html.markdown b/ro-ro/json-ro.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e897059c --- /dev/null +++ b/ro-ro/json-ro.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +language: json +filename: learnjson-ro.json +contributors: + - ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"] + - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] +translators: + - ["Serban Constantin", "https://github.com/fuzzmz"] +lang: ro-ro +--- + +Deoarece JSON este un fromat foarte simplu de schimb de date acesta va fi +probabil cel mai simplu Invata X in Y minute. + +JSON in forma cea mai pura nu contine comentarii insa majoritatea parserelor +vor accepta comentarii in stil C (`//`, `/* */`). Pentru acest caz insa totul +va fi JSON 100% valid. Din fericire codul vorbeste de la sine. + +```json +{ + "cheie": "valoare", + + "chei": "trebuie mereu inconjurate de ghilimele", + "numere": 0, + "stringuri": "Bunã. Tot setul unicode este permis, chiar si \"escaping\".", + "are booleane?": true, + "nimic": null, + + "numere mari": 1.2e+100, + + "obiecte": { + "comentariu": "Majoritatea structurii va veni din obiecte.", + + "vectori": [0, 1, 2, 3, "Vectorii pot avea orice in ei.", 5], + + "alt obiect": { + "comentariu": "Lucrurile pot fi subordonate. Foarte util." + } + }, + + "glumite": [ + { + "surse de potasiu": ["banane"] + }, + [ + [1, 0, 0, 0], + [0, 1, 0, 0], + [0, 0, 1, "neo"], + [0, 0, 0, 1] + ] + ], + + "stil alternativ": { + "comentariu": "ia uite la asta!" + , "pozitia virgulei": "nu conteaza - daca e inaintea valorii atunci e valida" + , "alt comentariu": "ce dragut" + }, + + "a fost scurt": "Am terminat. Acum stii tot ce are JSON de oferit." +} +``` diff --git a/ro-ro/python-ro.html.markdown b/ro-ro/python-ro.html.markdown index 125ba2f4..c96e30dc 100644 --- a/ro-ro/python-ro.html.markdown +++ b/ro-ro/python-ro.html.markdown @@ -8,14 +8,16 @@ filename: learnpython-ro.py lang: ro-ro --- -Python a fost creat de Guido Van Rossum la începutul anilor '90. Python a devenit astăzi unul din -cele mai populare limbaje de programare. M-am indrăgostit de Python pentru claritatea sa sintactică. -Python este aproape pseudocod executabil. +Python a fost creat de Guido Van Rossum la începutul anilor '90. Python a +devenit astăzi unul din cele mai populare limbaje de programare. +M-am indrăgostit de Python pentru claritatea sa sintactică. Python este aproape +pseudocod executabil. -Opinia dumneavoastră este binevenită! Puteţi sa imi scrieţi la [@ociule](http://twitter.com/ociule) sau ociule [at] [google's email service] +Opinia dumneavoastră este binevenită! Puteţi sa imi scrieţi la [@ociule](http://twitter.com/ociule) +sau ociule [at] [google's email service] -Notă: Acest articol descrie Python 2.7, dar este util şi pentru Python 2.x. O versiune Python 3 va apărea -în curând, în limba engleză mai întâi. +Notă: Acest articol descrie Python 2.7, dar este util şi pentru Python 2.x. +O versiune Python 3 va apărea în curând, în limba engleză mai întâi. ```python # Comentariile pe o singură linie încep cu un caracter diez. @@ -36,7 +38,8 @@ Notă: Acest articol descrie Python 2.7, dar este util şi pentru Python 2.x. O 10 * 2 #=> 20 35 / 5 #=> 7 -# Împărţirea este un pic surprinzătoare. Este de fapt împărţire pe numere întregi şi rotunjeşte +# Împărţirea este un pic surprinzătoare. Este de fapt împărţire pe numere +# întregi şi rotunjeşte # automat spre valoarea mai mică 5 / 2 #=> 2 diff --git a/ro-ro/xml-ro.html.markdown b/ro-ro/xml-ro.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..269010c2 --- /dev/null +++ b/ro-ro/xml-ro.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,133 @@ +--- +language: xml +filename: learnxml-ro.xml +contributors: + - ["João Farias", "https://github.com/JoaoGFarias"] +translators: + - ["Serban Constantin", "https://github.com/fuzzmz"] +lang: ro-ro +--- + +XML este un limbaj de markup ce are ca scop stocarea si transportul de date. + +Spre deosebire de HTML, XML nu specifica cum sa fie afisata sau formatata +informatia, ci doar o transporta. + +* Sintaxa XML + +```xml +<!-- Comentariile in XML arata asa --> + +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> +<librarie> + <carte categorie="GATIT"> + <titlu limba="ro">Mancaruri italiene</titlu> + <autor>Giada De Laurentiis</autor> + <an>2005</an> + <pret>30.00</pret> + </carte> + <carte categorie="COPII"> + <titlu limba="ro">Harry Potter</titlu> + <autor>J K. Rowling</autor> + <an>2005</an> + <pret>29.99</pret> + </carte> + <carte categorie="WEB"> + <titlu limba="ro">Invata XML</titlu> + <autor>Erik T. Ray</autor> + <an>2003</an> + <pret>39.95</pret> + </carte> +</librarie> + +<!-- Deasupra este un fisier XML obisnuit. + Incepe cu o declaratie ce adauga niste metadata (optional). + + XML foloseste o structura arborescenta. Deasupra, nodul de baza este + 'librarie', care are trei noduri copil, toate 'carti'. Acele noduri au la + randul lor noduri copii si asa mai departe... + + Nodurile sunt create folosind taguri deschise/inchise, iar copii sunt doar + noduri intre tagurile de deschis si inchis.--> + + +<!-- XML transporta doua tipuri de date: + 1 - Atribute -> Metadata despre un nod. + In general, parserul XML foloseste aceasta informatie sa stocheze + proprietatile datelor. + Este caracterizat de aparitia in paranteze in cadrul tagului deschis + 2 - Elemente -> Date pure. + Asta este ceea ce parserul va extrage din documentul XML. + Elementele apar intre tagurile deschis si inchis, fara paranteze. --> + + +<!-- Dedesubt, un element cu doua atribute --> +<file type="gif" id="4293">computer.gif</file> + + +``` + +* Document bine formatat x Validare + +Un document XML este bine formatat daca este corect sintactic. +Cu toate astea este posibil sa injectam mai multe constrangeri in document +folosind definitii precum DTD si XML Schema. + +Un document XML ce foloseste o definitie de document este numit valid in +contextul documentului. + +Cu acest tool poti verifica datele XML in afara codului aplicatiei. + +```xml + +<!-- Dedesubt este o versiune simplificata a documentului librarie, + cu aditia definitiei DTD.--> + +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> +<!DOCTYPE note SYSTEM "Librarie.dtd"> +<librarie> + <carte categorie="GATIT"> + <titlu >Everyday Italian</titlu> + <pret>30.00</pret> + </carte> +</librarie> + +<!-- DTD-ul poate fi ceva similar cu:--> + +<!DOCTYPE note +[ +<!ELEMENT librarie (carte+)> +<!ELEMENT carte (titlu,pret)> +<!ATTLIST carte categorie CDATA "Literatura"> +<!ELEMENT titlu (#PCDATA)> +<!ELEMENT pret (#PCDATA)> +]> + + +<!-- DTD-ul incepe cu o declaratie. + Dupa, nodul de baza este declarat, cerand unul sau mai multe noduri copii + de tipul 'carte'. + Fiecare 'carte' trebuie sa contina exact un 'titlu' si 'pret' si un atribut + numit 'categorie', cu "Literatura" ca valoare implicita. + Nodurile 'titlu' si 'pret' contin parsed character data.--> + +<!-- DTD-ul poate fi declara si in interiorul fisierului XML.--> + +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE note +[ +<!ELEMENT librarie (carte+)> +<!ELEMENT carte (titlu,pret)> +<!ATTLIST carte categorie CDATA "Literatura"> +<!ELEMENT titlu (#PCDATA)> +<!ELEMENT pret (#PCDATA)> +]> + +<librarie> + <carte categorie="GATIT"> + <titlu >Everyday Italian</titlu> + <pret>30.00</pret> + </carte> +</librarie> +``` diff --git a/ru-ru/markdown-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/markdown-ru.html.markdown index c41e9676..f71435ea 100644 --- a/ru-ru/markdown-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/markdown-ru.html.markdown @@ -2,55 +2,77 @@ language: markdown contributors: - ["Dan Turkel", "http://danturkel.com/"] + - ["Jacob Ward", "http://github.com/JacobCWard/"] +translators: - ["Pirogov Alexey", "http://twitter.com/alex_pir"] + - ["Andre Polykanine", https://github.com/Oire"] filename: markdown-ru.md lang: ru-ru --- Язык разметки Markdown создан Джоном Грубером (англ. John Gruber) -и Аароном Шварцем (англ. Aaron H. Swartz) в 2004 году. +в 2004 году. Авторы задавались целью создать максимально удобочитаемый и удобный в публикации облегчённый язык разметки, пригодный для последующего преобразования в HTML (а также и в другие форматы). +Также реализации Markdown варьируют в зависимости от парсера. +В этом руководстве будет указано, какие функции универсальны для языка, +а какие зависят от конкретного парсера. + +- [HTML-элементы](#html-elements) +- [Заголовки](#headings) +- [Простейшая стилизация текста](#simple-text-styles) +- [Абзацы](#paragraphs) +- [Списки](#lists) +- [Блоки кода](#code-blocks) +- [Горизонтальный разделитель](#horizontal-rule) +- [Ссылки](#links) +- [Изображения](#images) +- [Разное](#miscellany) + +## HTML-элементы +Markdown является надмножеством HTML, поэтому любой HTML-файл является +корректным документом Markdown. + ```markdown -<!-- Markdown является надмножеством HTML, поэтому любой HTML-файл является -валидным документом Markdown, что позволяет использовать напрямую +<!-- Это позволяет использовать напрямую любые элементы HTML-разметки, такие, например, как этот комментарий. Встроенные в документ HTML-элементы не затрагиваются парсером Markdown -и попадают в итоговый HTML без изменений. Однако, следует понимать, +и попадают в итоговый HTML без изменений. Однако следует понимать, что эта же особенность не позволяет использовать разметку Markdown внутри HTML-элементов --> -<!-- Ещё одна особенность формата Markdown состоит в том, что поддерживаемые -возможности разметки зависят от конкретной реализации парсера. В данном -руководстве возможности, поддерживаемые лишь определёнными парсерами, -сопровождаются соответствующими примечаниями. --> - -<!-- Заголовки --> +## Заголовки -<!-- HTML-элементы от <h1> до <h6> размечаются очень просто: +HTML-элементы от <h1> до <h6> размечаются очень просто: текст, который должен стать заголовком, предваряется -соответствующим количеством символов "#": --> +соответствующим количеством символов "#": + +```markdown # Это заголовок h1 ## Это заголовок h2 ### Это заголовок h3 #### Это заголовок h4 ##### Это заголовок h5 ###### Это заголовок h6 +``` +Markdown позволяет размечать заголовки <h1> и <h2> ещё одним способом: -<!-- Markdown позволяет размечать заголовки <h1> и <h2> ещё одним способом: --> +```markdown Это заголовок h1 ================ А это заголовок h2 ------------------ +``` -<!-- Простейшая стилизация текста --> +## Простейшая стилизация текста -<!-- Текст легко сделать полужирным и/или курсивным: --> +Текст легко сделать полужирным и/или курсивным: +```markdown *Этот текст будет выведен курсивом.* _Так же, как этот._ @@ -60,44 +82,58 @@ __И этот тоже.__ ***Полужирный курсив.*** **_И тут!_** *__И даже здесь!__* +``` -<!-- В GitHub Flavored Markdown (версии Markdown, использующейся в GitHub, -для рендеринга Markdown-документов) текст можно сделать зачёркнутым: --> +В Github Flavored Markdown, стандарте, который используется в Github, +текст также можно сделать зачёркнутым: +```markdown ~~Зачёркнутый текст.~~ +``` + +## Абзацы + +Абзацами являются любые строки, следующие друг за другом. +Разделяются же абзацы одной или несколькими пустыми строками: -<!-- Абзацами являются любые строки, следующие друг за другом. -Разделяются же абзацы одной или несколькими пустыми строками: --> +```markdown +Это абзац. Я печатаю в абзаце, разве это не прикольно? -Это абзац. Всё предельно просто. +А тут уже абзац №2. +Эта строка всё ещё относится к абзацу №2! -А тут уже параграф №2. -Эта строка всё ещё относится к параграфу №2! +О, а вот это уже абзац №3! +``` -О, а вот это уже параграф №3! +Для вставки принудительных переносов можно завершить абзац двумя дополнительными пробелами: -<!-- Для вставки принудительных переносов можно использовать HTML-тэг <br/>: --> +```markdown +Эта строка завершается двумя пробелами (выделите, чтобы увидеть!). -Принудительный <br/> перенос! +Над этой строкой есть <br />! +``` -<!-- Цитаты размечаются с помощью символа ">": --> +Цитаты размечаются с помощью символа «>»: +```markdown > Это цитата. В цитатах можно -> принудительно переносить строки, вставляя ">" в начало каждой следующей строки. А можно просто оставлять достаточно длинными, и такие длинные строки будут перенесены автоматически. +> принудительно переносить строки, вставляя «>» в начало каждой следующей строки. А можно просто оставлять их достаточно длинными, и такие длинные строки будут перенесены автоматически. > Разницы между этими двумя подходами к переносу строк нет, коль скоро -> каждая строка начинается с символа ">" +> каждая строка начинается с символа «>» > А ещё цитаты могут быть многоуровневыми: >> как здесь >>> и здесь :) > Неплохо? +``` -<!-- Списки --> -<!-- Маркированные списки размечаются вставкой в начало каждого элемента -одного из символов "*", "+" или "-": -(символ должен быть одним и тем же для всех элементов) --> +## Списки +Маркированные списки размечаются вставкой в начало каждого элемента +одного из символов «*», «+» или «-»: +(символ должен быть одним и тем же для всех элементов) +```markdown * Список, * Размеченный * Звёздочками @@ -113,167 +149,207 @@ __И этот тоже.__ - Список, - Размеченный - Дефисами +``` -<!-- В нумерованных списках каждая строка начинается -с числа и точки вслед за ним: --> +В нумерованных списках каждая строка начинается +с числа и точки вслед за ним: +```markdown 1. Первый элемент 2. Второй элемент 3. Третий элемент +``` -<!-- Заметьте, нумеровать элементы корректно необязательно. Достаточно указать -любое число в начале каждого элемента и рендер пронумерует элементы сам! -Правда, злоупотреблять этим не стоит :) --> +Заметьте, нумеровать элементы корректно необязательно. Достаточно указать +любое число в начале каждого элемента, и парсер пронумерует элементы сам! +Правда, злоупотреблять этим не стоит :) +```markdown 1. Первый элемент 1. Второй элемент 1. Третий элемент -<!-- (Этот список будет отрендерен так же, как и предыдущий!) --> +``` +(Этот список будет отображён так же, как и предыдущий!) -<!-- Списки могут быть вложенными: --> +Списки могут быть вложенными: +```markdown 1. Введение 2. Начало работы 3. Примеры использования * Простые * Сложные 4. Заключение +``` + +Можно даже делать списки задач. Блок ниже создаёт HTML-флажки. -<!-- Блоки с исходным кодом --> -<!-- Фрагменты исходного кода выделяются очень просто - каждая строка блока должна иметь отступ в четыре пробела либо в один символ табуляции --> +```markdown +Для отметки флажка используйте «x» +- [ ] Первая задача +- [ ] Вторая задача +Этот флажок ниже будет отмечен +- [x] Задача была завершена +``` +## Блоки кода + +Фрагменты исходного кода (обычно отмечаемые тегом `<code>`) выделяются просто: +каждая строка блока должна иметь отступ в четыре пробела либо в один символ табуляции. + +```markdown Это код, - причём - многострочный + причём многострочный +``` -<!-- Дополнительные отступы в коде следует делать с помощью четырёх пробелов: --> +Вы также можете делать дополнительные отступы, добавляя символы табуляции +или по четыре пробела: +```markdown my_array.each do |item| puts item end +``` -<!-- Иногда бывает нужно вставить фрагмент кода прямо в строку текста, +Иногда бывает нужно вставить фрагмент кода прямо в строку текста, не выделяя код в блок. Для этого фрагменты кода нужно обрамлять -символами "`": --> +символами «`»: -Например, можно выделить имя функции `go_to()` прямо посреди текста. +```markdown +Ваня даже не знал, что делает функция `go_to()`! +``` -<!-- GitHub Flavored Markdown позволяет указать для блока кода синтаксис оного. -В этом случае синтаксис внутри блока будет подсвечен. Пример: --> +В Github Flavored Markdown для блоков кода можно использовать +специальный синтаксис: -\`\`\`ruby <!-- Только нужно будет убрать символы "\", оставив лишь "```ruby" --> +<pre> +<code class="highlight">```ruby def foobar - puts "Hello world!" + puts "Привет, мир!" end -\`\`\` <!-- И здесь тоже backslashes нужно убрать, т.е. оставить "```" --> +```</code></pre> -<-- Обратите внимание: фрагмент, указанный выше, не предваряется отступами, -поскольку GitHub сам в состоянии определить границы блока - по строкам "```" --> +Во фрагменте, приведённом выше, отступ не требуется. +Кроме того, Github подсветит синтаксис языка, указанного после \`\`\` -<!-- Горизонтальный разделитель (<hr />) --> -<!-- Разделители добавляются вставкой строки из трёх и более -(одинаковых) символов "*" или "-": --> +## Горизонтальный разделитель +Разделители (`<hr>`) добавляются вставкой строки из трёх и более +(одинаковых) символов «*» или «-», с пробелами или без них: + +```markdown *** --- -- - - <!-- между символами допустимы пробелы --> +- - - **************** +``` + +## Ссылки -<!-- Ссылки --> -<!-- Одной из сильных сторон Markdown можно смело считать то, +Одной из сильных сторон Markdown можно смело считать то, как просто размечаются гиперссылки. Для создания ссылки укажите текст ссылки, заключив его в квадратные скобки, -и сразу после - url, заключенный в "круглые" --> +и сразу после — URL-адрес, заключенный в круглые +```markdown [Ссылка!](http://test.com/) +``` +Также для ссылки можно указать всплывающую подсказку (`title`), используя +кавычки внутри круглых скобок: -<!-- Также для ссылки можно указать всплывающую подсказку: --> - +```markdown [Ссылка!](http://test.com/ "Ссылка на Test.com") +``` +Относительные пути тоже возможны: -<!-- В url можно использовать относительные пути: --> - +```markdown [Перейти к музыке](/music/). +``` -<!-- Markdown позволяет размечать ссылку в виде сноски: --> +Markdown также позволяет размечать ссылку в виде сноски: -[Здесь][link1] высможете узнать больше! -А можно кликнуть [сюда][foobar], если очень хочется. +<pre><code class="highlight">[<span class="nv">Щёлкните эту ссылку</span>][<span class="ss">link1</span>] для подробной информации! +[<span class="nv">Также посмотрите эту ссылку,</span>][<span class="ss">foobar</span>] если хотите. -<!-- где-нибудь внизу --> -[link1]: http://test.com/ "Круто!" -[foobar]: http://foobar.biz/ "Тоже хорошо!" +[<span class="nv">link1</span>]: <span class="sx">http://test.com/</span> <span class="nn">"Круто!"</span> +[<span class="nv">foobar</span>]: <span class="sx">http://foobar.biz/</span> <span class="nn">"Нормально!"</span></code></pre> -<!-- Примечания: -- Подсказка может быть заключена в одинарные кавычки вместо двойных, - а также в круглые скобки. -- Сноска может находиться в любом месте документа и может иметь -идентификатор (далее ID) произвольной длины, -лишь бы это ID был уникальным. --> +`Title` также может быть в одинарных кавычках или круглых скобках, а также +отсутствовать вовсе. Ссылки на сноски могут быть в любом месте документа, +а идентификаторы могут быть какими угодно, лишь бы они были уникальными. -<!-- Также при разметке ссылок-сносок можно опустить ID, -если текст ссылки уникален в пределах документа: --> +Существует также неявное именование, когда ссылка является идентификатором. -Ссылка на [Google][]. +<pre><code class="highlight">[<span class="nv">Это</span>][] ссылка. -[google]: http://google.com/ +[<span class="nv">это</span>]: <span class="sx">http://thisisalink.com/</span></code></pre> -<!-- Правда, эта возможность не очень распространена. --> +Правда, эта возможность не очень распространена. -<!-- Изображения --> -<!-- Разметка изображений очень похожа на разметку ссылок. -Нужно всего лишь добавить "!" перед ссылкой! --> +## Изображения +Разметка изображений очень похожа на разметку ссылок. +Нужно всего лишь добавить перед ссылкой восклицательный знак! +```markdown  +``` +Изображения тоже могут быть оформлены, как сноски. -<!-- Изображения тоже могут быть оформлены, как сноски: --> - -![Альтернативный текст][myimage] - -![То же изображение ещё раз][myimage] - -[myimage]: relative/urls/cool/image.jpg "подсказка" +<pre><code class="highlight">![<span class="nv">Это альтернативный текст.</span>][<span class="ss">myimage</span>] -<!-- Ещё немного ссылок: --> -<!-- Автоссылки --> +[<span class="nv">myimage</span>]: <span class="sx">relative/urls/cool/image.jpg</span> <span class="nn">"Если нужна подсказка, её можно добавить"</span></code></pre> +## Разное +### Автоссылки +```markdown Ссылка вида <http://testwebsite.com/> эквивалентна [http://testwebsite.com/](http://testwebsite.com/) +``` -<!-- Автоссылки для адресов электронной почты --> +### Автоссылки для адресов электронной почты +```markdown <foo@bar.com> +``` + +### Экранирование символов -<!-- Экранирование символов --> +```markdown +Я хочу напечатать *текст, заключённый в звёздочки*, но я не хочу, +чтобы он был курсивным. Тогда я делаю так: +\*Текст, заключённый в звёздочки\* +``` -<!-- Может потребоваться вставить спецсимвол в текст "как есть", -т.е. защитить его от обработки парсером. -Такой символ должен быть "экранирован" с помощью обратной косой черты -(символа "\"): --> +### Клавиши на клавиатуре +В Github Flavored Markdown для представления клавиш на клавиатуре +вы можете использовать тег `<kbd>`. -\*текст, заключённый в звёздочки!\* +```markdown +Ваш компьютер завис? Попробуйте нажать +<kbd>Ctrl</kbd>+<kbd>Alt</kbd>+<kbd>Del</kbd> +``` -<!-- Таблицы --> -<!-- Таблицы официально поддерживаются только в GitHub Flavored Markdown, +### Таблицы +Таблицы официально поддерживаются только в GitHub Flavored Markdown, да и синтаксис имеют не слишком удобный. -Но если очень нужно, размечайте таблицы так: --> +Но если очень нужно, размечайте таблицы так: +```markdown | Столбец 1 | Столбец 2 | Столбец 3 | | :----------- | :----------: | -----------: | | Выравнивание | Выравнивание | Выравнивание | | влево | по центру | вправо | +``` +Или более компактно -<!-- Или более компактно --> - -Колонка 1|Колонка 2|Колонка 3 +```markdown +Столбец 1|Столбец 2|Столбец 3 :--|:-:|--: Выглядит|это|страшновато... - -<!-- Ну вот и всё! --> - ``` -За более подробной информацией обращайтесь к [статье](http://daringfireball.net/projects/markdown/syntax) Джона Грубера о синтаксисе Markdown. +Ну вот и всё! -Также часто бывает полезной отличная ["шпаргалка"](https://github.com/adam-p/markdown-here/wiki/Markdown-Cheatsheet) по Markdown от Adam Pritchard. +За более подробной информацией обращайтесь к [статье](http://daringfireball.net/projects/markdown/syntax) Джона Грубера о синтаксисе Markdown. -Если вдруг встретите ошибки в переводе или же захотите его дополнить, делайте pull requests - авторы всегда рады обратной связи! +Также часто бывает полезной отличная ["шпаргалка"](https://github.com/adam-p/markdown-here/wiki/Markdown-Cheatsheet) по Markdown от Адама Притчарда. diff --git a/vi-vn/objective-c-vi.html.markdown b/vi-vn/objective-c-vi.html.markdown index 38e418e9..8bc334ab 100644 --- a/vi-vn/objective-c-vi.html.markdown +++ b/vi-vn/objective-c-vi.html.markdown @@ -1,12 +1,10 @@ ---
-
language: Objective-C
contributors:
- ["Eugene Yagrushkin", "www.about.me/yagrushkin"]
- ["Yannick Loriot", "https://github.com/YannickL"]
lang: vi-vn
filename: LearnObjectiveC-vi.m
-
---
Objective-C là ngôn ngữ lập trình chính được sử dụng bởi Apple cho các hệ điều hành OS X, iOS và các framework tương ứng của họ, Cocoa và Cocoa Touch.
diff --git a/vi-vn/ruby-ecosystem-vi.html.markdown b/vi-vn/ruby-ecosystem-vi.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..518cf072 --- /dev/null +++ b/vi-vn/ruby-ecosystem-vi.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,148 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: ruby ecosystem +contributors: + - ["Jon Smock", "http://github.com/jonsmock"] + - ["Rafal Chmiel", "http://github.com/rafalchmiel"] + - ["Vinh Nguyen", "http://rubydaily.net"] +lang: vi-vn +--- + +Nhìn chung các lập trình viên Ruby luôn có cách để cài đặt các phiên bản +Ruby khác nhau, quản lý các gói (hoặc gems), và quản lý các thư viện. + +## Trình quản lý Ruby + +Một vài nền tảng phải có Ruby đã được cài đặt trước hoặc có sẵn như một gói. +Số đông lập trình viên Ruby không sử dụng cái này, hoặc nếu có, họ chỉ sử +dụng chúng để bootstrap cài đặt Ruby. Thay vào đó, các lập trình viên Ruby +có xu hướng cài đặt trình quản lý Ruby để cài đặt và chuyển đổi các phiên +bản của Ruby và môi trường Ruby cho dự án của họ. + +Dưới đây là các trình quản lý môi trường Ruby nổi tiếng: + +* [RVM](https://rvm.io/) - Cài đặt và chuyển đổi các phiên bản Ruby. RVM cũng + có các khái niệm về tập các gems để quản lý môi trường dự án một + cách tốt nhất. +* [ruby-build](https://github.com/sstephenson/ruby-build) - Chỉ cài đặt các + phiên bản Ruby. Sử dụng cái này giúp cho việc cài đặt Ruby tốt hơn. +* [rbenv](https://github.com/sstephenson/rbenv) - Chỉ dùng để chuyển đổi các + phiên bản Ruby. Được sử dụng đi kèm với ruby-build. Tiện ích này sẽ giúp + cho việc dùng Ruby tốt hơn. +* [chruby](https://github.com/postmodern/chruby) - Chỉ dùng để chuyển đổi các + phiên bản Ruby. Tương tự như rbenv. Không quan tâm làm thế nào Ruby được + cài đặt. + +## Các phiên bản Ruby + +Ruby được tạo ra bởi Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto, người được xem như là một +[BDFL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benevolent_Dictator_for_Life), mặc dầu gần +đây luôn thay đổi. Kết quả là, tham chiếu của Ruby được gọi là MRI(Matz' +Reference Implementation), và khi bạn biết về một phiên bản Ruby, nó đang +được tham chiếu để phát hành một phiên bản của MRI. + +Có ba phiên bản Ruby chính thức được dùng là: + +* 2.0.0 - Được phát hành vào tháng 2 năm 2013. Hầu hết các thư viện lớn, và +nền tảng đều hỗ trợ 2.0.0. +* 1.9.3 - Được phát hành vào tháng 10 năm 2011. Đây là phiên bản hầu hết các +lập trình viên Ruby đang dùng. [Nhưng đã không còn hỗ trợ]( + https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/news/2015/02/23/support-for-ruby-1-9-3-has-ended + /) +* 1.8.7 - [Ruby 1.8.7 đã không còn được sử dụng]( + http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/news/2013/06/30/we-retire-1-8-7/). + +Sự thay đổi giữa phiên bản 1.8.7 đến 1.9.x lớn hơn nhiều so với thay đổi từ +1.9.3 đến 2.0.0. Ví dụ, các phiên bản 1.9 giới thiệu các bảng mã và một +byecote VM. Có các dự án vẫn đang ở 1.8.7, nhưng chúng chiếm một số lượng ít +, phần lớn cộng đồng đã chuyển sang ít nhất là 1.9.2 hoặc 1.9.3 + +## Các ứng dụng Ruby + +Hệ sinh thái Ruby có rất nhiều ứng dụng, với mỗi thế mạnh độc đáo và khả +năng tương thích. Để rõ ràng hơn, sự khác nhau giữa các ứng dụng được viết +bằng các ngôn ngữ khác nhau, nhưng *chúng vẫn là Ruby*. +Mỗi ứng dụng có các hook đặc trưng và những tính năng đặc biệt, nhưng tất cả +đều chạy Ruby rất tốt. Ví dụ, JRuby được viết bằng Java, nhưng bạn không +cần biết Java để sử dụng. + +Một số ứng dụng nổi tiếng/tương thích cao: + +* [MRI](https://github.com/ruby/ruby) - Được viết bằng C, đây là ứng dụng + tham chiếu của Ruby. Nó tương thích 100%. Tất cả các phiên bản Ruby có khả + năng duy trì với MRI(xem [RubySpec](#rubyspec) bên dưới). +* [JRuby](http://jruby.org/) - Được viết bằng Java và Ruby, ứng dụng này khá + nhanh. Điểm mạnh quan trọng nhất của JRuby là JVM/Java interop, tận dụng + các công cụ, dự án và ngôn ngữ hiện có của JVM. +* [Rubinius](http://rubini.us/) - Được viết bằng ngôn ngữ chính là Ruby với + một C++ bytecode VM. Rất nhanh. Bởi vì nó được phát triển bằng chính Ruby. + +Một số ứng dụng khá nổi tiếng/tương thích: + +* [Maglev](http://maglev.github.io/) - Đứng đầu Gemstone, một Smalltalk VM. + SmallTalk có một vài tiện ích hấp dẫn, và trong dự án này đã mang nó vào + môi trường Ruby. +* [RubyMotion](http://www.rubymotion.com/) - Mang Ruby đến việc phát triển iOS. + +Một số ứng dụng tốt/tương thích: + +* [Topaz](http://topazruby.com/) - Được biết bằng RPython (sử dụng Pypy), + Topaz vẫn còn rất trẻ và chưa hoàn toàn tương thích. Nó hứa hẹn khả năng + trở thành một ứng dụng Ruby tương thích cao. +* [IronRuby](http://ironruby.net/) - Được viết bằng C# hướng đến nền tảng .NET + , IronRuby dường như đã dừng hoạt động kể từ khi Microsoft rút hỗ trợ. + +Các ứng dụng Ruby có các phiên bản riêng của mình, nhưng chúng luôn luôn +hướng đến sự một phiên bản đặc biệt của MRI cho sự tương thích. Nhiều ứng +dụng có khả năng đến các chế độ khác nhau (ví dụ, 1.8 hoặc 1.9) để hướng đến +phiên bản MRI. + +## RubySpec + +Hầu hết các ứng dụng Ruby dựa vào [RubySpec](http://rubyspec.org/). Ruby không +có thông báo chính thức, nhưng cộng đồng đã viết những specs thực thi trong +Ruby để kiểm tra sự tương thích với MRI. + +## RubyGems + +[RubyGems](http://rubygems.org/) là một cộng đồng quản lý các gói cho Ruby. +RubyGems đi kèm với Ruby, bởi vậy không cần cài đặt riêng lẻ. + +Các gói Ruby được gọi là "gems", và chúng được host bởi cộng đồng tại +RubyGems.org. Một gem chứa mã nguồn của nó và một vài mô tả, bao gồm những +thứ như phiên bản, các thư viện độc lập, các tác giả và các loại giấy phép. + +## Bundler + +[Bundler](http://bundler.io/) là một gem giải quyết độc lập. Nó sử dụng một +Gemfile để tìm kiếm các thư viện độc lập trong dự án, và sau đó sẽ lấy về +các thư viện của các thư viện độc lập này. Nó thực hiện cho đến khi việc +tải các thư viện hoàn tất, hoặc nó sẽ dừng nếu xuất hiện bất kỳ xung đột nào. + +Bundler sẽ hiển thị lỗi nếu tìm thấy bất kỳ xung đột giữa các thư viện. Ví +dụ, nếu như gem A yêu cầu gem Z có phiên bản 3 hoặc cao hơn, nhưng gem B lại +yêu cầu gem Z phiên bản 2. Bundler sẽ thông báo cho bạn sự xung đột này. +Điều này đã rất hữu ích khi nhiều gem tham chiếu các các gem khác (trong +gem này lại tham chiếu đến các gem khác nữa), có thể hình thành một đồ thị +lớn để nói. + +# Kiểm thử + +Kiểm thử là một phần lớn của Ruby. Ruby mang đến một nền tảng kiểm thử theo +kiểu Unit được gọi là minitest (hoặc TestUnit for phiên bản Ruby 1.8.x). +Có nhiều thư viện kiểm thử với các mục đích khác nhau. + +* [TestUnit](http://ruby-doc.org/stdlib-1.8.7/libdoc/test/unit/rdoc/Test/ + Unit.html) - Nền tảng kiểm thử theo kiểu Unit của Ruby 1.8. +* [minitest](http://ruby-doc.org/stdlib-2.0.0/libdoc/minitest + /rdoc/MiniTest.html) -Nền tảng kiểm thử được xây dựng cho Ruby 1.9/2.0 +* [RSpec](http://rspec.info/) - Một nền tảng kiểm thử tập trung vào sự + hoạt động. +* [Cucumber](http://cukes.info/) - Một nền tảng kiểm thử theo kiểu BDD dưới + định dạng Gherkin. + +## Be Nice + +Cộng đồng Ruby tự hào là một cộng đồng mở, đa dạng và chào đón tất cả mọi +người. Bản thân Matz là một người cực kỳ thân thiện, và các lập trình viên +Ruby rất tuyệt vời. diff --git a/zfs.html.markdown b/zfs.html.markdown index 39ff84cd..3fe05896 100644 --- a/zfs.html.markdown +++ b/zfs.html.markdown @@ -393,7 +393,7 @@ echo "RESET SLAVE;" | /usr/local/bin/mysql -u root -pmyrootpassword -h staging ### Additional Reading * [BSDNow's Crash Course on ZFS](http://www.bsdnow.tv/tutorials/zfs) -* [FreeBSD Handbook on ZFS](https://wiki.freebsd.org/ZF://wiki.freebsd.org/ZFS) +* [FreeBSD Handbook on ZFS](https://www.freebsd.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/zfs.html) * [BSDNow's Crash Course on ZFS](http://www.bsdnow.tv/tutorials/zfs) * [Oracle's Tuning Guide](http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/articles/servers-storage-admin/sto-recommended-zfs-settings-1951715.html) * [OpenZFS Tuning Guide](http://open-zfs.org/wiki/Performance_tuning) diff --git a/zh-cn/swift-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/swift-cn.html.markdown index 3efe4941..017a7812 100644 --- a/zh-cn/swift-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/swift-cn.html.markdown @@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ import UIKit // Swift2.0 println() 及 print() 已经整合成 print()。 print("Hello, world") // 这是原本的 println()，会自动进入下一行 -print("Hello, world", appendNewLine: false) // 如果不要自动进入下一行，需设定进入下一行为 false +print("Hello, world", terminator: "") // 如果不要自动进入下一行，需设定结束符为空串 // 变量 (var) 的值设置后可以随意改变 // 常量 (let) 的值设置后不能改变 @@ -171,8 +171,8 @@ while i < 1000 { i *= 2 } -// do-while 循环 -do { +// repeat-while 循环 +repeat { print("hello") } while 1 == 2 @@ -212,11 +212,11 @@ default: // 在 Swift 里，switch 语句的 case 必须处理所有可能的情 func greet(name: String, day: String) -> String { return "Hello \(name), today is \(day)." } -greet("Bob", "Tuesday") +greet("Bob", day: "Tuesday") -// 函数参数前带 `#` 表示外部参数名和内部参数名使用同一个名称。 +// 第一个参数表示外部参数名和内部参数名使用同一个名称。 // 第二个参数表示外部参数名使用 `externalParamName` ，内部参数名使用 `localParamName` -func greet2(#requiredName: String, externalParamName localParamName: String) -> String { +func greet2(requiredName requiredName: String, externalParamName localParamName: String) -> String { return "Hello \(requiredName), the day is \(localParamName)" } greet2(requiredName:"John", externalParamName: "Sunday") // 调用时，使用命名参数来指定参数的值 @@ -235,8 +235,8 @@ print("Gas price: \(price)") // 可变参数 func setup(numbers: Int...) { // 可变参数是个数组 - let number = numbers[0] - let argCount = numbers.count + let _ = numbers[0] + let _ = numbers.count } // 函数变量以及函数作为返回值返回 @@ -257,7 +257,7 @@ func swapTwoInts(inout a: Int, inout b: Int) { } var someIntA = 7 var someIntB = 3 -swapTwoInts(&someIntA, &someIntB) +swapTwoInts(&someIntA, b: &someIntB) print(someIntB) // 7 @@ -286,17 +286,10 @@ numbers = numbers.map({ number in 3 * number }) print(numbers) // [3, 6, 18] // 简洁的闭包 -numbers = sorted(numbers) { $0 > $1 } -// 函数的最后一个参数可以放在括号之外，上面的语句是这个语句的简写形式 -// numbers = sorted(numbers, { $0 > $1 }) +numbers = numbers.sort { $0 > $1 } print(numbers) // [18, 6, 3] -// 超级简洁的闭包，因为 `<` 是个操作符函数 -numbers = sorted(numbers, < ) - -print(numbers) // [3, 6, 18] - // // MARK: 结构体 @@ -305,7 +298,7 @@ print(numbers) // [3, 6, 18] // 结构体和类非常类似，可以有属性和方法 struct NamesTable { - let names = [String]() + let names: [String] // 自定义下标运算符 subscript(index: Int) -> String { @@ -516,7 +509,7 @@ protocol ShapeGenerator { // 一个类实现一个带 optional 方法的协议时，可以实现或不实现这个方法 // optional 方法可以使用 optional 规则来调用 @objc protocol TransformShape { - optional func reshaped() + optional func reshape() optional func canReshape() -> Bool } @@ -528,9 +521,9 @@ class MyShape: Rect { // 在 optional 属性，方法或下标运算符后面加一个问号，可以优雅地忽略 nil 值，返回 nil。 // 这样就不会引起运行时错误 (runtime error) - if let allow = self.delegate?.canReshape?() { + if let reshape = self.delegate?.canReshape?() where reshape { // 注意语句中的问号 - self.delegate?.reshaped?() + self.delegate?.reshape?() } } } @@ -542,8 +535,8 @@ class MyShape: Rect { // 扩展: 给一个已经存在的数据类型添加功能 -// 给 Square 类添加 `Printable` 协议的实现，现在其支持 `Printable` 协议 -extension Square: Printable { +// 给 Square 类添加 `CustomStringConvertible` 协议的实现，现在其支持 `CustomStringConvertible` 协议 +extension Square: CustomStringConvertible { var description: String { return "Area: \(self.getArea()) - ID: \(self.identifier)" } @@ -567,8 +560,8 @@ print(14.multiplyBy(3)) // 42 // 泛型: 和 Java 及 C# 的泛型类似，使用 `where` 关键字来限制类型。 // 如果只有一个类型限制，可以省略 `where` 关键字 -func findIndex<T: Equatable>(array: [T], valueToFind: T) -> Int? { - for (index, value) in enumerate(array) { +func findIndex<T: Equatable>(array: [T], _ valueToFind: T) -> Int? { + for (index, value) in array.enumerate() { if value == valueToFind { return index } diff --git a/zh-cn/typescript-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/typescript-cn.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..2651b1cb --- /dev/null +++ b/zh-cn/typescript-cn.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,173 @@ +--- +language: TypeScript +category: language +contributors: + - ["Philippe Vlérick", "https://github.com/pvlerick"] +translators: + - ["Shawn Zhang", "https://github.com/shawnzhang009"] +filename: learntypescript-cn.ts +lang: zh-cn +--- + +TypeScript是一门为开发大型JavaScript应用而设计的语言。TypeScript在JavaScript的基础上增加了类、模块、接口、泛型和静态类型（可选）等常见的概念。它是JavaScript的一个超集：所有JavaScript代码都是有效的TypeScript代码，所以任何JavaScript项目都可以无缝引入TypeScript. TypeScript编译器会把TypeScript代码编译成JavaScript代码。 + +本文只关注TypeScript额外增加的区别于[JavaScript](../javascript-cn/)的语法，. + +如需测试TypeScript编译器，你可以在[Playground](http://www.typescriptlang.org/Playground)码代码，它会自动编译成JavaScript代码然后直接显示出来。 + +```js +// TypeScript有三种基本类型 +var isDone: boolean = false; +var lines: number = 42; +var name: string = "Anders"; + +// 如果不知道是什么类型，可以使用"any"(任意)类型 +var notSure: any = 4; +notSure = "maybe a string instead"; +notSure = false; // 亦可，定义为布尔型 + +// 对于集合的声明, 有类型化数组和泛型数组 +var list: number[] = [1, 2, 3]; +// 另外一种，使用泛型数组 +var list: Array<number> = [1, 2, 3]; + +// 枚举： +enum Color {Red, Green, Blue}; +var c: Color = Color.Green; + +// 最后，"void"用于函数没有任何返回的特殊情况下 +function bigHorribleAlert(): void { + alert("I'm a little annoying box!"); +} + +// 函数是"第一等公民"(first class citizens), 支持使用箭头表达式和类型推断 + +// 以下是相等的，TypeScript编译器会把它们编译成相同的JavaScript代码 +var f1 = function(i: number): number { return i * i; } +// 返回推断类型的值 +var f2 = function(i: number) { return i * i; } +var f3 = (i: number): number => { return i * i; } +// 返回推断类型的值 +var f4 = (i: number) => { return i * i; } +// 返回推断类型的值, 单行程式可以不需要return关键字和大括号 +var f5 = (i: number) => i * i; + +// 接口是结构化的，任何具有这些属性的对象都与该接口兼容 +interface Person { + name: string; + // 可选属性，使用"?"标识 + age?: number; + // 函数 + move(): void; +} + +// 实现"Person"接口的对象，当它有了"name"和"move"方法之后可被视为一个"Person" +var p: Person = { name: "Bobby", move: () => {} }; +// 带了可选参数的对象 +var validPerson: Person = { name: "Bobby", age: 42, move: () => {} }; +// 因为"age"不是"number"类型所以这不是一个"Person" +var invalidPerson: Person = { name: "Bobby", age: true }; + +// 接口同样可以描述一个函数的类型 +interface SearchFunc { + (source: string, subString: string): boolean; +} +// 参数名并不重要，参数类型才是重要的 +var mySearch: SearchFunc; +mySearch = function(src: string, sub: string) { + return src.search(sub) != -1; +} + +// 类 - 成员默认为公共的(public) +class Point { + // 属性 + x: number; + + // 构造器 - 这里面的public/private关键字会为属性生成样板代码和初始化值 + // 这个例子中，y会被同x一样定义，不需要额外代码 + // 同样支持默认值 + + constructor(x: number, public y: number = 0) { + this.x = x; + } + + // 函数 + dist() { return Math.sqrt(this.x * this.x + this.y * this.y); } + + // 静态成员 + static origin = new Point(0, 0); +} + +var p1 = new Point(10 ,20); +var p2 = new Point(25); //y为0 + +// 继承 +class Point3D extends Point { + constructor(x: number, y: number, public z: number = 0) { + super(x, y); // 必须显式调用父类的构造器 + } + + // 重写 + dist() { + var d = super.dist(); + return Math.sqrt(d * d + this.z * this.z); + } +} + +// 模块, "."可以作为子模块的分隔符 +module Geometry { + export class Square { + constructor(public sideLength: number = 0) { + } + area() { + return Math.pow(this.sideLength, 2); + } + } +} + +var s1 = new Geometry.Square(5); + +// 引入模块并定义本地别名 +import G = Geometry; + +var s2 = new G.Square(10); + +// 泛型 +// 类 +class Tuple<T1, T2> { + constructor(public item1: T1, public item2: T2) { + } +} + +// 接口 +interface Pair<T> { + item1: T; + item2: T; +} + +// 以及函数 +var pairToTuple = function<T>(p: Pair<T>) { + return new Tuple(p.item1, p.item2); +}; + +var tuple = pairToTuple({ item1:"hello", item2:"world"}); + +// 引用定义文件 +// <reference path="jquery.d.ts" /> + +// 模板字符串(使用反引号的字符串) +// 嵌入变量的模板字符串 +var name = 'Tyrone'; +var greeting = `Hi ${name}, how are you?` +// 有多行内容的模板字符串 +var multiline = `This is an example +of a multiline string`; + +``` + +## 参考资料 + * [TypeScript官网](http://www.typescriptlang.org/) + * [TypeScript语言规范说明书(pdf)](http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=267238) + * [Anders Hejlsberg - TypeScript介绍](http://channel9.msdn.com/posts/Anders-Hejlsberg-Introducing-TypeScript) + * [GitHub源码](https://github.com/Microsoft/TypeScript) + * [Definitely Typed - 类型定义仓库](http://definitelytyped.org/) |