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diff --git a/pt-br/haskell-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/haskell-pt.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ca0d847c --- /dev/null +++ b/pt-br/haskell-pt.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,439 @@ +--- +linguagem: haskell +tradutor/contribuidor: + - ["Lucas Tonussi", "http://www.inf.ufsc.br/~tonussi/"] +--- + +As linguagens funcionais são linguagens de programação com base em avaliação +de funções matemáticas (expressões), evitando-se o conceito de mudança de +estado com alteração de dados. Neste aspecto, este paradigma é oposto ao +paradigma imperativo que se baseia em alterações de estados. + +A programação funcional começou no cálculo lambda, que foi base teórica para +o desenvolvimento deste paradigma de programação. + + +```haskell +-- Para comentar a linha basta dois traços seguidos. + +{- Abre chaves traço e traço fecha chaves cria um campo + para comentário em múltiplas linhas. +-} + +---------------------------------------------------- +-- 1. Tipos Primitivos de Dados e Operadores +---------------------------------------------------- + +-- Numerais + +0 -- 3 +1 -- 1 +2 -- 2 ... + +-- Alguns Operadores Fundamentais + +7 + 7 -- 7 mais 7 +7 - 7 -- 7 menos 7 +7 * 7 -- 7 vezes 7 +7 / 7 -- 7 dividido por 7 + +-- Divisões não são inteiras, são fracionádas por padrão da linguagem +28736 / 82374 -- 0.3488479374559934 + + +-- Divisão inteira +82374 `div` 28736 -- 2 + +-- Divisão modular +82374 `mod` 28736 -- 24902 + +-- Booleanos como tipo primitivo de dado +True -- Verdadeiro +False -- Falso + +-- Operadores unitário +not True -- Nega uma verdade +not False -- Nega uma falácia + + +-- Operadores binários +7 == 7 -- 7 é igual a 7 ? +7 /= 7 -- 7 é diferente de 7 ? +7 < 7 -- 7 é menor que 7 ? +7 > 7 -- 7 é maior que 7 ? + + +{- Haskell é uma linguagem que tem uma sintáxe bastante familiar na + matemática, por exemplo em chamadas de funções você tem: + + NomeFunção ArgumentoA ArgumentoB ArgumentoC ... +-} + +-- Strings e Caractéres +"Texto entre abre áspas e fecha áspas define uma string" +'a' -- Caractere +'A' -- Caractere + +'Strings entre aspas simples sobe um erro' -- Erro léxico! + +-- Concatenação de Strings +"StringA" ++ "StringB" -- "StringAStringB" + +-- Você pode listar uma string pelos seus caractéres +"AbBbbcAbbcbBbcbcb" !! 0 -- 'A' +"AbBbbcAbbcbBbcbcb" !! 1 -- 'b' +"AbBbbcAbbcbBbcbcb" !! 2 -- 'B' + +---------------------------------------------------- +-- Listas e Túplas +---------------------------------------------------- + +-- A construção de uma lista precisa ser de elementos homogêneos +[1, 2, 3, 4, 5] -- Homogênea +[1, a, 2, b, 3] -- Heterogênea (Erro) + +-- Haskell permite que você crie sequências +[1..5] + +{- Haskell usa avaliação preguiçosa o que + Permite você ter listas "infinitas" +-} + +-- Uma lista "infinita" cuja razão é 1 +[1..] + +-- O 777º elemento de uma lista de razão 1 +[1..] !! 777 -- 778 + +-- União de listas [lista_0] ++ [lista_1] ++ [lista_i] +[1..5] ++ [6..10] ++ [1..4] -- [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,1,2,3,4] + +-- Adiciona um cabeçalho a sua lista e desloca a cauda +0:[1..10] -- [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] +'a':['a'..'e'] -- "aabcde" + +-- Indexação em uma lista +[0..] !! 5 -- 5 + +-- Operadores de Listas usuais +head ['a'..'e'] -- Qual o cabeçalho da lista ? +tail ['a'..'e'] -- Qual a cauda da lista ? +init ['a'..'e'] -- Qual a lista menos o último elemento ? +last ['a'..'e'] -- Qual o último elemento ? + +-- list comprehensions +[x*2 | x <- [1..5]] -- [2, 4, 6, 8, 10] + +-- with a conditional +[x*2 | x <- [1..5], x*2 > 4] -- [6, 8, 10] + +-- Every element in a tuple can be a different type, but a tuple has a +-- fixed length. +-- A tuple: +("haskell", 1) + +-- accessing elements of a tuple +fst ("haskell", 1) -- "haskell" +snd ("haskell", 1) -- 1 + +---------------------------------------------------- +-- 3. Functions +---------------------------------------------------- +-- A simple function that takes two variables +add a b = a + b + +-- Note that if you are using ghci (the Haskell interpreter) +-- You'll need to use `let`, i.e. +-- let add a b = a + b + +-- Using the function +add 1 2 -- 3 + +-- You can also put the function name between the two arguments +-- with backticks: +1 `add` 2 -- 3 + +-- You can also define functions that have no letters! This lets +-- you define your own operators! Here's an operator that does +-- integer division +(//) a b = a `div` b +35 // 4 -- 8 + +-- Guards: an easy way to do branching in functions +fib x + | x < 2 = x + | otherwise = fib (x - 1) + fib (x - 2) + +-- Pattern matching is similar. Here we have given three different +-- definitions for fib. Haskell will automatically call the first +-- function that matches the pattern of the value. +fib 1 = 1 +fib 2 = 2 +fib x = fib (x - 1) + fib (x - 2) + +-- Pattern matching on tuples: +foo (x, y) = (x + 1, y + 2) + +-- Pattern matching on lists. Here `x` is the first element +-- in the list, and `xs` is the rest of the list. We can write +-- our own map function: +myMap func [] = [] +myMap func (x:xs) = func x:(myMap func xs) + +-- Anonymous functions are created with a backslash followed by +-- all the arguments. +myMap (\x -> x + 2) [1..5] -- [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] + +-- using fold (called `inject` in some languages) with an anonymous +-- function. foldl1 means fold left, and use the first value in the +-- list as the initial value for the accumulator. +foldl1 (\acc x -> acc + x) [1..5] -- 15 + +---------------------------------------------------- +-- 4. More functions +---------------------------------------------------- + +-- currying: if you don't pass in all the arguments to a function, +-- it gets "curried". That means it returns a function that takes the +-- rest of the arguments. + +add a b = a + b +foo = add 10 -- foo is now a function that takes a number and adds 10 to it +foo 5 -- 15 + +-- Another way to write the same thing +foo = (+10) +foo 5 -- 15 + +-- function composition +-- the (.) function chains functions together. +-- For example, here foo is a function that takes a value. It adds 10 to it, +-- multiplies the result of that by 5, and then returns the final value. +foo = (*5) . (+10) + +-- (5 + 10) * 5 = 75 +foo 5 -- 75 + +-- fixing precedence +-- Haskell has another function called `$`. This changes the precedence +-- so that everything to the left of it gets computed first and then applied +-- to everything on the right. You can use `.` and `$` to get rid of a lot +-- of parentheses: + +-- before +(even (fib 7)) -- true + +-- after +even . fib $ 7 -- true + +---------------------------------------------------- +-- 5. Type signatures +---------------------------------------------------- + +-- Haskell has a very strong type system, and everything has a type signature. + +-- Some basic types: +5 :: Integer +"hello" :: String +True :: Bool + +-- Functions have types too. +-- `not` takes a boolean and returns a boolean: +-- not :: Bool -> Bool + +-- Here's a function that takes two arguments: +-- add :: Integer -> Integer -> Integer + +-- When you define a value, it's good practice to write its type above it: +double :: Integer -> Integer +double x = x * 2 + +---------------------------------------------------- +-- 6. Control Flow and If Statements +---------------------------------------------------- + +-- if statements +haskell = if 1 == 1 then "awesome" else "awful" -- haskell = "awesome" + +-- if statements can be on multiple lines too, indentation is important +haskell = if 1 == 1 + then "awesome" + else "awful" + +-- case statements: Here's how you could parse command line arguments +case args of + "help" -> printHelp + "start" -> startProgram + _ -> putStrLn "bad args" + +-- Haskell doesn't have loops because it uses recursion instead. +-- map applies a function over every element in an array + +map (*2) [1..5] -- [2, 4, 6, 8, 10] + +-- you can make a for function using map +for array func = map func array + +-- and then use it +for [0..5] $ \i -> show i + +-- we could've written that like this too: +for [0..5] show + +-- You can use foldl or foldr to reduce a list +-- foldl <fn> <initial value> <list> +foldl (\x y -> 2*x + y) 4 [1,2,3] -- 43 + +-- This is the same as +(2 * (2 * (2 * 4 + 1) + 2) + 3) + +-- foldl is left-handed, foldr is right- +foldr (\x y -> 2*x + y) 4 [1,2,3] -- 16 + +-- This is now the same as +(2 * 3 + (2 * 2 + (2 * 1 + 4))) + +---------------------------------------------------- +-- 7. Data Types +---------------------------------------------------- + +-- Here's how you make your own data type in Haskell + +data Color = Red | Blue | Green + +-- Now you can use it in a function: + + +say :: Color -> String +say Red = "You are Red!" +say Blue = "You are Blue!" +say Green = "You are Green!" + +-- Your data types can have parameters too: + +data Maybe a = Nothing | Just a + +-- These are all of type Maybe +Just "hello" -- of type `Maybe String` +Just 1 -- of type `Maybe Int` +Nothing -- of type `Maybe a` for any `a` + +---------------------------------------------------- +-- 8. Haskell IO +---------------------------------------------------- + +-- While IO can't be explained fully without explaining monads, +-- it is not hard to explain enough to get going. + +-- When a Haskell program is executed, the function `main` is +-- called. It must return a value of type `IO ()`. For example: + +main :: IO () +main = putStrLn $ "Hello, sky! " ++ (say Blue) +-- putStrLn has type String -> IO () + +-- It is easiest to do IO if you can implement your program as +-- a function from String to String. The function +-- interact :: (String -> String) -> IO () +-- inputs some text, runs a function on it, and prints out the +-- output. + +countLines :: String -> String +countLines = show . length . lines + +main' = interact countLines + +-- You can think of a value of type `IO ()` as representing a +-- sequence of actions for the computer to do, much like a +-- computer program written in an imperative language. We can use +-- the `do` notation to chain actions together. For example: + +sayHello :: IO () +sayHello = do + putStrLn "What is your name?" + name <- getLine -- this gets a line and gives it the name "name" + putStrLn $ "Hello, " ++ name + +-- Exercise: write your own version of `interact` that only reads +-- one line of input. + +-- The code in `sayHello` will never be executed, however. The only +-- action that ever gets executed is the value of `main`. +-- To run `sayHello` comment out the above definition of `main` +-- and replace it with: +-- main = sayHello + +-- Let's understand better how the function `getLine` we just +-- used works. Its type is: +-- getLine :: IO String +-- You can think of a value of type `IO a` as representing a +-- computer program that will generate a value of type `a` +-- when executed (in addition to anything else it does). We can +-- store and reuse this value using `<-`. We can also +-- make our own action of type `IO String`: + +action :: IO String +action = do + putStrLn "This is a line. Duh" + input1 <- getLine + input2 <- getLine + -- The type of the `do` statement is that of its last line. + -- `return` is not a keyword, but merely a function + return (input1 ++ "\n" ++ input2) -- return :: String -> IO String + +-- We can use this just like we used `getLine`: + +main'' = do + putStrLn "I will echo two lines!" + result <- action + putStrLn result + putStrLn "This was all, folks!" + +-- The type `IO` is an example of a "monad". The way Haskell uses a monad to +-- do IO allows it to be a purely functional language. Any function that +-- interacts with the outside world (i.e. does IO) gets marked as `IO` in its +-- type signature. This lets us reason about what functions are "pure" (don't +-- interact with the outside world or modify state) and what functions aren't. + +-- This is a powerful feature, because it's easy to run pure functions +-- concurrently; so, concurrency in Haskell is very easy. + + +---------------------------------------------------- +-- 9. The Haskell REPL +---------------------------------------------------- + +-- Start the repl by typing `ghci`. +-- Now you can type in Haskell code. Any new values +-- need to be created with `let`: + +let foo = 5 + +-- You can see the type of any value with `:t`: + +>:t foo +foo :: Integer + +-- You can also run any action of type `IO ()` + +> sayHello +What is your name? +Friend! +Hello, Friend! + +``` + +There's a lot more to Haskell, including typeclasses and monads. These are the big ideas that make Haskell such fun to code in. I'll leave you with one final Haskell example: an implementation of quicksort in Haskell: + +```haskell +qsort [] = [] +qsort (p:xs) = qsort lesser ++ [p] ++ qsort greater + where lesser = filter (< p) xs + greater = filter (>= p) xs +``` + +Haskell is easy to install. Get it [here](http://www.haskell.org/platform/). + +You can find a much gentler introduction from the excellent +[Learn you a Haskell](http://learnyouahaskell.com/) or +[Real World Haskell](http://book.realworldhaskell.org/). |