diff options
46 files changed, 3001 insertions, 245 deletions
diff --git a/CONTRIBUTING.markdown b/CONTRIBUTING.markdown index 5fa1d03d..455c3256 100644 --- a/CONTRIBUTING.markdown +++ b/CONTRIBUTING.markdown @@ -71,3 +71,10 @@ contributors: lang: ep-ep --- ``` + +### Should I add myself as a Contributor? + +If you want to add yourself to contributors, keep in mind that contributors get +equal billing, and the first contributor usually wrote the whole article. Please +use your judgement when deciding if your contribution constitutes a substantial +addition or not. diff --git a/c.html.markdown b/c.html.markdown index 87a047be..0c6df413 100644 --- a/c.html.markdown +++ b/c.html.markdown @@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ contributors: - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://marcoms.github.io"] - ["Zachary Ferguson", "https://github.io/zfergus2"] - ["himanshu", "https://github.com/himanshu81494"] + - ["Joshua Li", "https://github.com/JoshuaRLi"] --- Ah, C. Still **the** language of modern high-performance computing. @@ -19,11 +20,12 @@ memory management and C will take you as far as you need to go. > **About compiler flags** > > By default, gcc and clang are pretty quiet about compilation warnings and -> errors, which can be very useful information. Using some -> stricter compiler flags is recommended. Here is an example you can -> tweak to your liking: +> errors, which can be very useful information. Explicitly using stricter +> compiler flags is recommended. Here are some recommended defaults: > -> `-Wall -Wextra -Werror -O0 -ansi -pedantic -std=c11` +> `-Wall -Wextra -Werror -O2 -std=c99 -pedantic` +> +> For information on what these flags do as well as other flags, consult the man page for your C compiler (e.g. `man 1 gcc`) or just search online. ```c // Single-line comments start with // - only available in C99 and later. diff --git a/chapel.html.markdown b/chapel.html.markdown index e9c4019a..9190f462 100644 --- a/chapel.html.markdown +++ b/chapel.html.markdown @@ -2,11 +2,11 @@ language: chapel filename: learnchapel.chpl contributors: - - ["Ian J. Bertolacci", "http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~ibertola/"] - - ["Ben Harshbarger", "http://github.com/benharsh/"] + - ["Ian J. Bertolacci", "https://www.cs.arizona.edu/~ianbertolacci/"] + - ["Ben Harshbarger", "https://github.com/benharsh/"] --- -You can read all about Chapel at [Cray's official Chapel website](http://chapel.cray.com). +You can read all about Chapel at [Cray's official Chapel website](https://chapel-lang.org). In short, Chapel is an open-source, high-productivity, parallel-programming language in development at Cray Inc., and is designed to run on multi-core PCs as well as multi-kilocore supercomputers. @@ -1124,16 +1124,16 @@ This tutorial is for people who want to learn the ropes of chapel without having to hear about what fiber mixture the ropes are, or how they were braided, or how the braid configurations differ between one another. It won't teach you how to develop amazingly performant code, and it's not exhaustive. -Refer to the [language specification](http://chapel.cray.com/language.html) and -the [module documentation](http://chapel.cray.com/docs/latest/) for more +Refer to the [language specification](https://chapel-lang.org/docs/latest/language/spec.html) and +the [module documentation](https://chapel-lang.org/docs/latest/) for more details. -Occasionally check back here and on the [Chapel site](http://chapel.cray.com) +Occasionally check back here and on the [Chapel site](https://chapel-lang.org) to see if more topics have been added or more tutorials created. ### What this tutorial is lacking: - * Exposition of the [standard modules](http://chapel.cray.com/docs/latest/modules/modules.html) + * Exposition of the [standard modules](https://chapel-lang.org/docs/latest/modules/standard.html) * Multiple Locales (distributed memory system) * Records * Parallel iterators diff --git a/crystal.html.markdown b/crystal.html.markdown index 15cbc0b1..8210b443 100644 --- a/crystal.html.markdown +++ b/crystal.html.markdown @@ -301,7 +301,6 @@ end (1..3).each do |index| puts "Index: #{index}" end -# Index: 0 # Index: 1 # Index: 2 # Index: 3 @@ -422,7 +421,7 @@ class Human @name end - # The above functionality can be encapsulated using the attr_accessor method as follows + # The above functionality can be encapsulated using the propery method as follows property :name # Getter/setter methods can also be created individually like this diff --git a/cs-cz/elm.html.markdown b/cs-cz/elm.html.markdown index f19f9e8b..42ec89e5 100644 --- a/cs-cz/elm.html.markdown +++ b/cs-cz/elm.html.markdown @@ -75,8 +75,8 @@ List.head [] -- Nothing -- K získání hodnot z dvojice použijte funkce first a second. -- (Toto je pouze zkratka. Brzy si ukážeme, jak na to "správně".) -fst ("elm", 42) -- "elm" -snd ("elm", 42) -- 42 +Tuple.first ("elm", 42) -- "elm" +Tuple.second ("elm", 42) -- 42 -- Prázná n-tice, neboli "unit", se občas používá jako zástupný symbol. -- Je to jediná hodnota svého typu, který se také nazývá "Unit". diff --git a/de-de/dynamic-programming-de.html.markdown b/de-de/dynamic-programming-de.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..801d2514 --- /dev/null +++ b/de-de/dynamic-programming-de.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +--- +category: Algorithms & Data Structures +name: Dynamic Programming +contributors: + - ["Akashdeep Goel", "http://github.com/akashdeepgoel"] +translators: + - ["Henrik Jürges", "http://github.com/santifa"] +lang: de-de +--- + +# Dynamische Programmierung + +## Einführung +Dynamische Programmierung ist eine leistungsfähige Technik, die zur Lösung +einer bestimmten Klasse von Problemen verwendet wird. +Die Idee ist sehr einfach, wenn Sie ein Problem mit der gegebenen Eingabe +gelöst haben, dann speichern Sie das Ergebnis für die spätere Referenz, um zu +vermeiden, das gleiche Problem noch einmal zu lösen. + +Denken Sie immer daran! +"Diejenigen, die sich nicht an die Vergangenheit erinnern können, +sind dazu verdammt, sie zu wiederholen." + +## Wege zur Lösung solcher Probleme + +1. *Top-Down*: Lösen Sie das gegebene Problem, indem Sie es aufteilen. +Wenn Sie sehen, dass das Problem bereits gelöst ist, geben Sie einfach die +gespeicherte Antwort zurück. Wenn es nicht gelöst wurde, lösen Sie es und +speichern Sie die Antwort. Dieser Ansatz ist leicht zu verfolgen und sehr +intuitiv. Er wird als Memoization bezeichnet. + +2. *Bottom-Up*: Analysieren Sie das Problem und beobachten Sie, in welcher +Reihenfolge die Teilprobleme gelöst werden können. Beginnen Sie mit der +Lösung vom trivialen Teilproblem bis zum gegebenen Problem. Dabei wird +sichergestellt, dass die Teilprobleme vor der Problemlösung gelöst werden. +Dies wird als Dynamische Programmierung bezeichnet. + +## Ein Beispiel für Dynamische Programmierung + +Das Problem mit der längsten ansteigenden Subsequenz besteht darin, +die längste ansteigende Subsequenz einer gegebenen Sequenz zu finden. +Gegeben die Sequenz `S= {a1, a2, a3, a3, a4,..............., an-1, an }`, +müssen wir die größte Teilmenge finden, so daß für alle `j` und `i`, `j<i` +in der Teilmenge `aj<ai` gilt. +Zuerst müssen wir bei jedem Index i den Wert der längsten Subsequenzen (LSi) +finden, wobei das letzte Element der Sequenz ai ist. Dann wäre die größte LSi +die längste Subsequenz in der gegebenen Sequenz. Am Anfang wird der LSi mit +eins belegt, da ai ein Element der Sequenz (Letztes Element) ist. +Dann ist für alle `j` mit `j<i` und `aj<ai`, so dass wir den größten LSj finden +und zum LSi hinzufügen. Der Algorithmus hat eine Laufzeit von *O(n2)*. + +Pseudocode zur Bestimmung der Länge der am längsten ansteigenden Subsequenz: +Die Komplexität des Algorithmus könnte durch eine bessere Datenstruktur anstelle +von Arrays reduziert werden. Das Speichern von Vorgänger-Array's und Variablen +wie `largest_sequences_so_far` und dessen Index würde eine Menge Zeit sparen. + +Ein ähnliches Konzept könnte auch bei der Suche nach dem längsten Weg +in gerichteten azyklischen Graphen angewandt werden. +```python +for i=0 to n-1 + LS[i]=1 + for j=0 to i-1 + if (a[i] > a[j] and LS[i]<LS[j]) + LS[i] = LS[j]+1 +for i=0 to n-1 + if (largest < LS[i]) +``` + +### Einige bekannte DP Probleme + +- Floyd Warshall Algorithm - [Tutorial and C Program source code](http://www.thelearningpoint.net/computer-science/algorithms-all-to-all-shortest-paths-in-graphs---floyd-warshall-algorithm-with-c-program-source-code) +- Integer Knapsack Problem - [Tutorial and C Program source code](http://www.thelearningpoint.net/computer-science/algorithms-dynamic-programming---the-integer-knapsack-problem) +- Longest Common Subsequence - [Tutorial and C Program source code](http://www.thelearningpoint.net/computer-science/algorithms-dynamic-programming---longest-common-subsequence) + +## Online Ressourcen + +* [codechef](https://www.codechef.com/wiki/tutorial-dynamic-programming) diff --git a/de-de/make-de.html.markdown b/de-de/make-de.html.markdown index 22c14a69..bc5c7bcb 100644 --- a/de-de/make-de.html.markdown +++ b/de-de/make-de.html.markdown @@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ language: make
contributors:
- ["Robert Steed", "https://github.com/robochat"]
+ - ["Stephan Fuhrmann", "https://github.com/sfuhrm"]
translators:
- ["Martin Schimandl", "https://github.com/Git-Jiro"]
filename: Makefile-de
@@ -58,7 +59,7 @@ file2.txt file3.txt: file0.txt file1.txt touch file3.txt
# Make wird sich beschweren wenn es mehrere Rezepte für die gleiche Regel gibt.
-# Leere Rezepte zählen nicht und können dazu verwendet werden weitere
+# Leere Rezepte zählen nicht und können dazu verwendet werden weitere
# Voraussetzungen hinzuzufügen.
#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -182,9 +183,9 @@ echo: name2 = Sara # Wahr innerhalb der passenden Regel und auch innerhalb # Ein paar Variablen die von Make automatisch definiert werden.
echo_inbuilt:
echo $(CC)
- echo ${CXX)}
+ echo ${CXX}
echo $(FC)
- echo ${CFLAGS)}
+ echo ${CFLAGS}
echo $(CPPFLAGS)
echo ${CXXFLAGS}
echo $(LDFLAGS)
diff --git a/de-de/nix-de.html.markdown b/de-de/nix-de.html.markdown index 8c78ffbc..79b60d20 100644 --- a/de-de/nix-de.html.markdown +++ b/de-de/nix-de.html.markdown @@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ with builtins; [ # Strings #========================================= - "String Literale sind in Gänsefüßchen." + "String Literale sind in Anführungszeichen." " String Literale können mehrere @@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ with builtins; [ # Paths #========================================= - # Nix besitzt einen primitven Datentyp für Pfade + # Nix besitzt einen primitiven Datentyp für Pfade /tmp/tutorials/learn.nix # Ein relativer Pfad wird beim Parsing zu einem absoluten Pfad aufgelöst, @@ -170,7 +170,7 @@ with builtins; [ # Listen #========================================= - # Listen werden durck eckige Klammern gekennzeichnet. + # Listen werden durch eckige Klammern gekennzeichnet. (length [1 2 3 "x"]) #=> 4 @@ -218,18 +218,18 @@ with builtins; [ ({ a = 1; } // { b = 2; }) #=> { a = 1; b = 2; } - # Werte auf der rechten Seite überschrieben die Werte auf der linken Seite. + # Werte auf der rechten Seite überschreiben die Werte auf der linken Seite. ({ a = 1; b = 2; } // { a = 3; c = 4; }) #=> { a = 3; b = 2; c = 4; } - # Das Schlüsselwort rec bezeichenet ein "rekursives Set", in der sich Attribute + # Das Schlüsselwort rec bezeichenet ein "rekursives Set", in dem sich Attribute # aufeinander beziehen können. (let a = 1; in { a = 2; b = a; }.b) #=> 1 (let a = 1; in rec { a = 2; b = a; }.b) #=> 2 - # Verschachetelte Sets können stückweise definiert werden. + # Verschachtelte Sets können stückweise definiert werden. { a.b = 1; a.c.d = 2; @@ -238,7 +238,7 @@ with builtins; [ #=> { d = 2; e = 3; } # Die Nachkommen eines Attributs können in diesem Feld nicht zugeordnet werden, wenn - # das Attribut selbst nicht zugeweisen wurde. + # das Attribut selbst nicht zugewiesen wurde. { a = { b = 1; }; a.c = 2; @@ -249,7 +249,7 @@ with builtins; [ # With #========================================= - # Der Körper eines Sets Blocks wird mit der Zurodnung eines Satzes an die Variablen gebunden. + # Der Körper eines Sets Blocks wird mit der Zuordnung eines Satzes an die Variablen gebunden. (with { a = 1; b = 2; }; a + b) # => 3 @@ -263,7 +263,7 @@ with builtins; [ # Die erste Linie diese Tutorials startet mit "with builtins;", # weil builtins ein Set mit allen eingebauten # Funktionen (length, head, tail, filter, etc.) umfasst. - # Das erspart uns beispielseweise "builtins.length" zu schreiben, + # Das erspart uns beispielsweise "builtins.length" zu schreiben, # anstatt nur "length". @@ -318,10 +318,10 @@ with builtins; [ # Impurity #========================================= - # Da die Wiederholbarkeit von Builds für den Nix Packetmangager entscheidend ist, + # Da die Wiederholbarkeit von Builds für den Nix Packetmanager entscheidend ist, # werden in der Nix Sprache reine funktionale Elemente betont. Es gibt aber ein paar # unreine Elemente. - # Du kannst auf Umgebungsvarialben verweisen. + # Du kannst auf Umgebungsvariablen verweisen. (getEnv "HOME") #=> "/home/alice" @@ -331,7 +331,7 @@ with builtins; [ #=> trace: 1 #=> 2 - # Du kannst Dateien in den Nix store schreiben. Obwohl unrein, kannst du dir relativ sicher sein, + # Du kannst Dateien in den Nix Store schreiben. Obwohl unrein, kannst du dir relativ sicher sein, # dass es sicher ist, da der Dateiname aus dem Hash des Inhalts abgeleitet wird. # Du kannst Dateien von überall lesen. In diesem Beispiel schreiben wir Dateien in den Store # und lesen wieder davon. @@ -339,14 +339,14 @@ with builtins; [ [filename (builtins.readFile filename)]) #=> [ "/nix/store/ayh05aay2anx135prqp0cy34h891247x-foo.txt" "hello!" ] - # Außerdem können wir Dateien in den Nix Store downloaden. + # Außerdem können wir Dateien in den Nix Store herunterladen. (fetchurl "https://example.com/package-1.2.3.tgz") #=> "/nix/store/2drvlh8r57f19s9il42zg89rdr33m2rm-package-1.2.3.tgz" ] ``` -### Weitere Resourcen +### Weitere Ressourcen * [Nix Manual - Nix expression language] (https://nixos.org/nix/manual/#ch-expression-language) diff --git a/elm.html.markdown b/elm.html.markdown index 23ae9eeb..ad80adc9 100644 --- a/elm.html.markdown +++ b/elm.html.markdown @@ -72,8 +72,8 @@ List.head [] -- Nothing -- Access the elements of a pair with the first and second functions. -- (This is a shortcut; we'll come to the "real way" in a bit.) -fst ("elm", 42) -- "elm" -snd ("elm", 42) -- 42 +Tuple.first ("elm", 42) -- "elm" +Tuple.second ("elm", 42) -- 42 -- The empty tuple, or "unit", is sometimes used as a placeholder. -- It is the only value of its type, also called "Unit". diff --git a/fr-fr/crystal-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/crystal-fr.html.markdown index 2c4e3dad..2bb17fc5 100644 --- a/fr-fr/crystal-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/crystal-fr.html.markdown @@ -305,7 +305,6 @@ end (1..3).each do |index| puts "Index: #{index}" end -# Index: 0 # Index: 1 # Index: 2 # Index: 3 diff --git a/fr-fr/php-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/php-fr.html.markdown index 823630bd..45a02d75 100644 --- a/fr-fr/php-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/php-fr.html.markdown @@ -6,10 +6,11 @@ contributors: - ["Trismegiste", "https://github.com/Trismegiste"] translators: - ["Pascal Boutin", "http://pboutin.net/"] + - ["Julien M'Poy", "https://github.com/groovytron"] lang: fr-fr --- -This document describes PHP 5+. +Ce document décrit PHP 5+. ```php // Le code PHP doit être placé à l'intérieur de balises '<?php' @@ -48,7 +49,7 @@ Hello World Again! // Un nom de variable valide commence par une lettre ou un souligné, // suivi de n'importe quelle lettre, nombre ou de soulignés. -// Les valeurs booléenes ne sont pas sensibles à la casse +// Les valeurs booléennes ne sont pas sensibles à la casse $boolean = true; // ou TRUE ou True $boolean = false; // ou FALSE ou False @@ -84,30 +85,30 @@ $number /= $float; // Divise et assigne le quotient à $number $sgl_quotes = '$String'; // => '$String' // Évitez les guillemets sauf pour inclure le contenu d'une autre variable -$dbl_quotes = "This is a $sgl_quotes."; // => 'This is a $String.' +$dbl_quotes = "Ceci est une $sgl_quotes."; // => 'Ceci est une $String.' // Les caractères spéciaux sont seulement échappés avec des guillemets -$escaped = "This contains a \t tab character."; -$unescaped = 'This just contains a slash and a t: \t'; +$escaped = "Ceci contient \t une tabulation."; +$unescaped = 'Ceci contient juste un slash et un t: \t'; // En cas de besoin, placez la variable dans des accolades -$money = "I have $${number} in the bank."; +$money = "J'ai $${number} sur mon compte en banque."; // Depuis PHP 5.3, Nowdoc peut être utilisé pour faire des chaînes // multi-lignes non-interprétées $nowdoc = <<<'END' -Multi line -string +String +mutli-lignes END; // Heredoc peut être utilisé pour faire des chaînes multi-lignes interprétées $heredoc = <<<END -Multi line $sgl_quotes +multi-lignes END; // La concaténation de chaînes se fait avec un . -echo 'This string ' . 'is concatenated'; +echo 'Cette string ' . 'est concatenée'; // => 'Cette string est concaténée' /******************************** @@ -122,7 +123,7 @@ echo 'This string ' . 'is concatenated'; define("FOO", "something"); // on peut accéder à une constante en utilisant directement son nom -echo 'This outputs '.FOO; +echo 'Ceci affiche ' . FOO; /******************************** @@ -149,6 +150,14 @@ $array[] = 'Four'; // Retrait d'un élément du tableau unset($array[3]); +// Depuis PHP 7, il est possible de déclarer des tableaux constants en +// utilisant 'define'. +define('ANIMAUX', [ + 'chien', + 'chat', + 'oiseau', +]); + /******************************** * Affichage */ @@ -159,11 +168,13 @@ echo('Hello World!'); print('Hello World!'); // Pareil à "écho" -// Pour écho, vous n'avez pas besoin des parenthèses +// 'echo' et 'print' sont des language constructs. +// Il n'ont pas besoin de parenthèses car ils sont traités comme +// des opérateurs unaires. echo 'Hello World!'; -print 'Hello World!'; // Pour print non plus +print 'Hello World!'; -$paragraph = 'paragraph'; +$paragraph = 'paragraphe'; echo 100; // Affichez un scalaire directement echo $paragraph; // ou des variables @@ -202,7 +213,8 @@ $b = '0'; $c = '1'; $d = '1'; -// assert affiche un avertissement dans son argument n'est pas vrai +// assert affiche un avertissement quand l'expression booléenne passée +// en argument n'est pas vraie. // Ces comparaisons vont toujours être vraies, même si leurs // types ne sont pas les mêmes. @@ -315,7 +327,7 @@ if ($x === '0') { switch ($x) { case '0': print 'Les switch font du transtypage implicite'; - break; // Il est important de déclaré un 'break', sinon les cas + break; // Il est important de déclarer un 'break', sinon les cas // 'two' et 'three' seront évalués case 'two': case 'three': @@ -390,9 +402,10 @@ function my_function () { echo my_function(); // => "Hello" -// Les noms de fonction débutent par le symbole $ -// Un nom de variable valide commence par une lettre ou un souligné, +// Un nom de fonction valide commence par une lettre ou un souligné, // suivi de n'importe quelle lettre, nombre ou de soulignés. +// Les noms des arguments d'une fonction doivent respecter le même format que +// celui des variables. function add ($x, $y = 1) { // $y est facultatif et sa valeur par défaut est 1 $result = $x + $y; @@ -519,7 +532,7 @@ class MyClass public static function myStaticMethod() { - print 'I am static'; + print 'Je suis static'; } } @@ -527,7 +540,7 @@ class MyClass echo MyClass::MY_CONST; // Outputs 'value'; echo MyClass::$staticVar; // Retourne 'static'; -MyClass::myStaticMethod(); // Retourne 'I am static'; +MyClass::myStaticMethod(); // Retourne 'Je suis static'; // On peut instancier une classe en utilisant le mot clé 'new' $my_class = new MyClass('An instance property'); @@ -584,7 +597,7 @@ echo $x->property; // Va utiliser la méthode __get() $x->property = 'Something'; // Va utiliser la méthode __set() // Les classes peuvent être abstraites (en utilisant le mot clé 'abstract'), ou -// elle peuvent implémenter une interface (en utilisant le mot clé 'implement'). +// elle peuvent implémenter une interface (en utilisant le mot clé 'implements'). // Une interface peut être déclarée avec le mot clé 'interface' @@ -637,6 +650,35 @@ class SomeOtherClass implements InterfaceOne, InterfaceTwo } } +// Il est possible de déclarer des classes internes anonymes depuis PHP 7 + +interface Logger { + public function log(string $msg); +} + +class Application { + private $logger; + + public function getLogger(): Logger { + return $this->logger; + } + + public function setLogger(Logger $logger) { + $this->logger = $logger; + } +} + +$app = new Application; + +$app->setLogger(new class implements Logger { + public function log(string $msg) { + echo $msg; + } +}); + +var_dump($app->getLogger()); // => 'object(class@anonymous)#2 (0) {}' + + /******************************** * Espaces de noms (namespaces) */ diff --git a/go.html.markdown b/go.html.markdown index e5263cf6..47d9c234 100644 --- a/go.html.markdown +++ b/go.html.markdown @@ -180,7 +180,7 @@ func learnFlowControl() { if true { fmt.Println("told ya") } - // Formatting is standardized by the command line command "go fmt." + // Formatting is standardized by the command line command "go fmt". if false { // Pout. } else { diff --git a/hu-hu/python-hu.html.markdown b/hu-hu/python-hu.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..9b55f8e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/hu-hu/python-hu.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,816 @@ +--- +language: python +contributors: + - ["Louie Dinh", "http://ldinh.ca"] + - ["Amin Bandali", "https://aminb.org"] + - ["Andre Polykanine", "https://github.com/Oire"] + - ["evuez", "http://github.com/evuez"] + - ["asyne", "https://github.com/justblah"] + - ["habi", "http://github.com/habi"] +translators: + - ["Tamás Diószegi", "https://github.com/ditam"] +filename: learnpython-hu.py +lang: hu-hu +--- + +A Python nyelvet Guido Van Rossum alkotta meg a 90-es évek elején. Manapság az +egyik legnépszerűbb programozási nyelv. Én a tiszta szintaxisa miatt szerettem +bele. Tulajdonképpen futtatható pszeudokód. + +Szívesen fogadok visszajelzéseket! Elérsz itt: [@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) +vagy pedig a louiedinh [kukac] [google email szolgáltatása] címen. + +Figyelem: ez a leírás a Python 2.7 verziójára vonatkozok, illetve +általánosságban a 2.x verziókra. A Python 2.7 azonban már csak 2020-ig lesz +támogatva, ezért kezdőknek ajánlott, hogy a Python 3-mal kezdjék az +ismerkedést. A Python 3.x verzióihoz a [Python 3 bemutató](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/python3/) +ajánlott. + +Lehetséges olyan Python kódot írni, ami egyszerre kompatibilis a 2.7 és a 3.x +verziókkal is, a Python [`__future__` imports](https://docs.python.org/2/library/__future__.html) használatával. +A `__future__` import használata esetén Python 3-ban írhatod a kódot, ami +Python 2 alatt is futni fog, így ismét a fenti Python 3 bemutató ajánlott. + +```python + +# Az egysoros kommentek kettőskereszttel kezdődnek + +""" Többsoros stringeket három darab " közé + fogva lehet írni, ezeket gyakran használják + több soros kommentként. +""" + +#################################################### +# 1. Egyszerű adattípusok és operátorok +#################################################### + +# Használhatsz számokat +3 # => 3 + +# Az alapműveletek meglepetésektől mentesek +1 + 1 # => 2 +8 - 1 # => 7 +10 * 2 # => 20 +35 / 5 # => 7 + +# Az osztás kicsit trükkös. Egész osztást végez, és a hányados alsó egész része +# lesz az eredmény +5 / 2 # => 2 + +# Az osztás kijavításához a (lebegőpontos) float típust kell használnunk +2.0 # Ez egy float +11.0 / 4.0 # => 2.75 áh... máris jobb + +# Az egész osztás a negatív számok esetén is az alsó egész részt eredményezi +5 // 3 # => 1 +5.0 // 3.0 # => 1.0 # floatok esetén is +-5 // 3 # => -2 +-5.0 // 3.0 # => -2.0 + +# Ha importáljuk a division modult (ld. 6. Modulok rész), +# akkor a '/' jellel pontos osztást tudunk végezni. +from __future__ import division + +11 / 4 # => 2.75 ...sima osztás +11 // 4 # => 2 ...egész osztás + +# Modulo művelet +7 % 3 # => 1 + +# Hatványozás (x az y. hatványra) +2 ** 4 # => 16 + +# A precedencia zárójelekkel befolyásolható +(1 + 3) * 2 # => 8 + +# Logikai operátorok +# Megjegyzés: az "and" és "or" csak kisbetűkkel helyes +True and False # => False +False or True # => True + +# A logikai operátorok egészeken is használhatóak +0 and 2 # => 0 +-5 or 0 # => -5 +0 == False # => True +2 == True # => False +1 == True # => True + +# Negálni a not kulcsszóval lehet +not True # => False +not False # => True + +# Egyenlőségvizsgálat == +1 == 1 # => True +2 == 1 # => False + +# Egyenlőtlenség != +1 != 1 # => False +2 != 1 # => True + +# További összehasonlítások +1 < 10 # => True +1 > 10 # => False +2 <= 2 # => True +2 >= 2 # => True + +# Az összehasonlítások láncolhatóak! +1 < 2 < 3 # => True +2 < 3 < 2 # => False + +# Stringeket " vagy ' jelek közt lehet megadni +"Ez egy string." +'Ez egy másik string.' + +# A stringek összeadhatóak! +"Hello " + "world!" # => "Hello world!" +# '+' jel nélkül is összeadhatóak +"Hello " "world!" # => "Hello world!" + +# ... illetve szorozhatóak +"Hello" * 3 # => "HelloHelloHello" + +# Kezelhető karakterek indexelhető listájaként +"This is a string"[0] # => 'T' + +# A string hosszát a len függvény adja meg +len("This is a string") # => 16 + +# String formázáshoz a % jel használható +# A Python 3.1-gyel a % már deprecated jelölésű, és később eltávolításra fog +# kerülni, de azért jó tudni, hogyan működik. +x = 'alma' +y = 'citrom' +z = "A kosárban levő elemek: %s és %s" % (x, y) + +# A string formázás újabb módja a format metódus használatával történik. +# Jelenleg ez a javasolt megoldás. +"{} egy {} szöveg".format("Ez", "helytartó") +"A {0} pedig {1}".format("string", "formázható") +# Ha nem akarsz számolgatni, nevesíthetőek a pozíciók. +"{name} kedvence a {food}".format(name="Bob", food="lasagna") + +# None egy objektum +None # => None + +# A None-nal való összehasonlításhoz ne használd a "==" jelet, +# használd az "is" kulcsszót helyette +"etc" is None # => False +None is None # => True + +# Az 'is' operátor objektum egyezést vizsgál. +# Primitív típusok esetén ez nem túl hasznos, +# objektumok esetén azonban annál inkább. + +# Bármilyen objektum használható logikai kontextusban. +# A következő értékek hamis-ra értékelődnek ki (ún. "falsey" értékek): +# - None +# - bármelyik szám típus 0 értéke (pl. 0, 0L, 0.0, 0j) +# - üres sorozatok (pl. '', (), []) +# - üres konténerek (pl., {}, set()) +# - egyes felhasználó által definiált osztályok példányai bizonyos szabályok szerint, +# ld: https://docs.python.org/2/reference/datamodel.html#object.__nonzero__ +# +# Minden egyéb érték "truthy" (a bool() függvénynek átadva igazra értékelődnek ki) +bool(0) # => False +bool("") # => False + + +#################################################### +# 2. Változók és kollekciók +#################################################### + +# Létezik egy print utasítás +print "I'm Python. Nice to meet you!" # => I'm Python. Nice to meet you! + +# Így lehet egyszerűen bemenetet kérni a konzolról: +input_string_var = raw_input( + "Enter some data: ") # Visszatér a megadott stringgel +input_var = input("Enter some data: ") # Kiértékeli a bemenetet python kódként +# Vigyázat: a fentiek miatt az input() metódust körültekintően kell használni +# Megjegyzés: Python 3-ban az input() már deprecated, és a raw_input() lett input()-ra átnevezve + +# A változókat nem szükséges a használat előtt deklarálni +some_var = 5 # Konvenció szerint a névben kisbetu_es_alulvonas +some_var # => 5 + +# Érték nélküli változóra hivatkozás hibát dob. +# Lásd a Control Flow szekciót a kivételkezelésről. +some_other_var # name error hibát dob + +# az if használható kifejezésként +# a C nyelv '?:' ternáris operátorával egyenértékűen +"yahoo!" if 3 > 2 else 2 # => "yahoo!" + +# A listákban sorozatok tárolhatóak +li = [] +# Már inicializáláskor megadhatóak elemek +other_li = [4, 5, 6] + +# A lista végére az append metódus rak új elemet +li.append(1) # li jelenleg [1] +li.append(2) # li jelenleg [1, 2] +li.append(4) # li jelenleg [1, 2, 4] +li.append(3) # li jelenleg [1, 2, 4, 3] +# A végéről a pop metódus távolít el elemet +li.pop() # => 3 és li jelenleg [1, 2, 4] +# Rakjuk vissza +li.append(3) # li jelenleg [1, 2, 4, 3], újra. + +# A lista elemeket tömb indexeléssel lehet hivatkozni +li[0] # => 1 +# A már inicializált értékekhez a = jellel lehet új értéket rendelni +li[0] = 42 +li[0] # => 42 +li[0] = 1 # csak visszaállítjuk az eredeti értékére +# Így is lehet az utolsó elemre hivatkozni +li[-1] # => 3 + +# A túlindexelés eredménye IndexError +li[4] # IndexError hibát dob + +# A lista részeit a slice szintaxissal lehet kimetszeni +# (Matekosoknak ez egy zárt/nyitott intervallum.) +li[1:3] # => [2, 4] +# A lista eleje kihagyható így +li[2:] # => [4, 3] +# Kihagyható a vége +li[:3] # => [1, 2, 4] +# Minden második elem kiválasztása +li[::2] # =>[1, 4] +# A lista egy másolata, fordított sorrendben +li[::-1] # => [3, 4, 2, 1] +# A fentiek kombinációival bonyolultabb slice parancsok is képezhetőek +# li[start:end:step] + +# Listaelemek a "del" paranccsal törölhetőek +del li[2] # li jelenleg [1, 2, 3] + +# A listák összeadhatóak +li + other_li # => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] +# Megjegyzés: az eredeti li és other_li értékei változatlanok + +# Összefőzhetőek (konkatenálhatóak) az "extend()" paranccsal +li.extend(other_li) # li jelenleg [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] + +# Egy elem első előfordulásának eltávolítása +li.remove(2) # li jelenleg [1, 3, 4, 5, 6] +li.remove(2) # ValueError hibát dob, mivel a 2 nem szerepel már a listában + +# Elemek beszúrhatóak tetszőleges helyre +li.insert(1, 2) # li jelenleg [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6], ismét + +# Egy elem első előfordulási helye +li.index(2) # => 1 +li.index(7) # ValueError hibát dob, mivel a 7 nem szerepel a listában + +# Egy listában egy elem előfordulása az "in" szóval ellenőrizhető +1 in li # => True + +# A lista hossza a "len()" függvénnyel +len(li) # => 6 + +# Az N-esek ("tuple") hasonlítanak a listákhoz, de nem módosíthatóak +tup = (1, 2, 3) +tup[0] # => 1 +tup[0] = 3 # TypeError hibát dob + +# Az összes lista-műveletet ezeken is használható +len(tup) # => 3 +tup + (4, 5, 6) # => (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) +tup[:2] # => (1, 2) +2 in tup # => True + +# Az N-esek (és listák) kicsomagolhatóak külön változókba +a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) # az a így 1, a b 2 és a c pedig 3 +d, e, f = 4, 5, 6 # a zárójel elhagyható +# Ha elhagyod a zárójeleket, alapértelmezés szerint tuple képződik +g = 4, 5, 6 # => (4, 5, 6) +# Nézd, milyen egyszerű két értéket megcserélni +e, d = d, e # d most már 5 és az e 4 + +# A Dictionary típusokban hozzárendelések (kulcs-érték párok) tárolhatók +empty_dict = {} +# Ez pedig rögtön értékekkel van inicializálva +filled_dict = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3} + +# Egy dictionary értékei [] jelek közt indexelhetőek +filled_dict["one"] # => 1 + +# A "keys()" metódus visszatér a kulcsok listájával +filled_dict.keys() # => ["three", "two", "one"] +# Megjegyzés: egy dictionary párjainak sorrendje nem garantált +# Lehet, hogy már a fenti példán is más sorrendben kaptad meg az elemeket. + +# Az értékek listája a "values()" metódussal kérhető le +filled_dict.values() # => [3, 2, 1] +# ld. a fenti megjegyzést az elemek sorrendjéről. + +# Az összes kulcs-érték pár megkapható N-esek listájaként az "items()" metódussal +filled_dict.items() # => [("one", 1), ("two", 2), ("three", 3)] + +# Az "in" kulcssszóval ellenőrizhető, hogy egy kulcs szerepel-e a dictionary-ben +"one" in filled_dict # => True +1 in filled_dict # => False + +# Nem létező kulcs hivatkozása KeyError hibát dob +filled_dict["four"] # KeyError + +# A "get()" metódus használatával elkerülhető a KeyError +filled_dict.get("one") # => 1 +filled_dict.get("four") # => None +# A metódusnak megadható egy alapértelmezett visszatérési érték is, hiányzó értékek esetén +filled_dict.get("one", 4) # => 1 +filled_dict.get("four", 4) # => 4 +# Megjegyzés: ettől még filled_dict.get("four") => None +# (vagyis a get nem állítja be az alapértelmezett értéket a dictionary-ben) + +# A kulcsokhoz értékek a listákhoz hasonló szintaxissal rendelhetőek: +filled_dict["four"] = 4 # ez után filled_dict["four"] => 4 + +# A "setdefault()" metódus csak akkor állít be egy értéket, ha az adott kulcshoz még nem volt más megadva +filled_dict.setdefault("five", 5) # filled_dict["five"] beállítva 5-re +filled_dict.setdefault("five", 6) # filled_dict["five"] még mindig 5 + +# Egy halmaz ("set") olyan, mint egy lista, de egy elemet csak egyszer tárolhat +empty_set = set() +# Inicializáljuk ezt a halmazt néhány elemmel +some_set = set([1, 2, 2, 3, 4]) # some_set jelenleg set([1, 2, 3, 4]) + +# A sorrend itt sem garantált, még ha néha rendezettnek is tűnhet +another_set = set([4, 3, 2, 2, 1]) # another_set jelenleg set([1, 2, 3, 4]) + +# Python 2.7 óta már {} jelek közt is lehet halmazt definiálni +filled_set = {1, 2, 2, 3, 4} # => {1, 2, 3, 4} + +# Új halmaz-elemek hozzáadása +filled_set.add(5) # filled_set is now {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} + +# Halmaz metszés a & operátorral +other_set = {3, 4, 5, 6} +filled_set & other_set # => {3, 4, 5} + +# Halmaz unió | operátorral +filled_set | other_set # => {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} + +# Halmaz különbség - +{1, 2, 3, 4} - {2, 3, 5} # => {1, 4} + +# Szimmetrikus differencia ^ +{1, 2, 3, 4} ^ {2, 3, 5} # => {1, 4, 5} + +# Vizsgáljuk, hogy a bal oldali halmaz magában foglalja-e a jobb oldalit +{1, 2} >= {1, 2, 3} # => False + +# Vizsgáljuk, hogy a bal oldali halmaz részhalmaza-e a jobb oldalinak +{1, 2} <= {1, 2, 3} # => True + +# Halmazbeli elemek jelenléte az in kulcssszóval vizsgálható +2 in filled_set # => True +10 in filled_set # => False + + +#################################################### +# 3. Control Flow +#################################################### + +# Legyen egy változónk +some_var = 5 + +# Ez egy if elágazás. A behúzás mértéke (az indentáció) jelentéssel bír a nyelvben! +# Ez a kód ezt fogja kiírni: "some_var kisebb 10-nél" +if some_var > 10: + print "some_var nagyobb, mint 10." +elif some_var < 10: # Az elif kifejezés nem kötelező az if szerkezetben. + print "some_var kisebb 10-nél" +else: # Ez sem kötelező. + print "some_var kereken 10." + +""" +For ciklusokkal végigiterálhatunk listákon +a kimenet: + A(z) kutya emlős + A(z) macska emlős + A(z) egér emlős +""" +for animal in ["kutya", "macska", "egér"]: + # A {0} kifejezéssel formázzuk a stringet, ld. korábban. + print "A(z) {0} emlős".format(animal) + +""" +"range(number)" visszatér számok listájával 0-től number-ig +a kimenet: + 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 +""" +for i in range(4): + print i + +""" +"range(lower, upper)" visszatér a lower és upper közti számok listájával +a kimenet: + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 +""" +for i in range(4, 8): + print i + +""" +A while ciklus a feltétel hamissá válásáig fut. +a kimenet: + 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 +""" +x = 0 +while x < 4: + print x + x += 1 # Rövidítés az x = x + 1 kifejezésre + +# A kivételek try/except blokkokkal kezelhetőek + +# Python 2.6-tól felfele: +try: + # A "raise" szóval lehet hibát dobni + raise IndexError("Ez egy index error") +except IndexError as e: + pass # A pass egy üres helytartó művelet. Itt hívnánk a hibakezelő kódunkat. +except (TypeError, NameError): + pass # Ha szükséges, egyszerre több hiba típus is kezelhető +else: # Az except blokk után opcionálisan megadható + print "Minden rendben!" # Csak akkor fut le, ha fentebb nem voltak hibák +finally: # Mindenképpen lefut + print "Itt felszabadíthatjuk az erőforrásokat például" + +# Az erőforrások felszabadításához try/finally helyett a with használható +with open("myfile.txt") as f: + for line in f: + print line + + +#################################################### +# 4. Függvények +#################################################### + +# A "def" szóval hozhatunk létre új függvényt +def add(x, y): + print "x is {0} and y is {1}".format(x, y) + return x + y # A return szóval tudunk értékeket visszaadni + + +# Így hívunk függvényt paraméterekkel +add(5, 6) # => a konzol kimenet "x is 5 and y is 6", a visszatérési érték 11 + +# Nevesített paraméterekkel (ún. "keyword arguments") is hívhatunk egy függvényt +add(y=6, x=5) # Ez esetben a sorrendjük nem számít + + +# Változó számú paramétert fogadó függvény így definiálható. +# A * használatával a paramétereket egy N-esként kapjuk meg. +def varargs(*args): + return args + + +varargs(1, 2, 3) # => (1, 2, 3) + + +# Változó számú nevesített paramétert fogadó függvény is megadható, +# a ** használatával a paramétereket egy dictionary-ként kapjuk meg +def keyword_args(**kwargs): + return kwargs + + +# Nézzük meg, mi történik +keyword_args(big="foot", loch="ness") # => {"big": "foot", "loch": "ness"} + + +# A két módszer egyszerre is használható +def all_the_args(*args, **kwargs): + print args + print kwargs + + +""" +all_the_args(1, 2, a=3, b=4) kimenete: + (1, 2) + {"a": 3, "b": 4} +""" + +# Függvények hívásakor a fenti args és kwargs módszerek inverze használható +# A * karakter kifejt egy listát külön paraméterekbe, a ** egy dictionary-t nevesített paraméterekbe. +args = (1, 2, 3, 4) +kwargs = {"a": 3, "b": 4} +all_the_args(*args) # egyenértékű: foo(1, 2, 3, 4) +all_the_args(**kwargs) # egyenértékű: foo(a=3, b=4) +all_the_args(*args, **kwargs) # egyenértékű: foo(1, 2, 3, 4, a=3, b=4) + + +# A fenti arg és kwarg paraméterek továbbadhatóak egyéb függvényeknek, +# a * illetve ** operátorokkal kifejtve +def pass_all_the_args(*args, **kwargs): + all_the_args(*args, **kwargs) + print varargs(*args) + print keyword_args(**kwargs) + + +# Függvény scope +x = 5 + + +def set_x(num): + # A lokális x változó nem ugyanaz, mint a globális x + x = num # => 43 + print x # => 43 + + +def set_global_x(num): + global x + print x # => 5 + x = num # a globális x-et 6-ra állítjuk + print x # => 6 + + +set_x(43) +set_global_x(6) + + +# A pythonban a függvény elsőrendű (ún. "first class") típus +def create_adder(x): + def adder(y): + return x + y + + return adder + + +add_10 = create_adder(10) +add_10(3) # => 13 + +# Névtelen függvények is definiálhatóak +(lambda x: x > 2)(3) # => True +(lambda x, y: x ** 2 + y ** 2)(2, 1) # => 5 + +# Léteznek beépített magasabb rendű függvények +map(add_10, [1, 2, 3]) # => [11, 12, 13] +map(max, [1, 2, 3], [4, 2, 1]) # => [4, 2, 3] + +filter(lambda x: x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) # => [6, 7] + +# A listaképző kifejezések ("list comprehensions") jól használhatóak a map és filter függvényekkel +[add_10(i) for i in [1, 2, 3]] # => [11, 12, 13] +[x for x in [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] if x > 5] # => [6, 7] + +# halmaz és dictionary képzők is léteznek +{x for x in 'abcddeef' if x in 'abc'} # => {'a', 'b', 'c'} +{x: x ** 2 for x in range(5)} # => {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16} + + +#################################################### +# 5. Osztályok +#################################################### + +# Az object osztály egy alosztályát képezzük +class Human(object): + # Osztály szintű mező: az osztály összes példányában azonos + species = "H. sapiens" + + # Ez a függvény meghívódik az osztály példányosításakor. + # Megjegyzés: a dupla aláhúzás a név előtt és után egy konvenció a python + # előre definiált, a nyelv által belsőleg használt, de a felhasználó által + # is látható objektumok és mezők neveire. + # Ne vezessünk be új, ilyen elnevezési sémát használó neveket! + def __init__(self, name): + # A paramétert értékül adjuk a példány name attribútumának + self.name = name + + # Inicializálunk egy mezőt + self.age = 0 + + # Példány metódus. Minden metódus első paramétere a "self", a példány maga + def say(self, msg): + return "{0}: {1}".format(self.name, msg) + + # Egy osztálymetódus az osztály összes példány közt meg van osztva. + # Hívásukkor az első paraméter mindig a hívó osztály. + @classmethod + def get_species(cls): + return cls.species + + # Egy statikus metódus osztály és példányreferencia nélkül hívódik + @staticmethod + def grunt(): + return "*grunt*" + + # Egy property jelölésű függvény olyan, mint egy getter. + # Használatával az age mező egy csak-olvasható attribútummá válik. + @property + def age(self): + return self._age + + # Így lehet settert megadni egy mezőhöz + @age.setter + def age(self, age): + self._age = age + + # Így lehet egy mező törlését engedélyezni + @age.deleter + def age(self): + del self._age + + +# Példányosítsuk az osztályt +i = Human(name="Ian") +print i.say("hi") # kimenet: "Ian: hi" + +j = Human("Joel") +print j.say("hello") # kimenet: "Joel: hello" + +# Hívjuk az osztály metódusunkat +i.get_species() # => "H. sapiens" + +# Változtassuk meg az osztály szintű attribútumot +Human.species = "H. neanderthalensis" +i.get_species() # => "H. neanderthalensis" +j.get_species() # => "H. neanderthalensis" + +# Hívjuk meg a statikus metódust +Human.grunt() # => "*grunt*" + +# Adjunk új értéket a mezőnek +i.age = 42 + +# Kérjük le a mező értékét +i.age # => 42 + +# Töröljük a mezőt +del i.age +i.age # => AttributeError hibát dob + +#################################################### +# 6. Modulok +#################################################### + +# Modulokat így lehet importálni +import math + +print math.sqrt(16) # => 4 + +# Lehetséges csak bizonyos függvényeket importálni egy modulból +from math import ceil, floor + +print ceil(3.7) # => 4.0 +print floor(3.7) # => 3.0 + +# Egy modul összes függvénye is importálható +# Vigyázat: ez nem ajánlott. +from math import * + +# A modulok nevei lerövidíthetőek +import math as m + +math.sqrt(16) == m.sqrt(16) # => True +# Meggyőződhetünk róla, hogy a függvények valóban azonosak +from math import sqrt + +math.sqrt == m.sqrt == sqrt # => True + +# A Python modulok egyszerű fájlok. +# Írhatsz sajátot és importálhatod is. +# A modul neve azonos a tartalmazó fájl nevével. + +# Így lehet megtekinteni, milyen mezőket és függvényeket definiál egy modul. +import math + +dir(math) + + +# Ha van egy math.py nevű Python scripted a jelenleg futó scripttel azonos +# mappában, a math.py fájl lesz betöltve a beépített Python modul helyett. +# A lokális mappa prioritást élvez a beépített könyvtárak felett. + + +#################################################### +# 7. Haladóknak +#################################################### + +# Generátorok +# Egy generátor értékeket "generál" amikor kérik, a helyett, hogy előre eltárolná őket. + +# A következő metódus (ez még NEM egy generátor) megduplázza a kapott iterable elemeit, +# és eltárolja őket. Nagy méretű iterable esetén ez nagyon sok helyet foglalhat! +def double_numbers(iterable): + double_arr = [] + for i in iterable: + double_arr.append(i + i) + return double_arr + + +# A következő kód futtatásakor az összes szám kétszeresét kiszámítanánk, és visszaadnánk +# ezt a nagy listát a ciklus vezérléséhez. +for value in double_numbers(range(1000000)): # `test_non_generator` + print value + if value > 5: + break + + +# Használjunk inkább egy generátort, ami "legenerálja" a soron következő elemet, +# amikor azt kérik tőle +def double_numbers_generator(iterable): + for i in iterable: + yield i + i + + +# A lenti kód mindig csak a soron következő számot generálja a logikai vizsgálat előtt. +# Így amikor az érték eléri a > 5 határt, megszakítjuk a ciklust, és a lista számainak +# nagy részénél megspóroltuk a duplázás műveletet (ez sokkal gyorsabb így!). +for value in double_numbers_generator(xrange(1000000)): # `test_generator` + print value + if value > 5: + break + +# Feltűnt, hogy a `test_non_generator` esetén `range`, a `test_generator` esetén +# pedig `xrange` volt a segédfüggvény neve? Ahogy `double_numbers_generator` a +# generátor változata a `double_numbers` függvénynek, úgy az `xrange` a `range` +# generátor megfelelője, csak akkor generálja le a következő számot, amikor kérjük +# - esetünkben a ciklus következő iterációjakor + +# A lista képzéshez hasonlóan generátor képzőket is használhatunk +# ("generator comprehensions"). +values = (-x for x in [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) +for x in values: + print(x) # kimenet: -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 + +# Egy generátor összes generált elemét listaként is elkérhetjük: +values = (-x for x in [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) +gen_to_list = list(values) +print(gen_to_list) # => [-1, -2, -3, -4, -5] + +# Dekorátorok +# A dekorátor egy magasabb rendű függvény, aminek bemenete és kimenete is egy függvény. +# A lenti egyszerű példában az add_apples dekorátor a dekorált get_fruits függvény +# kimenetébe beszúrja az 'Apple' elemet. +def add_apples(func): + def get_fruits(): + fruits = func() + fruits.append('Apple') + return fruits + return get_fruits + +@add_apples +def get_fruits(): + return ['Banana', 'Mango', 'Orange'] + +# A kimenet tartalmazza az 'Apple' elemet: +# Banana, Mango, Orange, Apple +print ', '.join(get_fruits()) + +# Ebben a példában a beg dekorátorral látjuk el a say függvényt. +# Beg meghívja say-t. Ha a say_please paraméter igaz, akkor +# megváltoztatja az eredmény mondatot. +from functools import wraps + + +def beg(target_function): + @wraps(target_function) + def wrapper(*args, **kwargs): + msg, say_please = target_function(*args, **kwargs) + if say_please: + return "{} {}".format(msg, "Please! I am poor :(") + return msg + + return wrapper + + +@beg +def say(say_please=False): + msg = "Can you buy me a beer?" + return msg, say_please + + +print say() # Can you buy me a beer? +print say(say_please=True) # Can you buy me a beer? Please! I am poor :( +``` + +## Még több érdekel? + +### Ingyenes online tartalmak + +* [Automate the Boring Stuff with Python](https://automatetheboringstuff.com) +* [Learn Python The Hard Way](http://learnpythonthehardway.org/book/) +* [Dive Into Python](http://www.diveintopython.net/) +* [The Official Docs](http://docs.python.org/2/) +* [Hitchhiker's Guide to Python](http://docs.python-guide.org/en/latest/) +* [Python Module of the Week](http://pymotw.com/2/) +* [A Crash Course in Python for Scientists](http://nbviewer.ipython.org/5920182) +* [First Steps With Python](https://realpython.com/learn/python-first-steps/) +* [LearnPython](http://www.learnpython.org/) +* [Fullstack Python](https://www.fullstackpython.com/) + +### Könyvek + +* [Programming Python](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596158106/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0596158106&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20) +* [Dive Into Python](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1441413022/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1441413022&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20) +* [Python Essential Reference](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0672329786/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0672329786&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20) diff --git a/id-id/bf-id.html.markdown b/id-id/bf-id.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..9901290b --- /dev/null +++ b/id-id/bf-id.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,86 @@ +--- +language: "Brainfuck" +filename: brainfuck-id.bf +contributors: + - ["Prajit Ramachandran", "http://prajitr.github.io/"] + - ["Mathias Bynens", "http://mathiasbynens.be/"] +translators: + - ["Muhammad Rifqi Fatchurrahman", "http://muhrifqii.github.io/"] +lang: id-id +--- + +Brainfuck (tidak dalam huruf kapital kecuali pada awal kalimat) adalah sebuah +bahasa pemrograman Turing-complete yang sangat minim yang hanya memiliki 8 perintah. + +Anda bisa mencoba brainfuck pada browser dengan menggunakan [brainfuck-visualizer](http://fatiherikli.github.io/brainfuck-visualizer/). + +```bf +Karakter apapun selain "><+-.,[]" (tanda kutip tidak termasuk) diabaikan. + +Brainfuck direpresentasikan dengan sebuah array yang memiliki 30,000 cell yang +diinisialisasi dengan nol dan pointer data yang menunjuk ke current cell. + +Terdapat delapan perintah: ++ : Menaikkan nilai pada current cell sebesar satu. +- : Menurunkan nilai pada current cell sebesar satu. +> : Menggeser pointer data ke cell selanjutnya (cell sebelah kanan). +< : Menggeser pointer data ke cell sebelumnya (cell sebelah kiri). +. : Mencetak nilai ASCII pada current cell (misal 65 = 'A'). +, : Membaca sebuah karakter masukan tunggal ke dalam current cell. +[ : Jika nilai pada current cell bernilai nol, lewati hingga mencapai ] yang sesuai. + Jika tidak, pindah ke instruksi berikutnya. +] : Jika nilai pada current cell bernilai nol, pindah ke instruksi berikutnya. + Jika tidak, mundur pada instruksi hingga mencapai [ yang sesuai. + +[ dan ] membentuk sebuah rekursi while. Tentu saja mereka harus seimbang. + +Mari kita lihat beberapa program brainfuck dasar. + +++++++ [ > ++++++++++ < - ] > +++++ . + +Program ini mencetak huruf 'A'. Mula-mula, cell #1 dinaikkan ke 6. +Cell #1 akan digunakan untuk rekursi. Lalu, masuk ke rekursi ([) dan pindah +ke cell #2. Cell #2 dinaikkan 10 kali, mundur ke cell #1, dan menurunkan +cell #1. Rekursi ini berlangsung 6 kali (melakukan 6 penurunan nilai untuk +cell #1 hingga mencapai 0, di titik mana dia melewati hingga mencapai ] dan +terus berlanjut). + +Pada titik ini, kita berada pada cell #1, yang memiliki nilai 0, sedangkan cell #2 +memiliki sebuah nilai 60. Kita berpindah ke cell #2, menaikkan nilai 5 kali, memunculkan +nilai 65, lalu cetak nilai pada cell #2. 65 adalah 'A' pada ASCII, jadi 'A' +dicetak ke terminal. + +, [ > + < - ] > . + +Program ini membaca sebuah karakter dari masukan user dan menyalin karakternya ke +cell #1. Setelah itu rekursi dimulai. Geser ke cell #2, menaikkan nilai pada cell #2, +mundur ke cell #1, dan menurunkan nilai pada cell #1. Hal ini berlanjut sampai cell #1 +bernilai 0, dan cell #2 menyimpan nilai lama dari cell #1. Karena kita berada di cell #1 +saat ujung rekursi, geser ke cell #2, lalu cetak nilai dalam bentuk ASCII. + +Perlu diingat bahwa spasi itu murni untuk memudahkan membaca. Anda bisa +menuliskannya dengan mudah seperti: + +,[>+<-]>. + +Coba dan cari tahu apa yang program ini lakukan: + +,>,< [ > [ >+ >+ << -] >> [- << + >>] <<< -] >> + +Program ini menerima dua buah angka sebagai input, lalu mengalikannya. + +Intinya adalah membaca dua masukan. Lalu mulai pada rekursi terluar yang +kondisinya pada cell #1. Lalu pindah ke cell #2, dan mulai rekursi terdalam +yang kondisinya ada pada cell #2, menaikkan nilai pada cell #3. Namun, +ada suatu masalah: Pada akhir dari rekursi terdalam, cell #2 bernilai nol. +Pada kasus tersebut, rekursi terdalam tidak dapat bekerja lagi mulai setelah ini. +Untuk menyelesaikan masalah tersebut, kita juga menaikkan cell #4, dan menyalin +ulang cell #4 ke cell #2. Maka cell #3 adalah hasilnya. +``` + +Dan itulah brainfuck. Tidak terlalu sulit kan? Hanya untuk iseng-iseng, anda +bisa menuliskan porgram brainfuck anda sendiri, atau anda bisa menuliskan interpreter +brainfuck pada bahasa lain. Interpreternya tidak begitu sulit untuk diimplementasikan, +tapi jika anda seorang masokis, cobalah menulis sebuah interpreter brainfuck... dalam +brainfuck. + diff --git a/java.html.markdown b/java.html.markdown index dd875c16..ab2be4a2 100644 --- a/java.html.markdown +++ b/java.html.markdown @@ -44,8 +44,6 @@ import java.util.ArrayList; // Import all classes inside of java.security package import java.security.*; -// Each .java file contains one outer-level public class, with the same name -// as the file. public class LearnJava { // In order to run a java program, it must have a main method as an entry diff --git a/javascript.html.markdown b/javascript.html.markdown index 199c3c09..e7066291 100644 --- a/javascript.html.markdown +++ b/javascript.html.markdown @@ -607,6 +607,10 @@ some of the more complicated examples. [Javascript: The Right Way][10] is a guide intended to introduce new developers to JavaScript and help experienced developers learn more about its best practices. +[Javascript:Info][11] is a modern javascript tutorial covering the basics (core language and working with a browser) +as well as advanced topics with concise explanations. + + In addition to direct contributors to this article, some content is adapted from Louie Dinh's Python tutorial on this site, and the [JS Tutorial][7] on the Mozilla Developer Network. @@ -622,3 +626,4 @@ Mozilla Developer Network. [8]: http://eloquentjavascript.net/ [9]: http://watchandcode.com/courses/eloquent-javascript-the-annotated-version [10]: http://jstherightway.org/ +[11]: https://javascript.info/ diff --git a/lambda-calculus.html.markdown b/lambda-calculus.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..6103c015 --- /dev/null +++ b/lambda-calculus.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,121 @@ +--- +category: Algorithms & Data Structures +name: Lambda Calculus +contributors: + - ["Max Sun", "http://github.com/maxsun"] +--- + +# Lambda Calculus + +Lambda calculus (λ-calculus), originally created by +[Alonzo Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alonzo_Church), +is the world's smallest programming language. +Despite not having numbers, strings, booleans, or any non-function datatype, +lambda calculus can be used to represent any Turing Machine! + +Lambda calculus is composed of 3 elements: **variables**, **functions**, and +**applications**. + + +| Name | Syntax | Example | Explanation | +|-------------|------------------------------------|-----------|-----------------------------------------------| +| Variable | `<name>` | `x` | a variable named "x" | +| Function | `λ<parameters>.<body>` | `λx.x` | a function with parameter "x" and body "x" | +| Application | `<function><variable or function>` | `(λx.x)a` | calling the function "λx.x" with argument "a" | + +The most basic function is the identity function: `λx.x` which is equivalent to +`f(x) = x`. The first "x" is the function's argument, and the second is the +body of the function. + +## Free vs. Bound Variables: + +- In the function `λx.x`, "x" is called a bound variable because it is both in +the body of the function and a parameter. +- In `λx.y`, "y" is called a free variable because it is never declared before hand. + +## Evaluation: + +Evaluation is done via +[β-Reduction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_calculus#Beta_reduction), +which is essentially lexically-scoped substitution. + +When evaluating the +expression `(λx.x)a`, we replace all occurences of "x" in the function's body +with "a". + +- `(λx.x)a` evaluates to: `a` +- `(λx.y)a` evaluates to: `y` + +You can even create higher-order functions: + +- `(λx.(λy.x))a` evaluates to: `λy.a` + +Although lambda calculus traditionally supports only single parameter +functions, we can create multi-parameter functions using a technique called +[currying](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying). + +- `(λx.λy.λz.xyz)` is equivalent to `f(x, y, z) = x(y(z))` + +Sometimes `λxy.<body>` is used interchangeably with: `λx.λy.<body>` + +---- + +It's important to recognize that traditional **lambda calculus doesn't have +numbers, characters, or any non-function datatype!** + +## Boolean Logic: + +There is no "True" or "False" in lambda calculus. There isn't even a 1 or 0. + +Instead: + +`T` is represented by: `λx.λy.x` + +`F` is represented by: `λx.λy.y` + +First, we can define an "if" function `λbtf` that +returns `t` if `b` is True and `f` if `b` is False + +`IF` is equivalent to: `λb.λt.λf.b t f` + +Using `IF`, we can define the basic boolean logic operators: + +`a AND b` is equivalent to: `λab.IF a b F` + +`a OR b` is equivalent to: `λab.IF a T b` + +`a NOT b` is equivalent to: `λa.IF a F T` + +*Note: `IF a b c` is essentially saying: `IF(a(b(c)))`* + +## Numbers: + +Although there are no numbers in lambda calculus, we can encode numbers using +[Church numerals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_encoding). + +For any number n: <code>n = λf.f<sup>n</sup></code> so: + +`0 = λf.λx.x` + +`1 = λf.λx.f x` + +`2 = λf.λx.f(f x)` + +`3 = λf.λx.f(f(f x))` + +To increment a Church numeral, +we use the successor function `S(n) = n + 1` which is: + +`S = λn.λf.λx.f((n f) x)` + +Using successor, we can define add: + +`ADD = λab.(a S)n` + +**Challenge:** try defining your own multiplication function! + +## For more advanced reading: + +1. [A Tutorial Introduction to the Lambda Calculus](http://www.inf.fu-berlin.de/lehre/WS03/alpi/lambda.pdf) +2. [Cornell CS 312 Recitation 26: The Lambda Calculus](http://www.cs.cornell.edu/courses/cs3110/2008fa/recitations/rec26.html) +3. [Wikipedia - Lambda Calculus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_calculus)
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/latex.html.markdown b/latex.html.markdown index a3866892..c9b1d8fb 100644 --- a/latex.html.markdown +++ b/latex.html.markdown @@ -255,7 +255,7 @@ There exists two main types of links: visible URL \\ % You can not add extra-spaces or special symbols into shadowing text since it % will cause mistakes during the compilation -This package also produces list of tumbnails in the output pdf document and +This package also produces list of thumbnails in the output pdf document and active links in the table of contents. \section{End} diff --git a/make.html.markdown b/make.html.markdown index ab128475..45d020e9 100644 --- a/make.html.markdown +++ b/make.html.markdown @@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ language: make
contributors:
- ["Robert Steed", "https://github.com/robochat"]
+ - ["Stephan Fuhrmann", "https://github.com/sfuhrm"]
filename: Makefile
---
@@ -11,7 +12,7 @@ target to the most recent version of the source. Famously written over a weekend by Stuart Feldman in 1976, it is still widely used (particularly
on Unix and Linux) despite many competitors and criticisms.
-There are many varieties of make in existence, however this article
+There are many varieties of make in existence, however this article
assumes that we are using GNU make which is the standard on Linux.
```make
@@ -168,9 +169,9 @@ echo: name2 = Sara # True within the matching rule # Some variables defined automatically by make.
echo_inbuilt:
echo $(CC)
- echo ${CXX)}
+ echo ${CXX}
echo $(FC)
- echo ${CFLAGS)}
+ echo ${CFLAGS}
echo $(CPPFLAGS)
echo ${CXXFLAGS}
echo $(LDFLAGS)
diff --git a/nl-nl/html-nl.html.markdown b/nl-nl/html-nl.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..54c81ed6 --- /dev/null +++ b/nl-nl/html-nl.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,98 @@ +--- +language: html +filename: learnhtml-nl.html +contributors: + - ["Christophe THOMAS", "https://github.com/WinChris"] +translators: + - ["Robert Steed", "https://github.com/robochat"] + - ["Jeroen Deviaene", "https://github.com/jerodev"] +lang: nl-nl +--- + +HTML staat voor HyperText Markup Language. +Het is een taal die je toe staat pagina's te maken op het World Wide Web. +Het is een opmaak taal, dit staat de gebruiker toe om webpagina's te maken in code en zo aan te duiden hoe de pagina moet weergegeven worden. +Eigenlijk zijn html files zelfs simpele tekst bestanden. +Wat is deze opmaak? Het is een manier om de structuur en data op de pagina weer te geven met speciale html tags. +Deze tags dienen om de betekenis te geven aan de tekst die het bevat. +Zoals vele computer talen heeft html vele verschillende versies. Hier zullen we HTML5 bespreken. + +**Merk op:** Je kan de verschillende tags en elementen testen terwijl je door de tutorial gaat met een website zoals [codepen](http://codepen.io/pen/), zo kan je de effecten hier van live zien. +Dit artikel gaat vooral over de HTML syntax en enkele handige tips + + +```html +<!-- Commentaren worden toegevoegd zoals deze lijn --> + +<!-- #################### De Tags #################### --> + +<!-- Hier is een voorbeeld HTML bestand dat we zullen analyseren. --> + +<!doctype html> + <html> + <head> + <title>Mijn Website</title> + </head> + <body> + <h1>Hello, world!</h1> + <a href="http://codepen.io/anon/pen/xwjLbZ">Neem een kijkje op deze link</a> + <p>Dit is een paragraaf.</p> + <p>Dit is nog een paragraaf.</p> + <ul> + <li>Dit is een item in een niet genummerde lijst</li> + <li>Dit is nog zo een item</li> + <li>En dit is het laatste item van de lijst</li> + </ul> + </body> + </html> + +<!-- Een HTML bestand start altijd met een tag die aan de browser laat weten dat we HTML gebruiken --> +<!doctype html> + +<!-- Daarna openen we de root van het bestand met de <html> tag --> +<html> + +<!-- Deze tag moet ook gesloten worden op het einde van het bestand --> +</html> + +<!-- Niets mag nog na deze tag komen! --> + +<!-- Binnenin (tussen de html tags <html></html>) vinden we: --> + +<!-- Een header, gedefigneerd door <head> (Deze moet gesloten worden met </head>) --> +<!-- De header bevat beschrijvingen en externe data die niet zichtbaar is op de website; Dit is metadata --> + +<head> + <title>Mijn Website</title><!-- De <title> tag geeft de tekst aan die in de titelbar van de browser moet weergegeven worden. --> +</head> + +<!-- Achter de <head> sectie vinden we bijna altijd <body> --> +<!-- Tot op dit punt is nog niets verschenen in het browser venster. --> +<!-- In de body plaatsen we wat zichtbaar moet zijn in de browser --> + +<body> + <h1>Hello, world!</h1> <!-- De h1 tag maakt een titel. --> + <!-- Er zijn ook sub titels voor <h1> van belangrijk <h2> tot minder belangrijk <h6>. --> + <a href="http://codepen.io/anon/pen/xwjLbZ">Neem een kijkje op deze link</a> <!-- een hyperlink naar de aangegeven link waar op geklikt kan worden in de browser --> + <p>This is a paragraph.</p> <!-- De tag <p> laat ons tekst toevoegen. --> + <p>This is another paragraph.</p> + <ul> <!-- De tag <ul> maakt een lijst met puntjes. --> + <!-- Om een genummerde lijst te hebben gebruik je <ol>, hiermee worden de elementen <li> automatisch genummerd --> + <li>This is an item in a non-enumerated list (bullet list)</li> + <li>This is another item</li> + <li>And this is the last item on the list</li> + </ul> +</body> + +<!-- En dat is het! Zo gemakkelijk is het om een html bestand te maken. --> +``` + +## Gebruik + +HTML wordt altijd opgeslagen in bestanden die eindigen in `.html`. + +## Meer weten + +* [wikipedia](https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML) +* [HTML tutorial](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML) +* [W3School](http://www.w3schools.com/html/html_intro.asp) diff --git a/perl6.html.markdown b/perl6.html.markdown index 2821f0d4..04f9c6e3 100644 --- a/perl6.html.markdown +++ b/perl6.html.markdown @@ -1366,7 +1366,7 @@ sub add($a, $b) { $a + $b } say [[&add]] 1, 2, 3; #=> 6 ## * Zip meta-operator -## This one is an infix meta-operator than also can be used as a "normal" +## This one is an infix meta-operator that also can be used as a "normal" ## operator. It takes an optional binary function (by default, it just creates ## a pair), and will pop one value off of each array and call its binary ## function on these until it runs out of elements. It returns an array with @@ -1659,7 +1659,7 @@ sub MAIN($name) { say "Hello, $name !" } ## Usage: ## t.pl <name> -## And since it's a regular Perl 6 sub, you can haz multi-dispatch: +## And since it's a regular Perl 6 sub, you can have multi-dispatch: ## (using a "Bool" for the named argument so that we can do `--replace` ## instead of `--replace=1`) subset File of Str where *.IO.d; # convert to IO object to check the file exists diff --git a/prolog.html.markdown b/prolog.html.markdown index 7a18a144..4f3984c7 100644 --- a/prolog.html.markdown +++ b/prolog.html.markdown @@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ magicNumber(42). ?- plus(1, 2, 3). % True ?- plus(1, 2, X). % X = 3 because 1+2 = X. ?- plus(1, X, 3). % X = 2 because 1+X = 3. -?- plus(X, 2, 3). % X = 1 because X+1 = 3. +?- plus(X, 2, 3). % X = 1 because X+2 = 3. ?- plus(X, 5, Y). % Error - although this could be solved, % the number of solutions is infinite, % which most predicates try to avoid. @@ -230,14 +230,14 @@ nearby3(X,Y) :- nearby2(X,Y). % Here is the structured comment declaration for nearby3: -%% nearby3(+X:Int, +Y:Int) is semidet. +%% nearby3(+X:Int, +Y:Int) is semideterministic. %% nearby3(+X:Int, -Y:Int) is multi. %% nearby3(-X:Int, +Y:Int) is multi. % For each variable we list a type. The + or - before the variable name % indicates if the parameter is bound (+) or free (-). The word after % "is" describes the behaviour of the predicate: -% semidet - can succeed once or fail +% semideterministic - can succeed once or fail % ( Two specific numbers are either nearby or not ) % multi - can succeed multiple times but cannot fail % ( One number surely has at least 3 nearby numbers ) @@ -267,8 +267,8 @@ character(darthVader). % Creates atom value darthVader % Note that below, writeln is used instead of print because print is % intended for debugging. -%% countTo(+X:Int) is det. -%% countUpTo(+Value:Int, +Limit:Int) is det. +%% countTo(+X:Int) is deterministic. +%% countUpTo(+Value:Int, +Limit:Int) is deterministic. countTo(X) :- countUpTo(1,X). countUpTo(Value, Limit) :- Value = Limit, writeln(Value), !. countUpTo(Value, Limit) :- Value \= Limit, writeln(Value), @@ -281,7 +281,7 @@ countUpTo(Value, Limit) :- Value \= Limit, writeln(Value), % IF test. If Value = Limit fails the second declaration is run. % There is also a more elegant syntax. -%% countUpTo2(+Value:Int, +Limit:Int) is det. +%% countUpTo2(+Value:Int, +Limit:Int) is deterministic. countUpTo2(Value, Limit) :- writeln(Value), Value = Limit -> true ; ( NextValue is Value+1, @@ -294,14 +294,14 @@ countUpTo2(Value, Limit) :- writeln(Value), % called a "failure-driven loop" to do this, but newer ones use a higher % order function. -%% countTo2(+X:Int) is det. +%% countTo2(+X:Int) is deterministic. countTo2(X) :- forall(between(1,X,Y),writeln(Y)). ?- countTo2(10). % Outputs 1 to 10 % Lists are given in square brackets. Use memberchk to check membership. % A group is safe if it doesn't include Joker or does include Batman. -%% safe(Group:list(atom)) is det. +%% safe(Group:list(atom)) is deterministic. safe(Group) :- memberchk(joker, Group) -> memberchk(batman, Group) ; true. ?- safe([robin]). % True diff --git a/pt-br/csharp-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/csharp-pt.html.markdown index 16321c82..b6e95d36 100644 --- a/pt-br/csharp-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/csharp-pt.html.markdown @@ -784,11 +784,11 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried"; } // end class Bicycle - // PennyFarthing is a subclass of Bicycle + // PennyFarthing é uma subclasse de Bicycle class PennyFarthing : Bicycle { - // (Penny Farthings are those bicycles with the big front wheel. - // They have no gears.) + // (Penny Farthings são aquelas bicicletas com uma grande roda frontal. + // Elas não tem correias.) // chamando construtor pai public PennyFarthing(int startCadence, int startSpeed) : @@ -823,10 +823,10 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried"; } } - // Interfaces only contain signatures of the members, without the implementation. + // Interfaces contêm apenas as assinaturas dos membros, sem a implementação. interface IJumpable { - void Jump(int meters); // all interface members are implicitly public + void Jump(int meters); // todos os membros da interface são implicitamente públicos } interface IBreakable diff --git a/pt-br/dynamic-programming-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/dynamic-programming-pt.html.markdown index c4c9eafb..84b055d9 100644 --- a/pt-br/dynamic-programming-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/dynamic-programming-pt.html.markdown @@ -22,14 +22,14 @@ Sempre se lembre!! ## Maneiras de Solucionar tais Problemas -1. Top-Down (De cima para baixo): Começe solucionando o problema quebrando-o em +1. Top-Down (De cima para baixo): Comece solucionando o problema quebrando-o em partes. Se você perceber que o problema já foi resolvido, então simplemente pegue a resposta salva. Se ainda não foi resolvido, solucione-o e salve a resposta. Isso é geralmente fácil de pensar e muito intuitivo. É geralmente referenciado como Memorização. 2. Bottom-Up (De baixo para cima): Analise o problema e veja a ordem em que os -subproblemas são resolvidos e começe a solucionar dos problemas mais triviais, +subproblemas são resolvidos e comece a solucionar dos problemas mais triviais, até o problema dado. Neste processo, é garantido que os subproblemas são resolvidos antes de resolver o problema. Isto é referenciado como Programação Dinâmica. diff --git a/pt-br/elm-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/elm-pt.html.markdown index 78a4f1b7..d2469a93 100644 --- a/pt-br/elm-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/elm-pt.html.markdown @@ -76,8 +76,8 @@ List.head [] -- Nothing -- Acesse os elementos de um par com as funções first e second. -- (Este é um atalho; nós iremos para o "caminho real" em breve.) -fst ("elm", 42) -- "elm" -snd ("elm", 42) -- 42 +Tuple.first ("elm", 42) -- "elm" +Tuple.second ("elm", 42) -- 42 -- Uma tupla vazia ou "unidade" às vezes é utilizada como um placeholder. -- É o único valor de seu tipo, também chamado de "Unit". diff --git a/pt-br/latex-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/latex-pt.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a9ed566e --- /dev/null +++ b/pt-br/latex-pt.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,291 @@ +--- +language: latex +contributors: + - ["Chaitanya Krishna Ande", "http://icymist.github.io"] + - ["Colton Kohnke", "http://github.com/voltnor"] + - ["Sricharan Chiruvolu", "http://sricharan.xyz"] + - ["Ramanan Balakrishnan", "https://github.com/ramananbalakrishnan"] + - ["Svetlana Golubeva", "https://attillax.github.io/"] +translators: + - ["Paulo Henrique Rodrigues Pinheiro", "https://github.com/paulohrpinheiro"] +lang: pt-br +filename: learn-latex-pt.tex +--- + +```tex +% Todas as linhas de comentários começam com % +% Não existem comentários multilinhas + +$ LaTeX não é um programa processador de textos "Visual" como +% MS Word ou OpenOffice Writer + +$ Todo comando LaTeX começa com uma barra invertida (\) + +% Documentos LaTeX começam com a definição do tipo que será % compilado +% Os tipos de documento podem ser livro, relatório, apresentação, etc. +% As opções para um documento aparecem entre [] chaves. Nesse caso +% está especificado que queremos o tamanho da fonte em 12pt. +\documentclass[12pt]{article} + +% Em seguida definimos os pacotes que o documento usa. +% Se você quiser incluir gráficos, texto colorido, ou código fonte de outra +% linguagem em outro arquivo em seu documento, você precisa ampliar as +% capacidade do LaTeX. Isso é feito adicionando-se pacotes. +% Serão incluídos os pacotes float e caption para imagens e hyperref +% para links. +\usepackage{caption} +\usepackage{float} +\usepackage{hyperref} + +% Para poder usar caracteres acentuados, use o seguinte pacote: +\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc} + +% Podemos definir algumas outras propriedades do documento também! +\author{Chaitanya Krishna Ande, Colton Kohnke, Sricharan Chiruvolu \& \\ +Svetlana Golubeva} +\date{\today} +\title{Aprenda \LaTeX \hspace{1pt} em Y Minutos!} + +% Agora estamos pronto para começar o documento +% Tudo antes dessa linha é chamado "preâmbulo". +\begin{document} +% Se informarmos os campos author (autores), date (data), "title" (título), +% LaTeX poderá cria uma página inicial para nós. +\maketitle +% Se tivermos seções, poderemos criar uma tabela de conteúdo. Para isso, +% o documento deve ser compilado duas vezes, para que tudo apareça na ordem +% correta. +% É uma voa prática separar a tabela de conteúdo do corpo do documento. Para +% isso usa-se o comando \newpage +\newpage +\tableofcontents + +\newpage + +% Muitos artigos de pesquisa possuem um resumo, e pode-se isar comandos +% predefinidos para isso. +% Isso deve aparecer em sua ordem lógica, portanto, após o topo, +% mas antes das seções principais do corpo. +% Esse comando está disponível para os documentos do tipo artigo (article) +% e relatório (report). +\begin{abstract} + Documentação do \LaTeX \hspace{1pt} escrita em \LaTeX! Nada original! +\end{abstract} + +% Comandos para seções são intuitivos. +% Todos os títulos de seção são adicionados automaticamente à tabela de conteúdo. +\section{Introdução} +Olá, meu nome é Colton e juntos estamos explorando o mundo do \LaTeX! + +\section{Outra seção} +Esse é o texto para outra seção. Penso que precisamos de uma subseção. + +\subsection{Isso é uma subseção} % Subseções também são intuitivas. +Penso que precisamos de mais uma + +\subsubsection{Pythagoras} +Muito melhor agora. +\label{subsec:pythagoras} + +% Ao usar o asterisco nós impedimos a numeração automática. +% Isso funciona para outros comandos \LaTeX também. +\section*{Essa é uma seção não numerada} +Afinal nem todas as seções precisam ser numeradas! + +\section{Algumas notas sobre texto} +%\section{Espaçamento % É necessário mais informação sobre intervalos de espaço. +\LaTeX \hspace{1pt} geralmente é muito bom sobre colocar texto onde ele deve +ser posto. Se +uma linha \\ deve \\ ser \\ quebrada \\ adicione \textbackslash\textbackslash +\hspace{1pt} ao código de seu documento. \\ + +\section{Listas} +Listas são uma das coisas mais fáceis de criar no \LaTeX! Preciso fazer compras +amanhã, então façamos uma lista de compras. +\begin{enumerate} % Isso cria o bloco "enumerate". + % \item faz com que o enumerate incremente + \item Salada. + \item 27 melancias. + \item Uma lebre. + % pode-se também sobrescrever o número do item usando [] + \item[quantas?] Pistolas de água médias. + + Não é um item da lista, mas faz parte do bloco enumerate. + + \end{enumerate} % Todos os blocos devem ter um final (end{}). + +\section{Matemática} + +Um dos usos iniciais para \LaTeX \hspace{1pt} foi a produção de artigos +acadêmicos e técnicos. Usualmente nos campos da matemática e ciência. Assim, é +necessários que consigamos incluir alguns símbolos especiais em nosso texto! \\ + +A matemática tem muitos símbolos, além dos quais se pode encontrar no teclado; +símbolos para relações e conjuntos, setas, operadores, e letras gregas, apenas +para mencionar alguns.\\ + +Conjuntos e relações são essenciais em muitos textos de pesquisa em matemática. +Aqui está como você pode indicar como todo x que pertence +a X, $\forall$ x $\in$ X. \\ +% Perceba que é necessário adicionar os sinais $ antes e depois dos símbolos. +% Isso é porque quando escrevendo, estamos em modo texto. +% Mas os símbolos de matemática só existem no modo matemática. +% Podemos entrar no modo matemática a partir do modo texto com os símbolos $. +% O oposto também pode ocorrer. Variáveis podem ser renderizadas no modo +% matemática. +% Também podemos entrar no modo matemática com \[\] + +\[a^2 + b^2 = c^2 \] + +Minha letra grega favorita é $\xi$. Eu também gosto da $\beta$, $\gamma$ e $\sigma$. +Eu ainda não encontrei uma letra grega que o \LaTeX \hspace{1pt} não tenha!\\ + +Operadores são parte essencial de um documento sobre matemática: +funções trigonométricas ($\sin$, $\cos$, $\tan$), +logaritmo e exponencial ($\log$, $\exp$), +limites ($\lim$), etc. +possuem comandos pré-definidos em LaTex. +Vamos escrever uma equação para ver como se faz: +$\cos(2\theta) = \cos^{2}(\theta) - \sin^{2}(\theta)$ \\ + +Frações (numerador/denominador) podem ser escritas dessa forma: + +% 10 / 7 +$$ ^{10}/_{7} $$ + +% Frações relativamente complexas podem ser escritas como +% \frac{numerator}{denominator} +$$ \frac{n!}{k!(n - k)!} $$ \\ + +Também podemos escrever equações em um ``bloco de equação''. + +% Apresenta matemática com o 'bloco' equação +\begin{equation} % entra no modo matemática + c^2 = a^2 + b^2. + \label{eq:pythagoras} % para referência + \end{equation} % toda declaração \begin precisa de uma declaração end + +Podemos então referenciar nossa nova equação! +A equação~\ref{eq:pythagoras} é também conhecida como Teorema de Pitágoras que é +também assunto da Seção~\ref{subsec:pythagoras}. Muitas coisas podem ser +rotuladas: figuras, equações, seções, etc. + +Somatórios e Integrais são escritas com os comandos sum e int: + +% Alguns compiladores LaTeX irão reclamar se existirem linhas em branco +% em um bloco de equação. +\begin{equation} + \sum_{i=0}^{5} f_{i} +\end{equation} +\begin{equation} + \int_{0}^{\infty} \mathrm{e}^{-x} \mathrm{d}x +\end{equation} + +\section{Figuras} + +Insiramos uma Figura. O local para colocar a figura pode ser difícil +de determinar. Eu tenho sempre que verificar as opções toda vez. + +\begin{figure}[H] % H aqui é uma opção para o local da figura. + \centering % centra a figura na página + % Inclui uma figura com escala de 0.8 do tamanho da página. + %\includegraphics[width=0.8\linewidth]{right-triangle.png} + % Comentado para propósitos de compilação. Por favor, use sua imaginação. + \caption{Triângulo retângulo com lados $a$, $b$, $c$} + \label{fig:right-triangle} +\end{figure} + +\subsection{Tabelas} +Também podemos incluir tabelas da mesma forma que figuras. + +\begin{table}[H] + \caption{Título para a Tabela.} + % os argumentos {} abaixo descrevem como cada linha da tabela é desenhada. + % Aqui também, Preciso ver isso. Toda. E. Cada. Vez. + \begin{tabular}{c|cc} + Número & Sobrenome & Primeiro Nome \\ % Colunas são separadas por & + \hline % uma linha horizontal + 1 & Biggus & Dickus \\ + 2 & Monty & Python + \end{tabular} +\end{table} + +\section{Fazendo o \LaTeX \hspace{1pt} não compilar algo (o código fonte)} +Digamos que precisamos incluir algum código dentro do nosso +documento \LaTeX \hspace{1pt}, para isso precisamos com o \LaTeX \hspace{1pt} +não tente interpretar esse texto e que apenas inclua ele no documento. Fazemos +isso com o bloco verbatim. + +% Existem outros pacotes (por exemplo, minty, lstlisting, etc.) +% mas verbatim é o básico +\begin{verbatim} + print("Hello World!") + a%b; % olha só! Podemos usar os sinais % no bloco verbatim. + random = 4; #decided by fair random dice roll +\end{verbatim} + +\section{Compilando} + +Imagino que agora você esteja pensando como compilar esse fantástico documento +e visualizar a gloriosa glória que é um pdf gerado por \LaTeX \hspace{1pt} pdf. +(sim, esse documento é compilável). \\ + +Finalizando o documento usando \LaTeX \hspace{1pt} consiste nos seguintes passos: + \begin{enumerate} + \item Escrever o documento em texto puro (o ``código fonte''). + \item Compilar o código fonte para gerar um pdf. + Os passos para compilar se parecem (em Linux) com: \\ + \begin{verbatim} + > pdflatex learn-latex.tex + \end{verbatim} + \end{enumerate} + +Existem editores de \LaTeX \hspace{1pt} que combinam os passos 1 e 2 no mesmo +sistema de software. Assim, você pode ver o passo 1, mas não o passo 2 por +completo. Passo 2 estará acontecendo escondido\footnote{Por exemplo, quando usar +referências (como Equação~\ref{eq:pythagoras}), pode ser necessário executar o +passo 2 várias vezes, para gerar arquivos *.aux intermediários.}. +% É assim que você adiciona notas de rodapé em seus documentos! + +Você escreve toda a informação de formatação em texto puro, no passo 1. O +momento da compilação no passo 2 é responsável por produzir o documento no +formato que você definiu no passo 1. + +\section{Links} +Nós podemos inserir links em nosso documento. Para isso nós necessitamos incluir +o pacote hyperref no preâmbulo com o comando: +\begin{verbatim} + \usepackage{hyperref} +\end{verbatim} + +Existem dois tipos principais de links: URL visíveis \\ +\url{https://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/latex/}, ou +\href{https://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/latex/}{um texto alternativo} +% Você não pode adicionar espaços extras ou símbolos especiais no texto +% alternativo, pois isso causará problemas na compilação. + +Esse pacote também produz uma lista de thumbnails no documento pdf gerado e +ativa os links na tabela de conteúdo. + +\section{End} + +Por enquanto é isso! + +% Frequentemente você precisa de uma seção de referências em seu documento. +% A forma mais fácil de configurá-la é usando uma seção de bibliografia +\begin{thebibliography}{1} + % como em outras listas, o comando \bibitem pode ser usado para itens da lista + % cada entrada pode ser citada diretamente no corpo do texto + \bibitem{latexwiki} The amazing \LaTeX \hspace{1pt} wikibook: {\em +https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX} + \bibitem{latextutorial} An actual tutorial: {\em http://www.latex-tutorial.com} +\end{thebibliography} + +% end the document +\end{document} +``` + +## Mais sobre LaTeX + +* The amazing LaTeX wikibook: [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX) +* An actual tutorial: [http://www.latex-tutorial.com/](http://www.latex-tutorial.com/) diff --git a/python.html.markdown b/python.html.markdown index 946cbc0c..89fa7046 100644 --- a/python.html.markdown +++ b/python.html.markdown @@ -363,6 +363,12 @@ filled_set | other_set # => {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} # Check for existence in a set with in 2 in filled_set # => True 10 in filled_set # => False +10 not in filled_set # => True + +# Check data type of variable +type(li) # => list +type(filled_dict) # => dict +type(5) # => int #################################################### diff --git a/pythonstatcomp.html.markdown b/pythonstatcomp.html.markdown index 79bbcd8d..6dde1cf0 100644 --- a/pythonstatcomp.html.markdown +++ b/pythonstatcomp.html.markdown @@ -13,10 +13,11 @@ This is a tutorial on how to do some typical statistical programming tasks using # 0. Getting set up ==== -""" Get set up with IPython and pip install the following: numpy, scipy, pandas, +""" To get started, pip install the following: jupyter, numpy, scipy, pandas, matplotlib, seaborn, requests. - Make sure to do this tutorial in the IPython notebook so that you get - the inline plots and easy documentation lookup. + Make sure to do this tutorial in a Jupyter notebook so that you get + the inline plots and easy documentation lookup. The shell command to open + one is simply `jupyter notebook`, then click New -> Python. """ # 1. Data acquisition ==== diff --git a/ru-ru/php-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/php-ru.html.markdown index 014ff5d0..af77a9ca 100644 --- a/ru-ru/php-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/php-ru.html.markdown @@ -61,6 +61,8 @@ $int4 = 0x0F; // => 15 (ведущие символы 0x означают шес // Двоичная запись integer доступна начиная с PHP 5.4.0. $int5 = 0b11111111; // 255 (0b в начале означает двоичное число) +// Удаление переменной +unset($int1); // Дробные числа $float = 1.234; diff --git a/ru-ru/python3-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/python3-ru.html.markdown index 2b6b59a7..bf80fed2 100644 --- a/ru-ru/python3-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/python3-ru.html.markdown @@ -106,6 +106,9 @@ False or True #=> True # И строки тоже могут складываться! Хотя лучше не злоупотребляйте этим. "Привет " + "мир!" #=> "Привет мир!" +# Строки можно умножать. +"aa" * 4 #=> "aaaaaaaa" + # Со строкой можно работать, как со списком символов "Это строка"[0] #=> 'Э' diff --git a/sk-sk/bash.html.markdown b/sk-sk/bash-sk.html.markdown index e9d1490c..e9d1490c 100644 --- a/sk-sk/bash.html.markdown +++ b/sk-sk/bash-sk.html.markdown diff --git a/sk-sk/coffeescript.html.markdown b/sk-sk/coffeescript-sk.html.markdown index 30bbceec..30bbceec 100644 --- a/sk-sk/coffeescript.html.markdown +++ b/sk-sk/coffeescript-sk.html.markdown diff --git a/sk-sk/elixir.html.markdown b/sk-sk/elixir-sk.html.markdown index 2401f92e..2401f92e 100644 --- a/sk-sk/elixir.html.markdown +++ b/sk-sk/elixir-sk.html.markdown diff --git a/sk-sk/git.html.markdown b/sk-sk/git-sk.html.markdown index 21741406..21741406 100644 --- a/sk-sk/git.html.markdown +++ b/sk-sk/git-sk.html.markdown diff --git a/sk-sk/json.html.markdown b/sk-sk/json-sk.html.markdown index 2b1fbb58..2b1fbb58 100644 --- a/sk-sk/json.html.markdown +++ b/sk-sk/json-sk.html.markdown diff --git a/sk-sk/latex.html.markdown.tex b/sk-sk/latex-sk.html.markdown.tex index 5e2f9c7f..5e2f9c7f 100644 --- a/sk-sk/latex.html.markdown.tex +++ b/sk-sk/latex-sk.html.markdown.tex diff --git a/sk-sk/ruby.html.markdown b/sk-sk/ruby-sk.html.markdown index 799865b0..799865b0 100644 --- a/sk-sk/ruby.html.markdown +++ b/sk-sk/ruby-sk.html.markdown diff --git a/solidity.html.markdown b/solidity.html.markdown index c1f910fd..a0f8cd40 100644 --- a/solidity.html.markdown +++ b/solidity.html.markdown @@ -37,8 +37,8 @@ features are typically marked, and subject to change. Pull requests welcome. // simple_bank.sol (note .sol extension) /* **** START EXAMPLE **** */ -// Declare the source file compiler version. -pragma solidity ^0.4.2; +// Declare the source file compiler version +pragma solidity ^0.4.19; // Start with Natspec comment (the three slashes) // used for documentation - and as descriptive data for UI elements/actions @@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ contract SimpleBank { // CapWords event LogDepositMade(address accountAddress, uint amount); // Constructor, can receive one or many variables here; only one allowed - function SimpleBank() { + function SimpleBank() public { // msg provides details about the message that's sent to the contract // msg.sender is contract caller (address of contract creator) owner = msg.sender; @@ -73,7 +73,11 @@ contract SimpleBank { // CapWords /// @notice Deposit ether into bank /// @return The balance of the user after the deposit is made - function deposit() public returns (uint) { + function deposit() public payable returns (uint) { + // Use 'require' to test user inputs, 'assert' for internal invariants + // Here we are making sure that there isn't an overflow issue + require((balances[msg.sender] + msg.value) >= balances[msg.sender]); + balances[msg.sender] += msg.value; // no "this." or "self." required with state variable // all values set to data type's initial value by default @@ -88,18 +92,17 @@ contract SimpleBank { // CapWords /// @param withdrawAmount amount you want to withdraw /// @return The balance remaining for the user function withdraw(uint withdrawAmount) public returns (uint remainingBal) { - if(balances[msg.sender] >= withdrawAmount) { - // Note the way we deduct the balance right away, before sending - due to - // the risk of a recursive call that allows the caller to request an amount greater - // than their balance - balances[msg.sender] -= withdrawAmount; - - if (!msg.sender.send(withdrawAmount)) { - // increment back only on fail, as may be sending to contract that - // has overridden 'send' on the receipt end - balances[msg.sender] += withdrawAmount; - } - } + require(withdrawAmount <= balances[msg.sender]); + + // Note the way we deduct the balance right away, before sending + // Every .transfer/.send from this contract can call an external function + // This may allow the caller to request an amount greater + // than their balance using a recursive call + // Aim to commit state before calling external functions, including .transfer/.send + balances[msg.sender] -= withdrawAmount; + + // this automatically throws on a failure, which means the updated balance is reverted + msg.sender.transfer(withdrawAmount); return balances[msg.sender]; } @@ -108,18 +111,9 @@ contract SimpleBank { // CapWords /// @return The balance of the user // 'constant' prevents function from editing state variables; // allows function to run locally/off blockchain - function balance() constant returns (uint) { + function balance() constant public returns (uint) { return balances[msg.sender]; } - - // Fallback function - Called if other functions don't match call or - // sent ether without data - // Typically, called when invalid data is sent - // Added so ether sent to this contract is reverted if the contract fails - // otherwise, the sender's money is transferred to contract - function () { - throw; // throw reverts state to before call - } } // ** END EXAMPLE ** @@ -137,6 +131,11 @@ int256 constant a = 8; // same effect as line above, here the 256 is explicit uint constant VERSION_ID = 0x123A1; // A hex constant // with 'constant', compiler replaces each occurrence with actual value +// All state variables (those outside a function) +// are by default 'internal' and accessible inside contract +// and in all contracts that inherit ONLY +// Need to explicitly set to 'public' to allow external contracts to access +int256 public a = 8; // For int and uint, can explicitly set space in steps of 8 up to 256 // e.g., int8, int16, int24 @@ -145,6 +144,12 @@ int64 c; uint248 e; // Be careful that you don't overflow, and protect against attacks that do +// For example, for an addition, you'd do: +uint256 c = a + b; +assert(c >= a); // assert tests for internal invariants; require is used for user inputs +// For more examples of common arithmetic issues, see Zeppelin's SafeMath library +// https://github.com/OpenZeppelin/zeppelin-solidity/blob/master/contracts/math/SafeMath.sol + // No random functions built in, use other contracts for randomness @@ -165,14 +170,14 @@ address public owner; // a getter is automatically created, but NOT a setter // All addresses can be sent ether -owner.send(SOME_BALANCE); // returns false on failure -if (owner.send) {} // REMEMBER: wrap in 'if', as contract addresses have +owner.transfer(SOME_BALANCE); // fails and reverts on failure + +// Can also do a lower level .send call, which returns a false if it failed +if (owner.send) {} // REMEMBER: wrap send in 'if', as contract addresses have // functions executed on send and these can fail // Also, make sure to deduct balances BEFORE attempting a send, as there is a risk of a recursive // call that can drain the contract -// can override send by defining your own - // Can check balance owner.balance; // the balance of the owner (user or contract) @@ -213,7 +218,7 @@ uint x = 5; // Destructuring/Tuples -(x, y) = (2, 7); // assign/swap multiple value +(x, y) = (2, 7); // assign/swap multiple values // 2. DATA STRUCTURES @@ -250,7 +255,7 @@ delete balances; // sets all elements to 0 // mapping, without knowing source keys - can build data structure // on top to do this -// Structs and enums +// Structs struct Bank { address owner; uint balance; @@ -273,7 +278,7 @@ state = State.Created; // enums can be explicitly converted to ints uint createdState = uint(State.Created); // 0 -// Data locations: Memory vs. storage vs. stack - all complex types (arrays, +// Data locations: Memory vs. storage vs. calldata - all complex types (arrays, // structs) have a data location // 'memory' does not persist, 'storage' does // Default is 'storage' for local and state variables; 'memory' for func params @@ -292,13 +297,13 @@ uint createdState = uint(State.Created); // 0 // 4. Global Variables of note // ** this ** this; // address of contract -// often used at end of contract life to send remaining balance to party +// often used at end of contract life to transfer remaining balance to party this.balance; this.someFunction(); // calls func externally via call, not via internal jump // ** msg - Current message received by the contract ** ** msg.sender; // address of sender -msg.value; // amount of ether provided to this contract in wei +msg.value; // amount of ether provided to this contract in wei, the function should be marked "payable" msg.data; // bytes, complete call data msg.gas; // remaining gas @@ -308,6 +313,8 @@ tx.gasprice; // gas price of the transaction // ** block - Information about current block ** now; // current time (approximately), alias for block.timestamp (uses Unix time) +// Note that this can be manipulated by miners, so use carefully + block.number; // current block number block.difficulty; // current block difficulty block.blockhash(1); // returns bytes32, only works for most recent 256 blocks @@ -334,9 +341,10 @@ function increment(uint x, uint y) returns (uint x, uint y) { // Call previous functon uint (a,b) = increment(1,1); -// 'constant' indicates that function does not/cannot change persistent vars +// 'constant' (alias for 'view') +// indicates that function does not/cannot change persistent vars // Constant function execute locally, not on blockchain -uint y; +uint y = 1; function increment(uint x) constant returns (uint x) { x += 1; @@ -344,13 +352,21 @@ function increment(uint x) constant returns (uint x) { // y is a state variable, and can't be changed in a constant function } +// 'pure' is more strict than 'constant', and does not +// even allow reading of state vars +// The exact rules are more complicated, so see more about +// constant/pure: +// http://solidity.readthedocs.io/en/develop/contracts.html#view-functions + // 'Function Visibility specifiers' // These can be placed where 'constant' is, including: -// public - visible externally and internally (default) -// external +// public - visible externally and internally (default for function) +// external - only visible externally (including a call made with this.) // private - only visible in the current contract // internal - only visible in current contract, and those deriving from it +// Generally, a good idea to mark each function explicitly + // Functions hoisted - and can assign a function to a variable function a() { var z = b; @@ -361,8 +377,15 @@ function b() { } +// All functions that receive ether must be marked 'payable' +function depositEther() public payable { + balances[msg.sender] += msg.value; +} + // Prefer loops to recursion (max call stack depth is 1024) +// Also, don't setup loops that you haven't bounded, +// as this can hit the gas limit // B. Events // Events are notify external parties; easy to search and @@ -378,7 +401,8 @@ event LogSent(address indexed from, address indexed to, uint amount); // note ca // Call Sent(from, to, amount); -// For an external party (a contract or external entity), to watch: +// For an external party (a contract or external entity), to watch using +// the Web3 Javascript library: Coin.Sent().watch({}, '', function(error, result) { if (!error) { console.log("Coin transfer: " + result.args.amount + @@ -398,10 +422,10 @@ Coin.Sent().watch({}, '', function(error, result) { // '_' (underscore) often included as last line in body, and indicates // function being called should be placed there -modifier onlyAfter(uint _time) { if (now <= _time) throw; _ } -modifier onlyOwner { if (msg.sender == owner) _ } +modifier onlyAfter(uint _time) { require (now >= _time); _; } +modifier onlyOwner { require(msg.sender == owner) _; } // commonly used with state machines -modifier onlyIfState (State currState) { if (currState != State.A) _ } +modifier onlyIfStateA (State currState) { require(currState == State.A) _; } // Append right after function declaration function changeOwner(newOwner) @@ -415,12 +439,10 @@ onlyIfState(State.A) // underscore can be included before end of body, // but explicitly returning will skip, so use carefully modifier checkValue(uint amount) { - _ + _; if (msg.value > amount) { uint amountToRefund = amount - msg.value; - if (!msg.sender.send(amountToRefund)) { - throw; - } + msg.sender.transfer(amountToRefund); } } @@ -437,22 +459,21 @@ modifier checkValue(uint amount) { // amount of gas for a block of code - and will fail if that is exceeded // For example: for(uint x = 0; x < refundAddressList.length; x++) { - if (!refundAddressList[x].send(SOME_AMOUNT)) { - throw; - } + refundAddressList[x].transfer(SOME_AMOUNT); } // Two errors above: -// 1. A failure on send stops the loop from completing, tying up money +// 1. A failure on transfer stops the loop from completing, tying up money // 2. This loop could be arbitrarily long (based on the amount of users who need refunds), and // therefore may always fail as it exceeds the max gas for a block // Instead, you should let people withdraw individually from their subaccount, and mark withdrawn +// e.g., favor pull payments over push payments // 7. OBJECTS/CONTRACTS // A. Calling external contract -contract infoFeed { +contract InfoFeed { function info() returns (uint ret) { return 42; } } @@ -502,23 +523,10 @@ function someAbstractFunction(uint x); import "filename"; import "github.com/ethereum/dapp-bin/library/iterable_mapping.sol"; -// Importing under active development -// Cannot currently be done at command line - // 8. OTHER KEYWORDS -// A. Throwing -// Throwing -throw; // reverts unused money to sender, state is reverted -// Can't currently catch - -// Common design pattern is: -if (!addr.send(123)) { - throw; -} - -// B. Selfdestruct +// A. Selfdestruct // selfdestruct current contract, sending funds to address (often creator) selfdestruct(SOME_ADDRESS); @@ -543,7 +551,7 @@ function remove() { // that is private needs to be obfuscated (e.g., hashed w/secret) // Steps: 1. Commit to something, 2. Reveal commitment -sha3("some_bid_amount", "some secret"); // commit +keccak256("some_bid_amount", "some secret"); // commit // call contract's reveal function in the future // showing bid plus secret that hashes to SHA3 @@ -617,6 +625,7 @@ contract SomeOracle { // ** START EXAMPLE ** // CrowdFunder.sol +pragma solidity ^0.4.19; /// @title CrowdFunder /// @author nemild @@ -650,22 +659,20 @@ contract CrowdFunder { event LogWinnerPaid(address winnerAddress); modifier inState(State _state) { - if (state != _state) throw; - _ + require(state == _state); + _; } modifier isCreator() { - if (msg.sender != creator) throw; - _ + require(msg.sender == creator); + _; } - // Wait 6 months after final contract state before allowing contract destruction + // Wait 24 weeks after final contract state before allowing contract destruction modifier atEndOfLifecycle() { - if(!((state == State.ExpiredRefund || state == State.Successful) && - completeAt + 6 months < now)) { - throw; - } - _ + require(((state == State.ExpiredRefund || state == State.Successful) && + completeAt + 24 weeks < now)); + _; } function CrowdFunder( @@ -673,6 +680,7 @@ contract CrowdFunder { string _campaignUrl, address _fundRecipient, uint _minimumToRaise) + public { creator = msg.sender; fundRecipient = _fundRecipient; @@ -683,7 +691,9 @@ contract CrowdFunder { function contribute() public + payable inState(State.Fundraising) + returns(uint256 id) { contributions.push( Contribution({ @@ -699,7 +709,9 @@ contract CrowdFunder { return contributions.length - 1; // return id } - function checkIfFundingCompleteOrExpired() { + function checkIfFundingCompleteOrExpired() + public + { if (totalRaised > minimumToRaise) { state = State.Successful; payOut(); @@ -715,31 +727,23 @@ contract CrowdFunder { public inState(State.Successful) { - if(!fundRecipient.send(this.balance)) { - throw; - } - - + fundRecipient.transfer(this.balance); LogWinnerPaid(fundRecipient); } - function getRefund(id) - public + function getRefund(uint256 id) inState(State.ExpiredRefund) + public + returns(bool) { - if (contributions.length <= id || id < 0 || contributions[id].amount == 0 ) { - throw; - } + require(contributions.length > id && id >= 0 && contributions[id].amount != 0 ); - uint amountToRefund = contributions[id].amount; + uint256 amountToRefund = contributions[id].amount; contributions[id].amount = 0; - if(!contributions[id].contributor.send(amountToSend)) { - contributions[id].amount = amountToSend; - return false; - } + contributions[id].contributor.transfer(amountToRefund); - return true; + return true; } function removeContract() @@ -750,8 +754,6 @@ contract CrowdFunder { selfdestruct(msg.sender); // creator gets all money that hasn't be claimed } - - function () { throw; } } // ** END EXAMPLE ** @@ -798,6 +800,7 @@ someContractAddress.callcode('function_name'); // 13. STYLE NOTES // Based on Python's PEP8 style guide +// Full Style guide: http://solidity.readthedocs.io/en/develop/style-guide.html // Quick summary: // 4 spaces for indentation @@ -825,11 +828,16 @@ someContractAddress.callcode('function_name'); ## Additional resources - [Solidity Docs](https://solidity.readthedocs.org/en/latest/) +- [Smart Contract Best Practices](https://github.com/ConsenSys/smart-contract-best-practices) - [Solidity Style Guide](https://ethereum.github.io/solidity//docs/style-guide/): Ethereum's style guide is heavily derived from Python's [pep8](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/) style guide. -- [Browser-based Solidity Editor](http://chriseth.github.io/browser-solidity/) +- [EthFiddle - The JsFiddle for Solidity](https://ethfiddle.com/) +- [Browser-based Solidity Editor](https://remix.ethereum.org/) - [Gitter Solidity Chat room](https://gitter.im/ethereum/solidity) - [Modular design strategies for Ethereum Contracts](https://docs.erisindustries.com/tutorials/solidity/) +## Important libraries +- [Zeppelin](https://github.com/OpenZeppelin/zeppelin-solidity/): Libraries that provide common contract patterns (crowdfuding, safemath, etc) + ## Sample contracts - [Dapp Bin](https://github.com/ethereum/dapp-bin) - [Solidity Baby Step Contracts](https://github.com/fivedogit/solidity-baby-steps/tree/master/contracts) @@ -841,9 +849,6 @@ someContractAddress.callcode('function_name'); - [Smart Contract Security](https://blog.ethereum.org/2016/06/10/smart-contract-security/) - [Hacking Distributed Blog](http://hackingdistributed.com/) -## Information purposefully excluded -- Libraries - ## Style - Python's [PEP8](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/) is used as the baseline style guide, including its general philosophy diff --git a/typescript.html.markdown b/typescript.html.markdown index 10f01ebc..acc258b4 100644 --- a/typescript.html.markdown +++ b/typescript.html.markdown @@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ let notSure: any = 4; notSure = "maybe a string instead"; notSure = false; // okay, definitely a boolean -// Use const keyword for constant variables +// Use const keyword for constants const numLivesForCat = 9; numLivesForCat = 1; // Error diff --git a/vi-vn/markdown-vi.html.markdown b/vi-vn/markdown-vi.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..0ba267f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/vi-vn/markdown-vi.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,325 @@ +--- +language: markdown +contributors: + - ["Dan Turkel", "http://danturkel.com/"] + - ["Jacob Ward", "http://github.com/JacobCWard/"] +translators: + - ["Thanh Duy Phan", "https://github.com/thanhpd"] +filename: markdown-vi.md +lang: vi-vn +--- + + +Ngôn ngữ Markdown được sáng lập bởi John Gruber vào năm 2004. Nó được tạo ra với mục đích dễ đọc với cú pháp có thể được dễ dàng chuyển đổi qua HTML và các ngôn ngữ khác + +Markdown có sự khác biệt trong cách cài đặt giữa các trình phân tích cú pháp. Hướng dẫn này sẽ đề cập, giải thích tới nếu tính năng có thể được sử dụng chung hay nó chỉ áp dụng cho một trình phân tích riêng biệt. + +- [Phần tử HTML](#html-elements) +- [Đầu mục](#headings) +- [Định dạng văn bản](#simple-text-styles) +- [Đoạn văn](#paragraphs) +- [Danh sách](#lists) +- [Khối code](#code-blocks) +- [Đường kẻ ngang](#horizontal-rule) +- [Liên kết](#links) +- [Ảnh](#images) +- [Khác](#miscellany) + +## Phần tử HTML +Markdown là tập cha của HTML, vì vậy bất cứ file HTML nào đều là Markdown đúng. + +```markdown +<!-- Điều này đồng nghĩa ta có thể sử dụng các phần tử HTML +trong Markdown, ví dụ như phần tử chú thích/comment. +Tuy nhiên, nếu sử dụng một phần tử HTML trong file Markdown, +ta không thể sử dụng cú pháp Markdown cho nội dung bên trong phần tử đó. --> +``` + +## Đầu mục + +Ta có thể tạo các phần tử đầu mục HTML từ `<h1>` cho đến `<h6>` dễ dàng +bằng cách thêm số lượng dấu thăng (#) đằng trước chuỗi cần tạo đầu mục. + +```markdown +# Đây là đầu mục <h1> +## Đây là đầu mục <h2> +### Đây là đầu mục <h3> +#### Đây là đầu mục <h4> +##### Đây là đầu mục <h5> +###### Đây là đầu mục <h6> +``` +Markdown còn cung cấp cách khác để tạo đầu mục hạng nhất h1 và hạng nhì h2. + +```markdown +Đây là đầu mục h1 +============= + +Đây là đầu mục h2 +------------- +``` + +## Định dạng văn bản + +Văn bản có thể được định dạng dễ dàng như in nghiêng hay làm đậm sử dụng Markdown. + +```markdown +*Đoạn văn bản này được in nghiêng.* +_Và đoạn này cũng như vậy._ + +**Đoạn văn bản này được in đậm.** +__Và đoạn này cũng vậy.__ + +***Đoạn văn bản này được in nghiêng và đậm.*** +**_Cách này cũng tương tự_** +*__Và cách này nữa__* +``` + +Trong cài đặt Markdown để hiển thị file của GitHub,ta còn có gạch ngang: + +```markdown +~~Đoạn văn bản này được gạch ngang.~~ +``` +## Đoạn văn + +Đoạn văn bao gồm một hay nhiều dòng văn bản liên tiếp nhau được phân cách +bởi một hay nhiều dòng trống. + +```markdown +Đây là đoạn văn thứ nhất. + +Đây là đoạn văn thứ hai. +Dòng này vẫn thuộc đoạn văn thứ hai, do không có cách dòng. + + +Đây là đoạn văn thứ ba. +``` + +Nếu cần chèn thêm thẻ ngắt dòng `<br />` của HTML, ta có thể kết thúc đoạn văn bản +bằng cách thêm vào từ 2 dấu cách (space) trở lên và bắt đầu đoạn văn bản mới. + +```markdown +Dòng này kết thúc với 2 dấu cách (highlight để nhìn thấy). + +Có phần tử <br /> ở bên trên. +``` + +Khối trích dẫn được sử dụng với kí tự > + +```markdown +> Đây là khối trích dẫn. Ta có thể +> ngắt dòng thủ công và thêm kí tự `>` trước mỗi dòng hoặc ta có thể để dòng tự ngắt nếu cần thiệt khi quá dài. +> Không có sự khác biệt nào, chỉ cần nó bắt đầu với kí tự `>` + +> Ta còn có thể dùng nhiều mức +>> của khối trích dẫn. +> Như vậy có tốt không? + +``` + +## Danh sách + +Danh sách không có thứ tự có thể được tạo sử dụng dấu sao, dấu cộng hay dấu trừ đầu dòng. + +```markdown +* Một mục +* Một mục +* Một mục nữa + +hoặc + ++ Một mục ++ Một mục ++ Một mục khác + +hay + +- Một mục +- Một mục +- Một mục sau +``` + +Danh sách có thứ tự được tạo bởi một số theo sau bằng một dấu chấm. + +```markdown +1. Mục thứ nhất +2. Mục thứ hai +3. Mục thứ ba +``` + +Ta không nhất thiết phải điền số thứ thự cho chỉ mục đúng mà Markdown sẽ tự hiển thị danh sách theo thứ tự đã được sắp xếp, tuy nhiên cách làm này không tốt! + +```markdown +1. Mục thứ nhất +1. Mục thứ hai +1. Mục thứ ba +``` +(Sẽ hiển thị như ví dụ trước đó) + +Ta còn có thể sử dụng danh sách con + +```markdown +1. Mục thứ nhất +2. Mục thứ hai +3. Mục thứ ba + * Mục nhỏ + * Mục nhỏ +4. Mục thứ tư +``` + +Markdown còn cung cấp danh mục (checklist). Nó sẽ hiển thị ra hộp đánh dấu dạng HTML. + +```markdown +Boxes below without the 'x' are unchecked HTML checkboxes. +- [ ] First task to complete. +- [ ] Second task that needs done +This checkbox below will be a checked HTML checkbox. +- [x] This task has been completed +``` + +## Khối code + +Ta có thể đánh dấu một đoạn code (tương tự sử dụng phần tử HTML `<code>`) bằng việc thụt đầu dòng sử dụng bốn dấu cách (space) hoặc một dấu nhảy (tab) + +```markdown + This is code + So is this +``` + +Ta còn có thể thêm dấu nhảy (hoặc thêm vào bốn dấu cách nữa) để căn chỉnh phần bên trong đoạn code + +```markdown + my_array.each do |item| + puts item + end +``` + +Code hiển thị cùng dòng có thể được đánh dấu sử dụng cặp ``. + +```markdown +John didn't even know what the `go_to()` function did! +``` + +Trong Markdown của GitHub, ta còn có thêm cách để hiển thị code: + +<pre> +<code class="highlight">```ruby +def foobar + puts "Hello world!" +end +```</code></pre> + +The above text doesn't require indenting, plus GitHub will use syntax +highlighting of the language you specify after the \`\`\` +Đoạn trên không cần sử dụng thụt đầu dòng, và GitHub sẽ tô sáng cú pháp sử dụng ngôn ngữ mà ta cung cấp sau đoạn kí tự \`\`\` + +## Kẻ ngang + +Dòng kẻ ngang (`<hr />`) có thể được thêm vào dễ dàng sử dụng từ 3 kí tự sao (*) hoặc gạch ngang (-), không quan trọng có khoảng cách giữa các kí tự hay không. + + +```markdown +*** +--- +- - - +**************** +``` + +## Liên kết + +Một trong những thứ tốt nhất khi làm việc với Markdown là khả năng tạo liên kết hết sức dễ dàng. Đoạn text hiển thị được đóng trong cặp ngoặc vuông [] kèm theo đường dẫn url trong cặp ngoặc tròn (). + +```markdown +[Click me!](http://test.com/) +``` +Ta còn có thể tạo tiêu đề cho liên kết sử dụng cặp ngoặc nháy bên trong cặp ngoặc tròn + +```markdown +[Click me!](http://test.com/ "Link to Test.com") +``` +Đường dẫn tương đối cũng hoạt động. + +```markdown +[Go to music](/music/). +``` + +Markdown còn hỗ trợ liên kết kiểu tham chiếu. + +<pre><code class="highlight">[<span class="nv">Nhấn vào đây</span>][<span class="ss">link1</span>] để xem thêm! +[<span class="nv">Ngoài ra nhấn vào đây</span>][<span class="ss">foobar</span>] nếu bạn muốn xem qua. + +[<span class="nv">link1</span>]: <span class="sx">http://test.com/</span> <span class="nn">"Tuyệt!"</span> +[<span class="nv">foobar</span>]: <span class="sx">http://foobar.biz/</span> <span class="nn">"Tốt!"</span></code></pre> + +Tiêu đề có thể được đóng trong dấu nháy hay ngoặc đơn, hoặc có thể được bỏ qua. Tham chiếu có thể được đặt bất kì đâu trong văn bản và ID của tham chiếu có thể là bất kì gì miễn là nó độc nhất. + +Ngoài ra còn có kiểu đặt tên ngầm cho phép ta sử dụng đường dẫn làm ID. + +<pre><code class="highlight">[<span class="nv">This</span>][] is a link. + +[<span class="nv">this</span>]: <span class="sx">http://thisisalink.com/</span></code></pre> + +Nhưng nó không được sử dụng rộng rãi. + +## Ảnh + +Hiển thị ảnh tương tự như liên kết nhưng có thêm dấu chấm than đằng trước + +```markdown + +``` + +Và kiểu tham chiếu cũng hoạt động như vậy. + +<pre><code class="highlight">![<span class="nv">Đây là thuộc tính alt.</span>][<span class="ss">myimage</span>] + +[<span class="nv">myimage</span>]: <span class="sx">relative/urls/cool/image.jpg</span> <span class="nn">"Đây là tiêu đề"</span></code></pre> + +## Khác + +### Tự động đặt liên kết + +```markdown +<http://testwebsite.com/> tương đương với +[http://testwebsite.com/](http://testwebsite.com/) +``` + +### Tự động đặt liên kết cho email + +```markdown +<foo@bar.com> +``` + +### Hiển thị Kí tự đặc biệt + +```markdown +Khi ta muốn viết *đoạn văn bản này có dấu sao bao quanh* nhưng ta không muốn nó bị in nghiêng, ta có thể sử dụng: \*đoạn văn bản này có dấu sao bao quanh\*. +``` + +### Phím bàn phím + +Trong Markdown của Github, ta có thể sử dụng thẻ `<kbd>` để thay cho phím trên bàn phím. + +```markdown +Máy treo? Thử bấm tổ hợp +<kbd>Ctrl</kbd>+<kbd>Alt</kbd>+<kbd>Del</kbd> +``` +### Bảng biểu + +Bảng biểu được hỗ trợ trên Markdown của GitHub, Jira, Trello, v.v và khá khó viết: + +```markdown +| Cột 1 | Cột2 | Cột 3 | +| :----------- | :------: | ------------: | +| Căn trái | Căn giữa | Căn phải | +| blah | blah | blah | +``` +Hoặc có thể sử dụng kết quả dưới đây + +```markdown +Cột 1 | Cột 2 | Cột 3 +:-- | :-: | --: +blah | blah | blah +``` + +--- +Để biết thêm thông tin, hãy ghé qua hướng dẫn chính thức về cú pháp của John Gruber [tại đây](http://daringfireball.net/projects/markdown/syntax) và cheatsheet của Adam Pritchard [tại đây](https://github.com/adam-p/markdown-here/wiki/Markdown-Cheatsheet). diff --git a/vi-vn/sass-vi.html.markdown b/vi-vn/sass-vi.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..313890d4 --- /dev/null +++ b/vi-vn/sass-vi.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,590 @@ +--- +language: sass +filename: learnsass-vi.scss +contributors: + - ["Laura Kyle", "https://github.com/LauraNK"] + - ["Sean Corrales", "https://github.com/droidenator"] + - ["Kyle Mendes", "https://github.com/pink401k"] + - ["Keith Miyake", "https://github.com/kaymmm"] +translators: + - ["Thanh Duy Phan", "https://github.com/thanhpd"] +lang: vi-vn +--- + +Less là một ngôn ngữ mở rộng CSS/ CSS pre-processor, thêm các tính năng như biến (variable), lồng (nesting), mixin và nhiều thứ khác. Sass cùng với các CSS pre-processor khác như [Less](http://lesscss.org/) giúp lập trình viên viết được các đoạn CSS bảo trì được và không bị lặp lại (DRY - Don't Repeat Yourself). + +Sass có hai lựa chọn sử dụng cú pháp khác nhau. Một là SCSS, sử dụng cú pháp giống như CSS nhưng bổ sung thêm các tính năng của Sass. Hai là Sass (cú pháp nguyên bản), sử dụng thụt đầu dòng - indention thay vì ngoặc nhọn và dấu chấm phẩy. +Bài hướng dẫn này sử dụng SCSS. + +Nếu bạn đọc đã quen thuộc với CSS3 thì sẽ tương đối nhanh chóng để nắm được Sass. Nó không cung cấp thuộc tính để style CSS mới nhưng đưa ra những công cụ để có thể viết CSS hiệu quả hơn và có thể bảo trì dễ dàng hơn. + +```sass + + +// Comment (chú thích) một dòng sẽ bị xóa khi Less được biên dịch thành CSS + +/* Comment trên nhiều dòng sẽ được giữ lại */ + + + +/* Variable - Biến +============================== */ + + + +/* Ta có thể lưu giá trị CSS (ví dụ như color) vào một biến. + Sử dụng ký hiệu '$' để khai báo một biến. */ + +$primary-color: #A3A4FF; +$secondary-color: #51527F; +$body-font: 'Roboto', sans-serif; + +/* Sau khi khai báo biến, ta có thể sử dụng nó ở trong tệp stylesheet. + Nhờ sử dụng biến ta chỉ cần thay đổi một lần + tại 1 nơi để thay đổi tất cả những đoạn sử dụng biến */ + +body { + background-color: $primary-color; + color: $secondary-color; + font-family: $body-font; +} + +/* Đoạn code trên sẽ được biên dịch thành: */ +body { + background-color: #A3A4FF; + color: #51527F; + font-family: 'Roboto', sans-serif; +} + +/* Cách sử dụng này giúp ta dễ dàng bảo trì hơn + việc phải đổi giá trị mỗi lần nó xuất hiện + trong tệp stylesheet. */ + + + +/* Control Directive - Chỉ thị +============================== */ + + +/* Sass cho phép sử dụng @if, @else, @for, @while và @each để quản lý luồng code sinh ra CSS */ + +/* Khối điều kiện @if/@else hoạt động như các ngôn ngữ khác */ + +$debug: true !default; + +@mixin debugmode { + @if $debug { + @debug "Debug mode enabled"; + + display: inline-block; + } + @else { + display: none; + } +} + +.info { + @include debugmode; +} + +/* Trong đoạn code trên, nếu $debug được đặt là true thì class .info sẽ được sinh ra và ngược lại. + Lưu ý: @debug sẽ sinh ra thông tin debug trên dòng lệnh (command line). + Chế độ này rất có ích khi thực hiện debug trên file SCSS. */ + +.info { + display: inline-block; +} + +/* @for là khối vòng lặp trên một khoảng các giá trị. + Nó rất có ích cho việc đặt style của một tập hợp các phần tử. + Có hai cách để lặp, "through" sẽ lặp tới kể cả giá trị cuối cùng, "to" sẽ lặp tới và dừng khi đến giá trị cuối cùng. */ + +// Lặp 3 lần (không kể 4) +@for $c from 1 to 4 { + div:nth-of-type(#{$c}) { + left: ($c - 1) * 900 / 3; + } +} + +// Lặp 3 lần (kể cả 3) +@for $c from 1 through 3 { + .myclass-#{$c} { + color: rgb($c * 255 / 3, $c * 255 / 3, $c * 255 / 3); + } +} + +/* Biên dịch thành */ + +div:nth-of-type(1) { + left: 0; +} + +div:nth-of-type(2) { + left: 300; +} + +div:nth-of-type(3) { + left: 600; +} + +.myclass-1 { + color: #555555; +} + +.myclass-2 { + color: #aaaaaa; +} + +.myclass-3 { + color: white; +// SASS tự động chuyển mã #FFFFFF thành white (trắng) +} + +/* Khối lặp @while rất cơ bản: */ + +$columns: 4; +$column-width: 80px; + +@while $columns > 0 { + .col-#{$columns} { + width: $column-width; + left: $column-width * ($columns - 1); + } + + $columns: $columns - 1; +} + +/* Sẽ được biên dịch thành: */ + +.col-4 { + width: 80px; + left: 240px; +} + +.col-3 { + width: 80px; + left: 160px; +} + +.col-2 { + width: 80px; + left: 80px; +} + +.col-1 { + width: 80px; + left: 0px; +} + +/* @each hoạt động giống như @for, nhưng sử dụng một danh sách (list) thay vì thứ tự số đếm. + List được khai báo như những biến khác, sử dụng dấu cách để làm dấu phân cách. */ + +$social-links: facebook twitter linkedin reddit; + +.social-links { + @each $sm in $social-links { + .icon-#{$sm} { + background-image: url("images/#{$sm}.png"); + } + } +} + +/* Sẽ sinh ra: */ + +.social-links .icon-facebook { + background-image: url("images/facebook.png"); +} + +.social-links .icon-twitter { + background-image: url("images/twitter.png"); +} + +.social-links .icon-linkedin { + background-image: url("images/linkedin.png"); +} + +.social-links .icon-reddit { + background-image: url("images/reddit.png"); +} + + +/* Mixin +==============================*/ + +/* Nếu đang viết một đoạn code cho nhiều hơn một + element, ta có thể sử dụng lại nó dễ dàng. + Sử dụng cú pháp '@mixin' kèm theo tên để tạo một mixin. */ + +@mixin center { + display: block; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + left: 0; + right: 0; +} + +/* Ta có thể dùng mixin bằng cú pháp '@include' kèm theo tên của mixin. */ + +div { + @include center; + background-color: $primary-color; +} + +/* Được biên dịch thành: */ +div { + display: block; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + left: 0; + right: 0; + background-color: #A3A4FF; +} + +/* Ta có thể dùng mixin để tạo nhanh các thuộc tính. */ + +@mixin size($width, $height) { + width: $width; + height: $height; +} + +/* Trong ví dụ này ta có thể tạo nhanh 2 thuộc tính width và height + bằng cách sử dụng mixin size và truyền vào tham số cho width và height. */ + +.rectangle { + @include size(100px, 60px); +} + +.square { + @include size(40px, 40px); +} + +/* Biên dịch thành: */ +.rectangle { + width: 100px; + height: 60px; +} + +.square { + width: 40px; + height: 40px; +} + + + +/* Function - Hàm +============================== */ + + + +/* Less cung cấp các hàm có thể được dùng để hoàn thành + các công việc khác nhau. */ + +/* Hàm được gọi sử dụng tên của nó và truyền vào + các tham số được yêu cầu. */ +body { + width: round(10.25px); +} + +.footer { + background-color: fade_out(#000000, 0.25); +} + +/* Biên dịch thành: */ + +body { + width: 10px; +} + +.footer { + background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.75); +} + +/* Ta có thể định nghĩa hàm mới. + hàm khá tương tự với mixin bởi chúng đều có thể được tái + sử dụng. Khi lựa chọn giữa việc sử dụng hàm hay mixin, + hãy nhớ mixin được tối ưu cho việc tạo ra CSS trong khi + hàm sẽ được sử dụng tốt hơn cho logic sẽ được sử dụng + xuyên suốt Less code. Các ví dụ trong phần 'Toán tử toán học' là ứng cử viên + sáng giá cho việc dùng hàm có thể tái sử dụng được. +*/ + +/* Hàm này sẽ tính độ tương đối giữa hai giá trị kích thước. */ + +@function calculate-percentage($target-size, $parent-size) { + @return $target-size / $parent-size * 100%; +} + +$main-content: calculate-percentage(600px, 960px); + +.main-content { + width: $main-content; +} + +.sidebar { + width: calculate-percentage(300px, 960px); +} + +/* Biên dịch thành: */ + +.main-content { + width: 62.5%; +} + +.sidebar { + width: 31.25%; +} + + + +/* Mở rộng (Thừa kế) +============================== */ + + + +/* Mở rộng là cách để chia sẻ thuộc tính của một selector cho selector khác */ + +.display { + @include size(5em, 5em); + border: 5px solid $secondary-color; +} + +.display-success { + @extend .display; + border-color: #22df56; +} + +/* Biên dịch thành: */ +.display, .display-success { + width: 5em; + height: 5em; + border: 5px solid #51527F; +} + +.display-success { + border-color: #22df56; +} + +/* Nên mở rộng một khai báo CSS có trước thay vì tạo một mixin mới + bởi cách nó nhóm các lớp có chung một style gốc. + Nếu thực hiện với mixin, các thuộc tính sẽ bị trùng lặp + cho mỗi khai báo có sử dụng mixin. Mặc dù không ảnh hưởng đến luồng công việc nhưng nó + tạo ra các đoạn code CSS thừa sau khi được biên dịch. +*/ + + + +/* Nesting - Lồng +============================== */ + + + +/* Sass cho phép ta có thể lồng selector bên trong selector */ + +ul { + list-style-type: none; + margin-top: 2em; + + li { + background-color: #FF0000; + } +} + +/* Selector bắt đầu bằng ký tự '&' sẽ thay thế ký tự '&' + với selector cha. */ +/* Ta cũng có thể lồng các pseudo-class với nhau */ +/* Nên lưu ý không nên lồng quá nhiều lần sẽ làm code kém tính bảo trì. + Kinh nghiệm cho thấy không nên lồng quá 3 lần. + Ví dụ: */ + +ul { + list-style-type: none; + margin-top: 2em; + + li { + background-color: red; + + &:hover { + background-color: blue; + } + + a { + color: white; + } + } +} + +/* Biên dịch thành: */ + +ul { + list-style-type: none; + margin-top: 2em; +} + +ul li { + background-color: red; +} + +ul li:hover { + background-color: blue; +} + +ul li a { + color: white; +} + + + +/* Partials and Imports - Chia nhỏ thành tệp con và nhập vào +============================== */ + + +/* Less cho phép ta tạo các partial file (tệp con). + Sử dụng nó giúp ta có thể tổ chức code Less theo mô-đun có hệ thống. + Các tệp con thường bắt đầu với ký tự gạch dưới '_', vd: _reset.less + và được nhập vào file Less chính để được biên dịch thành CSS. + File con không được biên dịch thành file CSS riêng. */ + +/* Quan sát ví dụ sau, ta sẽ đặt đoạn code dưới đây vào tệp tên là _reset.less */ + +html, +body, +ul, +ol { + margin: 0; + padding: 0; +} + +/* Sass cung cấp cú pháp @import cho phép nhập các partial vào một file. + Cú pháp này trong Sass sẽ nhập các file và kết hợp chúng lại với + code CSS được sinh ra. Nó khác với cú pháp @import của CSS, + bản chất là tạo một HTTP request mới để tải về tệp tin được yêu cầu. */ + +@import 'reset'; + +body { + font-size: 16px; + font-family: Helvetica, Arial, Sans-serif; +} + +/* Biên dịch thành: */ + +html, body, ul, ol { + margin: 0; + padding: 0; +} + +body { + font-size: 16px; + font-family: Helvetica, Arial, Sans-serif; +} + + + +/* Placeholder Selectors - Selector trống +============================== */ + + + +/* Khai báo trống rất hữu dụng khi ta cần tạo một khai báo CSS cần được mở rộng. + Nếu bạn cần tạo một khai báo CSS gốc cho các lần mở rộng sau ta có thể + sử dụng một khai báo trống. Khai báo trống bắt đầu với kí tự '$' thay vì + sử dụng '.' hay '#'. Khai báo trống sẽ không xuất hiện trong code CSS được biên dịch. */ + +%content-window { + font-size: 14px; + padding: 10px; + color: #000; + border-radius: 4px; +} + +.message-window { + @extend %content-window; + background-color: #0000ff; +} + +/* Biên dịch thành: */ + +.message-window { + font-size: 14px; + padding: 10px; + color: #000; + border-radius: 4px; +} + +.message-window { + background-color: #0000ff; +} + + + +/* Toán tử toán học +============================== */ + + + +/* Sass cung cấp các toán tử sau: +, -, *, / và %. + Điều này rất có ích cho việc tính toán giá trị trực tiếp + trong tệp Sass thay vì phải tính toán thủ công. + Dưới đây là ví dụ về việc tạo một khung thiết kế đơn giản có hai cột. */ + +$content-area: 960px; +$main-content: 600px; +$sidebar-content: 300px; + +$main-size: $main-content / $content-area * 100%; +$sidebar-size: $sidebar-content / $content-area * 100%; +$gutter: 100% - ($main-size + $sidebar-size); + +body { + width: 100%; +} + +.main-content { + width: $main-size; +} + +.sidebar { + width: $sidebar-size; +} + +.gutter { + width: $gutter; +} + +/* Biên dịch thành: */ + +body { + width: 100%; +} + +.main-content { + width: 62.5%; +} + +.sidebar { + width: 31.25%; +} + +.gutter { + width: 6.25%; +} + +``` + +## SASS hay Sass? +Bạn đã bao giờ thắc mắc liệu Sass có phải là từ viết tắt hay không? Nhiều nguwòi lầm tưởng nó là từ viết tắt nhưng thực chất tên của ngôn ngữ này lại là một từ - Sass. +Do sự lầm tưởng như vậy và mọi người thường xuyên viết nó là "SASS", người sáng lập ra ngôn ngữ này đã đặt một cái tên hài hước cho nó là "Syntactically Awesome StyleSheets" (Thiết lập style có cú pháp một cách tuyệt vời đáng kinh ngạc). + + +## Tập sử dụng Sass +Nếu bạn muốn thử dùng Sass trên trình duyệt, hãy ghé qua [SassMeister](http://sassmeister.com/). Bạn có thể dùng cả hai cú pháp, hoặc mở cài đặt và chọn Sass hoặc SCSS. + +## Tính tương thích +Sass có thể được dùng trong bất kì dự án nào miễn là ta có chương trình để biên dịch nó thành CSS. Ta cần chắc chắn rằng đoạn CSS đang dùng tương thích với các phiên bản trình duyệt mong muốn. + +[QuirksMode CSS](http://www.quirksmode.org/css/) và [CanIUse](http://caniuse.com) là nguồn thông tin tin cậy để kiểm tra tính tương thích của mã CSS. + + +## Tìm hiểu thêm +* [Tài liệu chính thức](http://sass-lang.com/documentation/file.SASS_REFERENCE.html) +* [The Sass Way](http://thesassway.com/) cung cấp các hướng dẫn từ cơ bản đến nâng cao cùng với các tin tức. diff --git a/vim.html.markdown b/vim.html.markdown index 15144b8d..d5c4e865 100644 --- a/vim.html.markdown +++ b/vim.html.markdown @@ -21,6 +21,7 @@ specific points in the file, and for fast editing. :q # Quit vim :w # Save current file :wq # Save file and quit vim + ZZ # Save file and quit vim :q! # Quit vim without saving file # ! *forces* :q to execute, hence quiting vim without saving :x # Save file and quit vim, shorter version of :wq @@ -48,6 +49,7 @@ specific points in the file, and for fast editing. :%s/foo/bar/g # Change 'foo' to 'bar' on every line in the file :s/foo/bar/g # Change 'foo' to 'bar' on the current line + :%s/\n/\r/g # Replace new line characters with new line characters # Jumping to characters @@ -167,6 +169,20 @@ A few important examples of 'Verbs', 'Modifiers', and 'Nouns': ddp # Swap position of consecutive lines, dd then p . # Repeat previous action :w !sudo tee % # Save the current file as root + :set syntax=c # Set syntax highlighting to 'c' + :sort # Sort all lines + :sort! # Sort all lines in reverse + :sort u # Sort all lines and remove duplicates + ~ # Toggle letter case of selected text + u # Selected text to lower case + U # Selected text to upper case + + # Fold text + zf # Create fold from selected text + zo # Open current fold + zc # Close current fold + zR # Open all folds + zM # Close all folds ``` ## Macros diff --git a/yaml.html.markdown b/yaml.html.markdown index 3b32a069..52658453 100644 --- a/yaml.html.markdown +++ b/yaml.html.markdown @@ -2,8 +2,8 @@ language: yaml filename: learnyaml.yaml contributors: - - ["Adam Brenecki", "https://github.com/adambrenecki"] - - ["Suhas SG", "https://github.com/jargnar"] +- [Adam Brenecki, 'https://github.com/adambrenecki'] +- [Suhas SG, 'https://github.com/jargnar'] --- YAML is a data serialisation language designed to be directly writable and @@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ readable by humans. It's a strict superset of JSON, with the addition of syntactically significant newlines and indentation, like Python. Unlike Python, however, -YAML doesn't allow literal tab characters at all. +YAML doesn't allow literal tab characters for indentation. ```yaml # Comments in YAML look like this. @@ -32,8 +32,10 @@ boolean: true null_value: null key with spaces: value # Notice that strings don't need to be quoted. However, they can be. -however: "A string, enclosed in quotes." -"Keys can be quoted too.": "Useful if you want to put a ':' in your key." +however: 'A string, enclosed in quotes.' +'Keys can be quoted too.': "Useful if you want to put a ':' in your key." +single quotes: 'have ''one'' escape pattern' +double quotes: "have many: \", \0, \t, \u263A, \x0d\x0a == \r\n, and more." # Multiple-line strings can be written either as a 'literal block' (using |), # or a 'folded block' (using '>'). @@ -59,12 +61,12 @@ folded_style: > # COLLECTION TYPES # #################### -# Nesting is achieved by indentation. +# Nesting uses indentation. 2 space indent is preferred (but not required). a_nested_map: - key: value - another_key: Another Value - another_nested_map: - hello: hello + key: value + another_key: Another Value + another_nested_map: + hello: hello # Maps don't have to have string keys. 0.25: a float key @@ -72,8 +74,8 @@ a_nested_map: # Keys can also be complex, like multi-line objects # We use ? followed by a space to indicate the start of a complex key. ? | - This is a key - that has multiple lines + This is a key + that has multiple lines : and this is its value # YAML also allows mapping between sequences with the complex key syntax @@ -83,22 +85,26 @@ a_nested_map: - Real Madrid : [ 2001-01-01, 2002-02-02 ] -# Sequences (equivalent to lists or arrays) look like this: +# Sequences (equivalent to lists or arrays) look like this +# (note that the '-' counts as indentation): a_sequence: - - Item 1 - - Item 2 - - 0.5 # sequences can contain disparate types. - - Item 4 - - key: value - another_key: another_value - - - - This is a sequence - - inside another sequence +- Item 1 +- Item 2 +- 0.5 # sequences can contain disparate types. +- Item 4 +- key: value + another_key: another_value +- + - This is a sequence + - inside another sequence +- - - Nested sequence indicators + - can be collapsed # Since YAML is a superset of JSON, you can also write JSON-style maps and # sequences: json_map: {"key": "value"} json_seq: [3, 2, 1, "takeoff"] +and quotes are optional: {key: [3, 2, 1, takeoff]} ####################### # EXTRA YAML FEATURES # @@ -111,15 +117,15 @@ other_anchor: *anchor_name # Anchors can be used to duplicate/inherit properties base: &base - name: Everyone has same name + name: Everyone has same name foo: &foo - <<: *base - age: 10 + <<: *base + age: 10 bar: &bar - <<: *base - age: 20 + <<: *base + age: 20 # foo and bar would also have name: Everyone has same name @@ -147,22 +153,23 @@ date: 2002-12-14 # The !!binary tag indicates that a string is actually a base64-encoded # representation of a binary blob. gif_file: !!binary | - R0lGODlhDAAMAIQAAP//9/X17unp5WZmZgAAAOfn515eXvPz7Y6OjuDg4J+fn5 - OTk6enp56enmlpaWNjY6Ojo4SEhP/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/+ - +f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++SH+Dk1hZGUgd2l0aCBHSU1QACwAAAAADAAMAAAFLC - AgjoEwnuNAFOhpEMTRiggcz4BNJHrv/zCFcLiwMWYNG84BwwEeECcgggoBADs= + R0lGODlhDAAMAIQAAP//9/X17unp5WZmZgAAAOfn515eXvPz7Y6OjuDg4J+fn5 + OTk6enp56enmlpaWNjY6Ojo4SEhP/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/+ + +f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++SH+Dk1hZGUgd2l0aCBHSU1QACwAAAAADAAMAAAFLC + AgjoEwnuNAFOhpEMTRiggcz4BNJHrv/zCFcLiwMWYNG84BwwEeECcgggoBADs= # YAML also has a set type, which looks like this: set: - ? item1 - ? item2 - ? item3 + ? item1 + ? item2 + ? item3 +or: {item1, item2, item3} # Like Python, sets are just maps with null values; the above is equivalent to: set2: - item1: null - item2: null - item3: null + item1: null + item2: null + item3: null ``` ### More Resources diff --git a/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown index bdef0099..360f7c65 100644 --- a/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown @@ -12,12 +12,9 @@ translators: lang: zh-cn --- -Javascript于1995年由网景公司的Brendan Eich发明。 -最初发明的目的是作为一个简单的网站脚本语言，来作为 -复杂网站应用java的补充。但由于它与网页结合度很高并且由浏览器内置支持， -所以javascript变得比java在前端更为流行了。 +Javascript 于 1995 年由网景公司的 Brendan Eich 发明。最初它作为一种简单的，用于开发网站的脚本语言而被发明出来，是用于开发复杂网站的 Java 的补充。但由于它与网页结合度很高并且在浏览器中得到内置的支持，所以在网页前端领域 Javascript 变得比 Java 更流行了。 -不过 JavaScript 可不仅仅只用于浏览器： Node.js，一个基于Google Chrome V8引擎的独立运行时环境，也越来越流行。 +不过，Javascript 不仅用于网页浏览器，一个名为 Node.js 的项目提供了面向 Google Chrome V8 引擎的独立运行时环境，它正在变得越来越流行。 很欢迎来自您的反馈，您可以通过下列方式联系到我： [@adambrenecki](https://twitter.com/adambrenecki), 或者 diff --git a/zh-cn/kotlin-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/kotlin-cn.html.markdown index 5d655029..f6dcd847 100644 --- a/zh-cn/kotlin-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/kotlin-cn.html.markdown @@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ package com.learnxinyminutes.kotlin /* Kotlin程序的入口点是一个"main"函数 -该函数传递一个包含任何命令行参数的数组。 +该函数传递一个包含所有命令行参数的数组。 */ fun main(args: Array<String>) { /* @@ -67,10 +67,10 @@ fun helloWorld(val name : String) { 模板表达式从一个美元符号($)开始。 */ val fooTemplateString = "$fooString has ${fooString.length} characters" - println(fooTemplateString) + println(fooTemplateString) // => 输出 My String Is Here! has 18 characters /* - 当某个变量的值可以为 null 的时候，我们必须被明确指定它是可为空的。 + 当某个变量的值可以为 null 的时候，我们必须明确指定它是可为空的。 在变量声明处的类型后面加上?来标识它是可为空的。 我们可以用?.操作符来访问可为空的变量。 我们可以用?:操作符来指定一个在变量为空时使用的替代值。 @@ -96,24 +96,24 @@ fun helloWorld(val name : String) { println(hello()) // => Hello, world! /* - 用"vararg"关键字来修饰一个函数的参数来允许可变参数传递给该函数 + 函数的可变参数可使用 "vararg" 关键字来修饰 */ fun varargExample(vararg names: Int) { println("Argument has ${names.size} elements") } - varargExample() // => Argument has 0 elements - varargExample(1) // => Argument has 1 elements - varargExample(1, 2, 3) // => Argument has 3 elements + varargExample() // => 传入 0 个参数 + varargExample(1) // => 传入 1 个参数 + varargExample(1, 2, 3) // => 传入 3 个参数 /* - 当函数只包含一个单独的表达式时，大括号可以被省略。 - 函数体可以被指定在一个=符号后面。 + 当函数只包含一个单独的表达式时，大括号可以省略。 + 函数体可以写在一个=符号后面。 */ fun odd(x: Int): Boolean = x % 2 == 1 println(odd(6)) // => false println(odd(7)) // => true - // 如果返回值类型可以被推断，那么我们不需要指定它。 + // 如果返回值类型可以推断，那么我们不需要指定它。 fun even(x: Int) = x % 2 == 0 println(even(6)) // => true println(even(7)) // => false @@ -122,15 +122,14 @@ fun helloWorld(val name : String) { fun not(f: (Int) -> Boolean) : (Int) -> Boolean { return {n -> !f.invoke(n)} } - // 命名函数可以用::运算符被指定为参数。 + // 普通函数可以用::运算符传入引用作为函数参数。 val notOdd = not(::odd) val notEven = not(::even) - // 匿名函数可以被指定为参数。 + // lambda 表达式可以直接作为参数传递。 val notZero = not {n -> n == 0} /* - 如果一个匿名函数只有一个参数 - 那么它的声明可以被省略（连同->）。 - 这个参数的名字是"it"。 + 如果一个 lambda 表达式只有一个参数 + 那么它的声明可以省略（连同->），内部以 "it" 引用。 */ val notPositive = not {it > 0} for (i in 0..4) { @@ -152,7 +151,7 @@ fun helloWorld(val name : String) { 注意，Kotlin没有"new"关键字。 */ val fooExampleClass = ExampleClass(7) - // 可以使用一个点号来调用成员函数。 + // 可以使用一个点号来调用成员方法。 println(fooExampleClass.memberFunction(4)) // => 11 /* 如果使用"infix"关键字来标记一个函数 @@ -162,7 +161,7 @@ fun helloWorld(val name : String) { /* 数据类是创建只包含数据的类的一个简洁的方法。 - "hashCode"、"equals"和"toString"方法将被自动生成。 + "hashCode"、"equals"和"toString"方法将自动生成。 */ data class DataClassExample (val x: Int, val y: Int, val z: Int) val fooData = DataClassExample(1, 2, 4) diff --git a/zh-cn/make-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/make-cn.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4cdf1e63 --- /dev/null +++ b/zh-cn/make-cn.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,262 @@ +--- +language: make +contributors: +- ["Robert Steed", "https://github.com/robochat"] +- ["Jichao Ouyang", "https://github.com/jcouyang"] +translators: +- ["Jichao Ouyang", "https://github.com/jcouyang"] +filename: Makefile-cn +lang: zh-cn +--- + +Makefile 用于定义如何创建目标文件, 比如如何从源码到可执行文件. 创建这一工具的目标是 +减少不必要的编译或者任务.是传说中的 Stuart Feldman 在 1976 年花了一个周末写出来的, +而今仍然使用广泛, 特别是在 Unix 和 Linux 系统上. + +虽然每个语言可能都有相应的或多或少提供 make 的功能, 比如 ruby 的 rake, node 的 gulp, broccoli +, scala 的 sbt 等等. 但是 make 的简洁与高效, 和只做一件事并做到极致的风格, 使其至今仍是无可替代的, +甚至与其他构建工具一起使用也并无冲突. + +尽管有许多的分支和变体, 这篇文章针对是标准的 GNU make. + +```make +# 这行表示注释 + +# 文件名一定要交 Makefile, 大小写区分, 使用 `make <target>` 生成 target +# 如果想要取别的名字, 可以用 `make -f "filename" <target>`. + +# 重要的事情 - 只认识 TAB, 空格是不认的, 但是在 GNU Make 3.82 之后, 可以通过 +# 设置参数 .RECIPEPREFIX 进行修改 + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# 初级 +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +# 创建一个 target 的规则非常简单 +# targets : prerequisites +# recipe +# … +# prerequisites(依赖) 是可选的, recipe(做法) 也可以多个或者不给. + +# 下面这个任务没有给 prerequisites, 只会在目标文件 file0.txt 文件不存在是跑 +file0.txt: + echo "foo" > file0.txt + # 试试 `make file0.txt` + # 或者直接 `make`, 因为第一个任务是默认任务. + # 注意: 即使是这些注释, 如果前面有 TAB, 也会发送给 shell, 注意看 `make file0.txt` 输出 + +# 如果提供 prerequisites, 则只有 prerequisites 比 target 新时会执行 +# 比如下面这个任务只有当 file1.txt 比 file0.txt 新时才会执行. +file1.txt: file0.txt + cat file0.txt > file1.txt + # 这里跟shell里的命令式一毛一样的. + @cat file0.txt >> file1.txt + # @ 不会把命令往 stdout 打印. + -@echo 'hello' + # - 意思是发生错误了也没关系. + # 试试 `make file1.txt` 吧. + +# targets 和 prerequisites 都可以是多个, 以空格分割 +file2.txt file3.txt: file0.txt file1.txt + touch file2.txt + touch file3.txt + +# 如果声明重复的 target, make 会给一个 warning, 后面会覆盖前面的 +# 比如重复定义 file2.txt 会得到这样的 warning +# Makefile:46: warning: overriding commands for target `file2.txt' +# Makefile:40: warning: ignoring old commands for target `file2.txt' +file2.txt: file0.txt + touch file2.txt + +# 但是如果不定义任何 recipe, 就不会冲突, 只是多了依赖关系 +file2.txt: file0.txt file3.txt + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# Phony(假的) Targets +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +# phony targets 意思是 tagets 并不是文件, 可以想象成一个任务的名字而已. +# 因为不是文件, 无法比对是否有更新, 所以每次make都会执行. +all: maker process + +# 依赖于 phony target 的 target 也会每次 make 都执行, 即使 target 是文件 +ex0.txt ex1.txt: maker + +# target 的声明顺序并不重要, 比如上面的 all 的依赖 maker 现在才声明 +maker: + touch ex0.txt ex1.txt + +# 如果定义的 phony target 与文件名重名, 可以用 .PHONY 显示的指明哪些 targets 是 phony +.PHONY: all maker process +# This is a special target. There are several others. + +# 常用的 phony target 有: all clean install ... + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# 变量与通配符 +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +process: file*.txt | dir/a.foo.b # 可以用通配符匹配多个文件作为prerequisites + @echo $^ # $^ 是 prerequisites + @echo $@ # $@ 代表 target, 如果 target 为多个, $@ 代表当前执行的那个 + @echo $< # $< prerequisite 中的第一个 + @echo $? # $? 需要更新的 prerequisite 文件列表 + @echo $+ # $+ 所有依赖, 包括重复的 + @echo $| # $| 竖线后面的 order-only prerequisites + +a.%.b: + @echo $* # $* match 的target % 那部分, 包括路径, 比如 `make dir/a.foo.b` 会打出 `dir/foo` + +# 即便分开定义依赖, $^ 依然能拿到 +process: ex1.txt file0.txt +# 非常智能的, ex1.txt 会被找到, file0.txt 会被去重. + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# 模式匹配 +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +# 可以让 make 知道如何转换某些文件到别格式 +# 比如 从 svg 到 png +%.png: %.svg + inkscape --export-png $^ + +# 一旦有需要 foo.png 这个任务就会运行 + +# 路径会被忽略, 所以上面的 target 能匹配所有 png +# 但是如果加了路径, make 会找到最接近的匹配, 如果 +# make small/foo.png (在这之前要先有 small/foo.svg 这个文件) +# 则会匹配下面这个规则 +small/%.png: %.svg + inkscape --export-png --export-dpi 30 $^ + +%.png: %.svg + @echo 重复定义会覆盖前面的, 现在 inkscape 没用了 + +# make 已经有一些内置的规则, 比如从 *.c 到 *.o + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# 变量 +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# 其实是宏 macro + +# 变量都是字符串类型, 下面这俩是一样一样的 + +name = Ted +name2="Sarah" + +echo: + @echo $(name) + @echo ${name2} + @echo $name # 这个会被蠢蠢的解析成 $(n)ame. + @echo \"$(name3)\" # 为声明的变量或扩展成空字符串. + @echo $(name4) + @echo $(name5) +# 你可以通过4种方式设置变量. +# 按以下顺序由高到低: +# 1: 命令行参数. 比如试试 `make echo name3=JICHAO` +# 2: Makefile 里面的 +# 3: shell 中的环境变量 +# 4: make 预设的一些变量 + +name4 ?= Jean +# 问号意思是如果 name4 被设置过了, 就不设置了. + +override name5 = David +# 用 override 可以防止命令行参数设置的覆盖 + +name4 +=grey +# 用加号可以连接 (中间用空格分割). + +# 在依赖的地方设置变量 +echo: name2 = Sara2 + +# 还有一些内置的变量 +echo_inbuilt: + echo $(CC) + echo ${CXX)} + echo $(FC) + echo ${CFLAGS)} + echo $(CPPFLAGS) + echo ${CXXFLAGS} + echo $(LDFLAGS) + echo ${LDLIBS} + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# 变量 2 +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +# 加个冒号可以声明 Simply expanded variables 即时扩展变量, 即只在声明时扩展一次 +# 之前的等号声明时 recursively expanded 递归扩展 + +var := hello +var2 := $(var) hello + +# 这些变量会在其引用的顺序求值 +# 比如 var3 声明时找不到 var4, var3 会扩展成 `and good luck` +var3 := $(var4) and good luck +# 但是一般的变量会在调用时递归扩展, 先扩展 var5, 再扩展 var4, 所以是正常的 +var5 = $(var4) and good luck +var4 := good night + +echoSEV: + @echo $(var) + @echo $(var2) + @echo $(var3) + @echo $(var4) + @echo $(var5) + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# 函数 +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +# make 自带了一些函数. +# wildcard 会将后面的通配符变成一串文件路径 +all_markdown: + @echo $(wildcard *.markdown) +# patsubst 可以做替换, 比如下面会把所有 markdown +# 后缀的文件重命名为 md 后缀 +substitue: * + @echo $(patsubst %.markdown,%.md,$* $^) + +# 函数调用格式是 $(func arg0,arg1,arg2...) + +# 试试 +ls: * + @echo $(filter %.txt, $^) + @echo $(notdir $^) + @echo $(join $(dir $^),$(notdir $^)) + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# Directives +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +# 可以用 include 引入别的 Makefile 文件 +# include foo.mk + +sport = tennis +# 一些逻辑语句 if else 什么的, 顶个写 +report: +ifeq ($(sport),tennis) + @echo 'game, set, match' +else + @echo "They think it's all over; it is now" +endif + +# 还有 ifneq, ifdef, ifndef + +foo = true + +# 不只是 recipe, 还可以写在外面哟 +ifdef $(foo) +bar = 'bar' +endif + +hellobar: + @echo bar +``` + +### 资源 + ++ GNU Make 官方文档 [HTML](https://www.gnu.org/software/make/manual/) [PDF](https://www.gnu.org/software/make/manual/make.pdf) ++ [software carpentry tutorial](http://swcarpentry.github.io/make-novice/) ++ learn C the hard way [ex2](http://c.learncodethehardway.org/book/ex2.html) [ex28](http://c.learncodethehardway.org/book/ex28.html) |