diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | bash.html.markdown | 4 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | c++.html.markdown | 16 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | compojure.html.markdown | 8 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | elisp.html.markdown | 12 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | erlang.html.markdown | 96 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown | 746 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | haxe.html.markdown | 23 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | java.html.markdown | 202 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | nim.html.markdown | 20 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown | 2 |
10 files changed, 940 insertions, 189 deletions
diff --git a/bash.html.markdown b/bash.html.markdown index ee783c14..08182c2c 100644 --- a/bash.html.markdown +++ b/bash.html.markdown @@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ echo '$Variable' # String substitution in variables echo ${Variable/Some/A} -# This will substitute the first occurance of "Some" with "A" +# This will substitute the first occurrence of "Some" with "A" # Substring from a variable Length=7 @@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ echo "Last program return value: $?" echo "Script's PID: $$" echo "Number of arguments: $#" echo "Scripts arguments: $@" -echo "Scripts arguments seperated in different variables: $1 $2..." +echo "Scripts arguments separated in different variables: $1 $2..." # Reading a value from input: echo "What's your name?" diff --git a/c++.html.markdown b/c++.html.markdown index 66d4aeb1..5cd491b9 100644 --- a/c++.html.markdown +++ b/c++.html.markdown @@ -288,7 +288,7 @@ public: // Functions can also be defined inside the class body. // Functions defined as such are automatically inlined. - void bark() const { std::cout << name << " barks!\n" } + void bark() const { std::cout << name << " barks!\n"; } // Along with constructors, C++ provides destructors. // These are called when an object is deleted or falls out of scope. @@ -300,7 +300,7 @@ public: }; // A semicolon must follow the class definition. // Class member functions are usually implemented in .cpp files. -void Dog::Dog() +Dog::Dog() { std::cout << "A dog has been constructed\n"; } @@ -323,7 +323,7 @@ void Dog::print() const std::cout << "Dog is " << name << " and weighs " << weight << "kg\n"; } -void Dog::~Dog() +Dog::~Dog() { cout << "Goodbye " << name << "\n"; } @@ -332,7 +332,7 @@ int main() { Dog myDog; // prints "A dog has been constructed" myDog.setName("Barkley"); myDog.setWeight(10); - myDog.printDog(); // prints "Dog is Barkley and weighs 10 kg" + myDog.print(); // prints "Dog is Barkley and weighs 10 kg" return 0; } // prints "Goodbye Barkley" @@ -341,7 +341,7 @@ int main() { // This class inherits everything public and protected from the Dog class class OwnedDog : public Dog { - void setOwner(const std::string& dogsOwner) + void setOwner(const std::string& dogsOwner); // Override the behavior of the print function for all OwnedDogs. See // http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(computer_science)#Subtyping @@ -425,7 +425,7 @@ int main () { Point up (0,1); Point right (1,0); // This calls the Point + operator - // Point up calls the + (function) with right as its paramater + // Point up calls the + (function) with right as its parameter Point result = up + right; // Prints "Result is upright (1,1)" cout << "Result is upright (" << result.x << ',' << result.y << ")\n"; @@ -464,7 +464,7 @@ intBox.insert(123); Box<Box<int> > boxOfBox; boxOfBox.insert(intBox); -// Up until C++11, you muse place a space between the two '>'s, otherwise '>>' +// Up until C++11, you must place a space between the two '>'s, otherwise '>>' // will be parsed as the right shift operator. // You will sometimes see @@ -712,7 +712,7 @@ Foo f1; f1 = f2; ``` -Futher Reading: +Further Reading: An up-to-date language reference can be found at <http://cppreference.com/w/cpp> diff --git a/compojure.html.markdown b/compojure.html.markdown index 36a8d123..32181e26 100644 --- a/compojure.html.markdown +++ b/compojure.html.markdown @@ -155,8 +155,8 @@ Now, your handlers may utilize query parameters: ```clojure (defroutes myapp (GET "/posts" req - (let [title (get (:params req) "title") - author (get (:params req) "author")] + (let [title (get (:params req) :title) + author (get (:params req) :author)] (str "Title: " title ", Author: " author)))) ``` @@ -165,8 +165,8 @@ Or, for POST and PUT requests, form parameters as well ```clojure (defroutes myapp (POST "/posts" req - (let [title (get (:params req) "title") - author (get (:params req) "author")] + (let [title (get (:params req) :title) + author (get (:params req) :author)] (str "Title: " title ", Author: " author)))) ``` diff --git a/elisp.html.markdown b/elisp.html.markdown index 3208ffb8..3bed5d1c 100644 --- a/elisp.html.markdown +++ b/elisp.html.markdown @@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ filename: learn-emacs-lisp.el ;; I hereby decline any responsability. Have fun! ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; -;; +;; ;; Fire up Emacs. ;; ;; Hit the `q' key to dismiss the welcome message. @@ -42,9 +42,9 @@ filename: learn-emacs-lisp.el ;; The scratch buffer is the default buffer when opening Emacs. ;; You are never editing files: you are editing buffers that you ;; can save to a file. -;; +;; ;; "Lisp interaction" refers to a set of commands available here. -;; +;; ;; Emacs has a built-in set of commands available in every buffer, ;; and several subsets of commands available when you activate a ;; specific mode. Here we use the `lisp-interaction-mode', which @@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ filename: learn-emacs-lisp.el ;; The empty parentheses in the function's definition means that ;; it does not accept arguments. But always using `my-name' is ;; boring, let's tell the function to accept one argument (here -;; the argument is called "name"): +;; the argument is called "name"): (defun hello (name) (insert "Hello " name)) ;; `C-xC-e' => hello @@ -305,7 +305,7 @@ filename: learn-emacs-lisp.el (defun boldify-names () (switch-to-buffer-other-window "*test*") (goto-char (point-min)) - (while (re-search-forward "Bonjour \\([^!]+\\)!" nil 't) + (while (re-search-forward "Bonjour \\(.+\\)!" nil 't) (add-text-properties (match-beginning 1) (match-end 1) (list 'face 'bold))) @@ -318,7 +318,7 @@ filename: learn-emacs-lisp.el ;; The regular expression is "Bonjour \\(.+\\)!" and it reads: ;; the string "Bonjour ", and ;; a group of | this is the \\( ... \\) construct -;; any character not ! | this is the [^!] +;; any character | this is the . ;; possibly repeated | this is the + ;; and the "!" string. diff --git a/erlang.html.markdown b/erlang.html.markdown index a7390c3e..a3b571d1 100644 --- a/erlang.html.markdown +++ b/erlang.html.markdown @@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ filename: learnerlang.erl % Periods (`.`) (followed by whitespace) separate entire functions and % expressions in the shell. % Semicolons (`;`) separate clauses. We find clauses in several contexts: -% function definitions and in `case`, `if`, `try..catch` and `receive` +% function definitions and in `case`, `if`, `try..catch`, and `receive` % expressions. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% @@ -27,20 +27,20 @@ filename: learnerlang.erl Num = 42. % All variable names must start with an uppercase letter. -% Erlang has single assignment variables, if you try to assign a different value -% to the variable `Num`, you’ll get an error. +% Erlang has single-assignment variables; if you try to assign a different +% value to the variable `Num`, you’ll get an error. Num = 43. % ** exception error: no match of right hand side value 43 % In most languages, `=` denotes an assignment statement. In Erlang, however, -% `=` denotes a pattern matching operation. `Lhs = Rhs` really means this: -% evaluate the right side (Rhs), and then match the result against the pattern -% on the left side (Lhs). +% `=` denotes a pattern-matching operation. `Lhs = Rhs` really means this: +% evaluate the right side (`Rhs`), and then match the result against the +% pattern on the left side (`Lhs`). Num = 7 * 6. -% Floating point number. +% Floating-point number. Pi = 3.14159. -% Atoms, are used to represent different non-numerical constant values. Atoms +% Atoms are used to represent different non-numerical constant values. Atoms % start with lowercase letters, followed by a sequence of alphanumeric % characters or the underscore (`_`) or at (`@`) sign. Hello = hello. @@ -53,34 +53,34 @@ AtomWithSpace = 'some atom with space'. % Tuples are similar to structs in C. Point = {point, 10, 45}. -% If we want to extract some values from a tuple, we use the pattern matching +% If we want to extract some values from a tuple, we use the pattern-matching % operator `=`. {point, X, Y} = Point. % X = 10, Y = 45 % We can use `_` as a placeholder for variables that we’re not interested in. % The symbol `_` is called an anonymous variable. Unlike regular variables, -% several occurrences of _ in the same pattern don’t have to bind to the same -% value. +% several occurrences of `_` in the same pattern don’t have to bind to the +% same value. Person = {person, {name, {first, joe}, {last, armstrong}}, {footsize, 42}}. {_, {_, {_, Who}, _}, _} = Person. % Who = joe % We create a list by enclosing the list elements in square brackets and % separating them with commas. % The individual elements of a list can be of any type. -% The first element of a list is the head of the list. If you imagine removing the -% head from the list, what’s left is called the tail of the list. +% The first element of a list is the head of the list. If you imagine removing +% the head from the list, what’s left is called the tail of the list. ThingsToBuy = [{apples, 10}, {pears, 6}, {milk, 3}]. % If `T` is a list, then `[H|T]` is also a list, with head `H` and tail `T`. % The vertical bar (`|`) separates the head of a list from its tail. % `[]` is the empty list. -% We can extract elements from a list with a pattern matching operation. If we +% We can extract elements from a list with a pattern-matching operation. If we % have a nonempty list `L`, then the expression `[X|Y] = L`, where `X` and `Y` % are unbound variables, will extract the head of the list into `X` and the tail % of the list into `Y`. [FirstThing|OtherThingsToBuy] = ThingsToBuy. % FirstThing = {apples, 10} -% OtherThingsToBuy = {pears, 6}, {milk, 3} +% OtherThingsToBuy = [{pears, 6}, {milk, 3}] % There are no strings in Erlang. Strings are really just lists of integers. % Strings are enclosed in double quotation marks (`"`). @@ -117,17 +117,19 @@ c(geometry). % {ok,geometry} geometry:area({rectangle, 10, 5}). % 50 geometry:area({circle, 1.4}). % 6.15752 -% In Erlang, two functions with the same name and different arity (number of arguments) -% in the same module represent entirely different functions. +% In Erlang, two functions with the same name and different arity (number of +% arguments) in the same module represent entirely different functions. -module(lib_misc). --export([sum/1]). % export function `sum` of arity 1 accepting one argument: list of integers. +-export([sum/1]). % export function `sum` of arity 1 + % accepting one argument: list of integers. sum(L) -> sum(L, 0). sum([], N) -> N; sum([H|T], N) -> sum(T, H+N). -% Funs are "anonymous" functions. They are called this way because they have no -% name. However they can be assigned to variables. -Double = fun(X) -> 2*X end. % `Double` points to an anonymous function with handle: #Fun<erl_eval.6.17052888> +% Funs are "anonymous" functions. They are called this way because they have +% no name. However, they can be assigned to variables. +Double = fun(X) -> 2 * X end. % `Double` points to an anonymous function + % with handle: #Fun<erl_eval.6.17052888> Double(2). % 4 % Functions accept funs as their arguments and can return funs. @@ -140,8 +142,9 @@ Triple(5). % 15 % The notation `[F(X) || X <- L]` means "the list of `F(X)` where `X` is taken % from the list `L`." L = [1,2,3,4,5]. -[2*X || X <- L]. % [2,4,6,8,10] -% A list comprehension can have generators and filters which select subset of the generated values. +[2 * X || X <- L]. % [2,4,6,8,10] +% A list comprehension can have generators and filters, which select subset of +% the generated values. EvenNumbers = [N || N <- [1, 2, 3, 4], N rem 2 == 0]. % [2, 4] % Guards are constructs that we can use to increase the power of pattern @@ -155,17 +158,24 @@ max(X, Y) -> Y. % A guard is a series of guard expressions, separated by commas (`,`). % The guard `GuardExpr1, GuardExpr2, ..., GuardExprN` is true if all the guard -% expressions `GuardExpr1, GuardExpr2, ...` evaluate to true. +% expressions `GuardExpr1`, `GuardExpr2`, ..., `GuardExprN` evaluate to `true`. is_cat(A) when is_atom(A), A =:= cat -> true; is_cat(A) -> false. is_dog(A) when is_atom(A), A =:= dog -> true; is_dog(A) -> false. -% A `guard sequence` is either a single guard or a series of guards, separated -%by semicolons (`;`). The guard sequence `G1; G2; ...; Gn` is true if at least -% one of the guards `G1, G2, ...` evaluates to true. -is_pet(A) when is_dog(A); is_cat(A) -> true; -is_pet(A) -> false. +% A guard sequence is either a single guard or a series of guards, separated +% by semicolons (`;`). The guard sequence `G1; G2; ...; Gn` is true if at +% least one of the guards `G1`, `G2`, ..., `Gn` evaluates to `true`. +is_pet(A) when is_atom(A), (A =:= dog) or (A =:= cat) -> true; +is_pet(A) -> false. + +% Warning: not all valid Erlang expressions can be used as guard expressions; +% in particular, our `is_cat` and `is_dog` functions cannot be used within the +% guard sequence in `is_pet`'s definition. For a description of the +% expressions allowed in guard sequences, refer to this +% [section](http://erlang.org/doc/reference_manual/expressions.html#id81912) +% of the Erlang reference manual. % Records provide a method for associating a name with a particular element in a % tuple. @@ -188,7 +198,7 @@ X = #todo{}. X1 = #todo{status = urgent, text = "Fix errata in book"}. % #todo{status = urgent, who = joe, text = "Fix errata in book"} X2 = X1#todo{status = done}. -% #todo{status = done,who = joe,text = "Fix errata in book"} +% #todo{status = done, who = joe, text = "Fix errata in book"} % `case` expressions. % `filter` returns a list of all elements `X` in a list `L` for which `P(X)` is @@ -209,8 +219,8 @@ max(X, Y) -> true -> nil end. -% Warning: at least one of the guards in the `if` expression must evaluate to true; -% otherwise, an exception will be raised. +% Warning: at least one of the guards in the `if` expression must evaluate to +% `true`; otherwise, an exception will be raised. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% @@ -218,7 +228,7 @@ max(X, Y) -> %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% % Exceptions are raised by the system when internal errors are encountered or -% explicitly in code by calling `throw(Exception)`, `exit(Exception)` or +% explicitly in code by calling `throw(Exception)`, `exit(Exception)`, or % `erlang:error(Exception)`. generate_exception(1) -> a; generate_exception(2) -> throw(a); @@ -227,7 +237,7 @@ generate_exception(4) -> {'EXIT', a}; generate_exception(5) -> erlang:error(a). % Erlang has two methods of catching an exception. One is to enclose the call to -% the function, which raised the exception within a `try...catch` expression. +% the function that raises the exception within a `try...catch` expression. catcher(N) -> try generate_exception(N) of Val -> {N, normal, Val} @@ -241,23 +251,24 @@ catcher(N) -> % exception, it is converted into a tuple that describes the error. catcher(N) -> catch generate_exception(N). -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% + +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% %% 4. Concurrency %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% % Erlang relies on the actor model for concurrency. All we need to write -% concurrent programs in erlang are three primitives: spawning processes, +% concurrent programs in Erlang are three primitives: spawning processes, % sending messages and receiving messages. -% To start a new process we use the `spawn` function, which takes a function +% To start a new process, we use the `spawn` function, which takes a function % as argument. F = fun() -> 2 + 2 end. % #Fun<erl_eval.20.67289768> spawn(F). % <0.44.0> -% `spawn` returns a pid (process identifier), you can use this pid to send -% messages to the process. To do message passing we use the `!` operator. -% For all of this to be useful we need to be able to receive messages. This is +% `spawn` returns a pid (process identifier); you can use this pid to send +% messages to the process. To do message passing, we use the `!` operator. +% For all of this to be useful, we need to be able to receive messages. This is % achieved with the `receive` mechanism: -module(calculateGeometry). @@ -272,12 +283,13 @@ calculateArea() -> io:format("We can only calculate area of rectangles or circles.") end. -% Compile the module and create a process that evaluates `calculateArea` in the shell +% Compile the module and create a process that evaluates `calculateArea` in the +% shell. c(calculateGeometry). CalculateArea = spawn(calculateGeometry, calculateArea, []). CalculateArea ! {circle, 2}. % 12.56000000000000049738 -% The shell is also a process, you can use `self` to get the current pid +% The shell is also a process; you can use `self` to get the current pid. self(). % <0.41.0> ``` diff --git a/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3f225a0f --- /dev/null +++ b/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,746 @@ +--- +language: R +contributors: + - ["e99n09", "http://github.com/e99n09"] + - ["isomorphismes", "http://twitter.com/isomorphisms"] +translators: + - ["Anne-Catherine Dehier", "https://github.com/spellart"] +filename: learnr-fr.r +--- + +R est un langage de programmation statistique. Il dispose de nombreuses +bibliothèques pour le téléchargement et le nettoyage d'ensembles de données, +l'exécution de procédures statistiques, et la réalisation de graphiques. +On peut également exécuter des commmandes `R` au sein d'un document LaTeX. + + +```r + +# Les commentaires commencent avec des symboles numériques. + +# Il n'est pas possible de faire des commentaires multilignes, +# mais on peut placer plusieurs commentaires les uns en dessous +# des autres comme ceci. + +# Sur Mac, taper COMMAND-ENTER pour exécuter une ligne +# et sur Windows taper CTRL-ENTER + + + +######################################################################## +# Les choses que vous pouvez faire sans rien comprendre +# à la programmation +######################################################################## + +# Dans cette section, nous vous montrons quelques trucs cools que vous +# pouvez faire avec R sans rien comprendre à la programmation. +# Ne vous inquiétez pas si vous ne comprenez pas tout ce que le code fait. +# Profitez simplement ! + +data() # parcours les ensembles de données préchargées +data(rivers) # récupère ceci : "Lengths of Major North American Rivers" +ls() # notez que "rivers" apparaît maintenant dans votre espace de travail +head(rivers) # donne un aperçu des données +# 735 320 325 392 524 450 + +length(rivers) # Combien de rivers ont été mesurées ? +# 141 +summary(rivers) # Quelles sont les principales données statistiques ? +# Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. +# 135.0 310.0 425.0 591.2 680.0 3710.0 + +# Fait un diagramme à tiges et à feuilles (visualisation de données de +# types histogramme) +stem(rivers) + + +# Le point décimal est de 2 chiffres à droite du | +# +# 0 | 4 +# 2 | 011223334555566667778888899900001111223333344455555666688888999 +# 4 | 111222333445566779001233344567 +# 6 | 000112233578012234468 +# 8 | 045790018 +# 10 | 04507 +# 12 | 1471 +# 14 | 56 +# 16 | 7 +# 18 | 9 +# 20 | +# 22 | 25 +# 24 | 3 +# 26 | +# 28 | +# 30 | +# 32 | +# 34 | +# 36 | 1 + +stem(log(rivers)) # Notez que les données ne sont ni normales +# ni lognormales ! +# Prenez-ça, la courbe en cloche + +# Le point décimal est à 1 chiffre à gauche du | +# +# 48 | 1 +# 50 | +# 52 | 15578 +# 54 | 44571222466689 +# 56 | 023334677000124455789 +# 58 | 00122366666999933445777 +# 60 | 122445567800133459 +# 62 | 112666799035 +# 64 | 00011334581257889 +# 66 | 003683579 +# 68 | 0019156 +# 70 | 079357 +# 72 | 89 +# 74 | 84 +# 76 | 56 +# 78 | 4 +# 80 | +# 82 | 2 + +# Fait un histogramme : +hist(rivers, col="#333333", border="white", breaks=25) # amusez-vous avec ces paramètres +hist(log(rivers), col="#333333", border="white", breaks=25) # vous ferez plus de tracés plus tard + +# Ici d'autres données qui viennent préchargées. R en a des tonnes. +data(discoveries) +plot(discoveries, col="#333333", lwd=3, xlab="Year", + main="Number of important discoveries per year") +plot(discoveries, col="#333333", lwd=3, type = "h", xlab="Year", + main="Number of important discoveries per year") + +# Plutôt que de laisser l'ordre par défaut (par année) +# Nous pourrions aussi trier pour voir ce qu'il y a de typique +sort(discoveries) +# [1] 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 +# [26] 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 +# [51] 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 +# [76] 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 9 10 12 + +stem(discoveries, scale=2) +# +# Le point décimale est à la | +# +# 0 | 000000000 +# 1 | 000000000000 +# 2 | 00000000000000000000000000 +# 3 | 00000000000000000000 +# 4 | 000000000000 +# 5 | 0000000 +# 6 | 000000 +# 7 | 0000 +# 8 | 0 +# 9 | 0 +# 10 | 0 +# 11 | +# 12 | 0 + +max(discoveries) +# 12 +summary(discoveries) +# Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. +# 0.0 2.0 3.0 3.1 4.0 12.0 + +# Lance un dé plusieurs fois +round(runif(7, min=.5, max=6.5)) +# 1 4 6 1 4 6 4 +# Vos numéros diffèreront des miens à moins que nous mettions +# le même random.seed(31337) + +# Dessine à partir d'une normale Gaussienne 9 fois +rnorm(9) +# [1] 0.07528471 1.03499859 1.34809556 -0.82356087 0.61638975 -1.88757271 +# [7] -0.59975593 0.57629164 1.08455362 + + + +############################################################## +# les types de données et l'arithmétique de base +############################################################## + +# Maintenant pour la partie orientée programmation du tutoriel. +# Dans cette section vous rencontrerez les types de données importants de R : +# les entiers, les numériques, les caractères, les logiques, et les facteurs. + +# LES ENTIERS +# Les entiers de type long sont écrits avec L +5L # 5 +class(5L) # "integer" +# (Essayez ?class pour plus d'informations sur la fonction class().) +# Avec R, chaque valeur seule, comme 5L, est considérée comme +# un vecteur de longueur 1 +length(5L) # 1 +# On peut avoir un vecteur d'entiers avec une longueur > 1 : +c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L) # 4 5 8 3 +length(c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L)) # 4 +class(c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L)) # "integer" + +# LES NUMÉRIQUES +# Un "numeric" est un nombre à virgule flottante d'une précision double +5 # 5 +class(5) # "numeric" +# Encore une fois, tout dans R est un vecteur ; +# Vous pouvez faire un vecteur numérique avec plus d'un élément +c(3,3,3,2,2,1) # 3 3 3 2 2 1 +# Vous pouvez aussi utiliser la notation scientifique +5e4 # 50000 +6.02e23 # nombre d'Avogadro +1.6e-35 # longueur de Planck +# Vous pouvez également avoir des nombres infiniments grands ou petits +class(Inf) # "numeric" +class(-Inf) # "numeric" +# Vous pouvez utiliser "Inf", par exemple, dans integrate(dnorm, 3, Inf); +# Ça permet d'éviter de réaliser une table de la loi normale. + +# ARITHMÉTIQUES DE BASE +# Vous pouvez faire de l'arithmétique avec des nombres +# Faire des opérations arithmétiques en mixant des entiers +# et des numériques +# donne un autre numérique +10L + 66L # 76 # un entier plus un entier donne un entier +53.2 - 4 # 49.2 # un numérique moins un numérique donne un numérique +2.0 * 2L # 4 # un numérique multiplié par un entier donne un numérique +3L / 4 # 0.75 # un entier sur un numérique donne un numérique +3 %% 2 # 1 # le reste de deux numériques est un autre numérique +# Les opérations arithmétiques illégales donnent un "Not A Number" : +0 / 0 # NaN +class(NaN) # "numeric" +# Vous pouvez faire des opérations arithmétiques avec deux vecteurs d'une +# longueur plus grande que 1, à condition que la longueur du plus grand +# vecteur soit un multiple entier du plus petit +c(1,2,3) + c(1,2,3) # 2 4 6 + +# LES CARACTÈRES +# Il n'y a pas de différences entre les chaînes de caractères et +# les caractères en R +"Horatio" # "Horatio" +class("Horatio") # "character" +class('H') # "character" +# Ceux-ci sont tous les deux des vecteurs de longueur 1 +# Ici un plus long : +c('alef', 'bet', 'gimmel', 'dalet', 'he') +# => +# "alef" "bet" "gimmel" "dalet" "he" +length(c("Call","me","Ishmael")) # 3 +# Vous pouvez utiliser des expressions rationnelles sur les vecteurs de caractères : +substr("Fortuna multis dat nimis, nulli satis.", 9, 15) # "multis " +gsub('u', 'ø', "Fortuna multis dat nimis, nulli satis.") # "Fortøna møltis dat nimis, nølli satis." +# R possède plusieurs vecteurs de caractères préconstruits : +letters +# => +# [1] "a" "b" "c" "d" "e" "f" "g" "h" "i" "j" "k" "l" "m" "n" "o" "p" "q" "r" "s" +# [20] "t" "u" "v" "w" "x" "y" "z" +month.abb # "Jan" "Feb" "Mar" "Apr" "May" "Jun" "Jul" "Aug" "Sep" "Oct" "Nov" "Dec" + +# LES TYPES BOOLÉENS +# En R, un "logical" est un booléen +class(TRUE) # "logical" +class(FALSE) # "logical" +# Leur comportement est normal +TRUE == TRUE # TRUE +TRUE == FALSE # FALSE +FALSE != FALSE # FALSE +FALSE != TRUE # TRUE +# Les données manquantes (NA) sont logiques également +class(NA) # "logical" +# On utilise | et & pour les operations logiques. +# OR +TRUE | FALSE # TRUE +# AND +TRUE & FALSE # FALSE +# Vous pouvez tester si x est TRUE +isTRUE(TRUE) # TRUE +# Ici nous avons un vecteur de type logique avec plusieurs éléments : +c('Z', 'o', 'r', 'r', 'o') == "Zorro" # FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE +c('Z', 'o', 'r', 'r', 'o') == "Z" # TRUE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE + +# LES FACTEURS +# Les facteurs sont généralement utilisés pour y stocker des +# variables qualitatives (catégorielles). +# Les facteurs peuvent être ordonnés (comme le niveau scolaire +# des enfants) ou non ordonnés (comme le sexe) +factor(c("female", "female", "male", NA, "female")) +# female female male <NA> female +# Les niveaux : female male +# Les facteurs possèdent un attribut appelé niveau ("level"). +# Les niveaux sont des vecteurs contenant toutes les valeurs +# que peuvent prendre les données catégorielles. +# Notez que les données manquantes n'entrent pas dans le niveau +levels(factor(c("male", "male", "female", NA, "female"))) # "female" "male" +# Si le vecteur de facteurs a une longueur 1, ses niveaux seront +# de longueur 1 également +length(factor("male")) # 1 +length(levels(factor("male"))) # 1 +# On rencontre communément des facteurs dans des "data frame", +# un type de données que nous couvrirons plus tard +data(infert) # "Infertility after Spontaneous and Induced Abortion" +levels(infert$education) # "0-5yrs" "6-11yrs" "12+ yrs" + +# NULL +# "NULL" est bizarre ; on l'utilise pour effacer un vecteur +class(NULL) # NULL +parakeet = c("beak", "feathers", "wings", "eyes") +parakeet +# => +# [1] "beak" "feathers" "wings" "eyes" +parakeet <- NULL +parakeet +# => +# NULL + +# LES CONVERSIONS DE TYPES +# Les conversions de types servent à forcer une valeur à prendre +# un type différent +as.character(c(6, 8)) # "6" "8" +as.logical(c(1,0,1,1)) # TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE +# Si vous mettez des éléments de différents types dans un vecteur, +# des coercitions bizarres se produisent : +c(TRUE, 4) # 1 4 +c("dog", TRUE, 4) # "dog" "TRUE" "4" +as.numeric("Bilbo") +# => +# [1] NA +# Message d'avertissement : +# NAs est introduit par coercition + +# Notez également : ce n'étaient que des types de données basiques +# Il y a beaucoup d'autres types de données, comme les dates, +# les séries temporelles, etc ... + + + +####################################### +# Variables, boucles , if/else +####################################### + +# Une variable est comme une boîte dans laquelle on garde une valeur +# pour l'utiliser plus tard. +# Nous appellons ça "assigner" une valeur à une variable. +# Avoir des variables nous permet d'écrire des boucles, des fonctions, et +# des instructions conditionnelles (if/else) + +# LES VARIABLES +# Beaucoup de façons d'assigner des choses : +x = 5 # c'est correct +y <- "1" # c'est préféré +TRUE -> z # ça marche mais c'est bizarre + +# LES BOUCLES +# Il y a les boucles for : +for (i in 1:4) { + print(i) +} +# Il y a les boucles while : +a <- 10 +while (a > 4) { + cat(a, "...", sep = "") + a <- a - 1 +} +# Gardez à l'esprit que les boucles for et while s'exécutent lentement +# en R. +# Des opérations sur la totalité d'un vecteur (ex une ligne entière, +# une colonne entière), +# ou les fonctions de type apply() (nous en parlerons plus tard), +# sont préférées. + +# IF/ELSE +# Encore une fois assez standard +if (4 > 3) { + print("4 is greater than 3") +} else { + print("4 is not greater than 3") +} +# => +# [1] "4 is greater than 3" + +# LES FONCTIONS +# se définissent comme ceci : +jiggle <- function(x) { + x = x + rnorm(1, sd=.1) # ajoute un peu de bruit (contrôlé) + return(x) +} +# Appelées comme n'importe quelles autres fonction R : +jiggle(5) # 5±ε. After set.seed(2716057), jiggle(5)==5.005043 + + + +########################################################################## +# Les structures de données : les vecteurs, les matrices, +# les data frames et les tableaux +########################################################################## + +# À UNE DIMENSION + +# Commençons par le tout début, et avec quelque chose que +# vous connaissez déjà : les vecteurs. +vec <- c(8, 9, 10, 11) +vec # 8 9 10 11 +# Nous demandons des éléments spécifiques en les mettant entre crochets +# (Notez que R commence à compter à partir de 1) +vec[1] # 8 +letters[18] # "r" +LETTERS[13] # "M" +month.name[9] # "September" +c(6, 8, 7, 5, 3, 0, 9)[3] # 7 +# Nous pouvons également rechercher des indices de composants spécifiques, +which(vec %% 2 == 0) # 1 3 +# Récupèrer seulement les premières ou dernières entrées du vecteur, +head(vec, 1) # 8 +tail(vec, 2) # 10 11 +# ou vérifier si un certaine valeur est dans le vecteur +any(vec == 10) # TRUE +# Si un index "dépasse" vous obtiendrez NA : +vec[6] # NA +# Vous pouvez trouver la longueur de votre vecteur avec length() +length(vec) # 4 +# Vous pouvez réaliser des opérations sur des vecteurs entiers ou des +# sous-ensembles de vecteurs +vec * 4 # 16 20 24 28 +vec[2:3] * 5 # 25 30 +any(vec[2:3] == 8) # FALSE +# Et R a beaucoup de méthodes statistiques pré-construites pour les vecteurs : +mean(vec) # 9.5 +var(vec) # 1.666667 +sd(vec) # 1.290994 +max(vec) # 11 +min(vec) # 8 +sum(vec) # 38 +# Quelques fonctions préconstruites sympas supplémentaires : +5:15 # 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 +seq(from=0, to=31337, by=1337) +# => +# [1] 0 1337 2674 4011 5348 6685 8022 9359 10696 12033 13370 14707 +# [13] 16044 17381 18718 20055 21392 22729 24066 25403 26740 28077 29414 30751 + +# À DEUX DIMENSIONS (TOUT DANS UNE CLASSE) + +# Vous pouvez créer une matrice à partir d'entrées du même type comme ceci : +mat <- matrix(nrow = 3, ncol = 2, c(1,2,3,4,5,6)) +mat +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 1 4 +# [2,] 2 5 +# [3,] 3 6 +# Différemment du vecteur, la classe d'une matrice est "matrix", +# peut importe ce qu'elle contient +class(mat) # => "matrix" +# Récupérer la première ligne +mat[1,] # 1 4 +# Réaliser une opération sur la première colonne +3 * mat[,1] # 3 6 9 +# Demander une cellule spécifique +mat[3,2] # 6 + +# Transposer la matrice entière +t(mat) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] +# [1,] 1 2 3 +# [2,] 4 5 6 + +# La multiplication de matrices +mat %*% t(mat) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] +# [1,] 17 22 27 +# [2,] 22 29 36 +# [3,] 27 36 45 + +# cbind() colle des vecteurs ensemble en colonne pour faire une matrice +mat2 <- cbind(1:4, c("dog", "cat", "bird", "dog")) +mat2 +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] "1" "dog" +# [2,] "2" "cat" +# [3,] "3" "bird" +# [4,] "4" "dog" +class(mat2) # matrix +# Encore une fois regardez ce qui se passe ! +# Parce que les matrices peuvent contenir des entrées de toutes sortes de +# classes, tout sera converti en classe caractère +c(class(mat2[,1]), class(mat2[,2])) + +# rbind() colle des vecteurs ensemble par lignes pour faire une matrice +mat3 <- rbind(c(1,2,4,5), c(6,7,0,4)) +mat3 +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] +# [1,] 1 2 4 5 +# [2,] 6 7 0 4 +# Ah, tout de la même classe. Pas de coercitions. Beaucoup mieux. + +# À DEUX DIMENSIONS (DE CLASSES DIFFÉRENTES) + +# Pour des colonnes de différents types, utiliser une data frame +# Cette structure de données est si utile pour la programmation statistique, +# qu'une version a été ajoutée à Python dans le paquet "pandas". + +students <- data.frame(c("Cedric","Fred","George","Cho","Draco","Ginny"), + c(3,2,2,1,0,-1), + c("H", "G", "G", "R", "S", "G")) +names(students) <- c("name", "year", "house") # name the columns +class(students) # "data.frame" +students +# => +# name year house +# 1 Cedric 3 H +# 2 Fred 2 G +# 3 George 2 G +# 4 Cho 1 R +# 5 Draco 0 S +# 6 Ginny -1 G +class(students$year) # "numeric" +class(students[,3]) # "factor" +# Trouver les dimensions +nrow(students) # 6 +ncol(students) # 3 +dim(students) # 6 3 +# La fonction data.frame() convertit les vecteurs caractères en vecteurs de +# facteurs par défaut; désactiver cette fonction en règlant +# stringsAsFactors = FALSE quand vous créer la data.frame +?data.frame + +# Il y a plusieurs façons de subdiviser les data frames, +# toutes subtilement différentes +students$year # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 +students[,2] # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 +students[,"year"] # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 + +# Une version améliorée de la structure data.frame est data.table. +# Si vous travaillez avec des données volumineuses ou des panels, ou avez +# besoin de fusionner quelques ensembles de données, data.table peut être +# un bon choix. Ici un tour éclair : +install.packages("data.table") # télécharge le paquet depuis CRAN +require(data.table) # le charge +students <- as.data.table(students) +students # regardez la différence à l'impression +# => +# name year house +# 1: Cedric 3 H +# 2: Fred 2 G +# 3: George 2 G +# 4: Cho 1 R +# 5: Draco 0 S +# 6: Ginny -1 G +students[name=="Ginny"] # obtiens les lignes avec name == "Ginny" +# => +# name year house +# 1: Ginny -1 G +students[year==2] # obtiens les lignes avec year == 2 +# => +# name year house +# 1: Fred 2 G +# 2: George 2 G +# data.table facilite la fusion entre deux ensembles de données +# Faisons une autre data.table pour fusionner students +founders <- data.table(house=c("G","H","R","S"), + founder=c("Godric","Helga","Rowena","Salazar")) +founders +# => +# house founder +# 1: G Godric +# 2: H Helga +# 3: R Rowena +# 4: S Salazar +setkey(students, house) +setkey(founders, house) +students <- founders[students] # merge les deux ensembles de données qui matchent "house" +setnames(students, c("house","houseFounderName","studentName","year")) +students[,order(c("name","year","house","houseFounderName")), with=F] +# => +# studentName year house houseFounderName +# 1: Fred 2 G Godric +# 2: George 2 G Godric +# 3: Ginny -1 G Godric +# 4: Cedric 3 H Helga +# 5: Cho 1 R Rowena +# 6: Draco 0 S Salazar + +# data.table facilite le résumé des tableaux +students[,sum(year),by=house] +# => +# house V1 +# 1: G 3 +# 2: H 3 +# 3: R 1 +# 4: S 0 + +# Pour supprimer une colonne d'une data.frame ou data.table, +# assignez-lui la valeur NULL +students$houseFounderName <- NULL +students +# => +# studentName year house +# 1: Fred 2 G +# 2: George 2 G +# 3: Ginny -1 G +# 4: Cedric 3 H +# 5: Cho 1 R +# 6: Draco 0 S + +# Supprimer une ligne en subdivisant +# En utilisant data.table : +students[studentName != "Draco"] +# => +# house studentName year +# 1: G Fred 2 +# 2: G George 2 +# 3: G Ginny -1 +# 4: H Cedric 3 +# 5: R Cho 1 +# En utilisant data.frame : +students <- as.data.frame(students) +students[students$house != "G",] +# => +# house houseFounderName studentName year +# 4 H Helga Cedric 3 +# 5 R Rowena Cho 1 +# 6 S Salazar Draco 0 + +# MULTI-DIMENSIONNELLE (TOUS ÉLÉMENTS D'UN TYPE) + +# Les arrays créent des tableaux de n dimensions. +# Tous les éléments doivent être du même type. +# Vous pouvez faire un tableau à 2 dimensions (une sorte de matrice) +array(c(c(1,2,4,5),c(8,9,3,6)), dim=c(2,4)) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] +# [1,] 1 4 8 3 +# [2,] 2 5 9 6 +# Vous pouvez aussi utiliser array pour faire des matrices à 3 dimensions : +array(c(c(c(2,300,4),c(8,9,0)),c(c(5,60,0),c(66,7,847))), dim=c(3,2,2)) +# => +# , , 1 +# +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 2 8 +# [2,] 300 9 +# [3,] 4 0 +# +# , , 2 +# +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 5 66 +# [2,] 60 7 +# [3,] 0 847 + +# LES LISTES (MULTI-DIMENSIONNELLES, ÉVENTUELLEMMENT DÉCHIRÉES, +# DE DIFFÉRENTS TYPES) + +# Enfin, R a des listes (de vecteurs) +list1 <- list(time = 1:40) +list1$price = c(rnorm(40,.5*list1$time,4)) # random +list1 +# Vous pouvez obtenir des éléments de la liste comme ceci +list1$time # une façon +list1[["time"]] # une autre façon +list1[[1]] # encore une façon différente +# => +# [1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 +# [34] 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 +# Vous pouvez subdiviser les éléments d'une liste comme n'importe quel vecteur +list1$price[4] + +# Les listes ne sont pas les structures de données les plus efficaces +# à utiliser avec R ; +# À moins d'avoir une très bonne raison, vous devriez utiliser data.frames +# Les listes sont souvent retournées par des fonctions qui effectuent +# des régressions linéaires. + +########################################## +# La famille de fonction apply() +########################################## + +# Vous vous rappelez mat ? +mat +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 1 4 +# [2,] 2 5 +# [3,] 3 6 +# Utilisez apply(X, MARGIN, FUN) pour appliquer la fonction FUN à la matrice X +# sur les lignes (MAR = 1) ou les colonnes (MAR = 2) +# R exécute FUN à chaque lignes (ou colonnes) de X, beaucoup plus rapidement +# que le ferait une boucle for ou while +apply(mat, MAR = 2, jiggle) +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 3 15 +# [2,] 7 19 +# [3,] 11 23 +# D'autres fonctions : ?lapply, ?sapply + +# Ne soyez pas trop intimidé ; tout le monde reconnaît que c'est un peu déroutant + +# Le paquet plyr vise à remplacer (et améliorer !) la famille *apply(). +install.packages("plyr") +require(plyr) +?plyr + + + +############################ +# Charger des données +############################ + +# "pets.csv" est un fichier sur internet +# (mais il pourrait être tout aussi facilement sur votre ordinateur) +pets <- read.csv("http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/pets.csv") +pets +head(pets, 2) # first two rows +tail(pets, 1) # last row + +# Pour sauvegarder une data frame ou une matrice en fichier .csv +write.csv(pets, "pets2.csv") # to make a new .csv file +# définir le répertoire de travail avec setwd(), le récupérer avec getwd() + +# Essayez ?read.csv et ?write.csv pour plus d'informations + + + +################ +# Les tracés +################ + +# LES FONCTIONS DE TRACÉ PRÉCONSTRUITES +# Les diagrammes de dispersion ! +plot(list1$time, list1$price, main = "fake data") +# Les régressions ! +linearModel <- lm(price ~ time, data = list1) +linearModel # sort le résultat de la régression +# Tracer une ligne de regression sur une tracé existant +abline(linearModel, col = "red") +# Obtenir une variété de diagnostiques sympas +plot(linearModel) +# Les histogrammes ! +hist(rpois(n = 10000, lambda = 5), col = "thistle") +# Les diagrammes en bâtons ! +barplot(c(1,4,5,1,2), names.arg = c("red","blue","purple","green","yellow")) + +# GGPLOT2 +# Mais ceux-ci ne sont même pas les plus jolis tracés de R +# Essayez le paquet ggplot2 pour d'avantages de graphiques +install.packages("ggplot2") +require(ggplot2) +?ggplot2 +pp <- ggplot(students, aes(x=house)) +pp + geom_histogram() +ll <- as.data.table(list1) +pp <- ggplot(ll, aes(x=time,price)) +pp + geom_point() +# ggplot2 a une documentation excellente +#(disponible sur http://docs.ggplot2.org/current/) + + + +``` + +## Comment obtenir R ? + +* Obtiens R et R GUI depuis [http://www.r-project.org/](http://www.r-project.org/) +* [RStudio](http://www.rstudio.com/ide/) est un autre GUI diff --git a/haxe.html.markdown b/haxe.html.markdown index c807d2d7..ee214540 100644 --- a/haxe.html.markdown +++ b/haxe.html.markdown @@ -323,7 +323,7 @@ class LearnHaxe3{ var l = 0; do{ trace("do statement always runs at least once"); - } while (i > 0); + } while (l > 0); // for loop /* @@ -340,7 +340,7 @@ class LearnHaxe3{ // (more on ranges later as well) var n = ['foo', 'bar', 'baz']; for (val in 0...n.length){ - trace(val + " is the value for val (an index for m)"); + trace(val + " is the value for val (an index for n)"); } @@ -375,7 +375,7 @@ class LearnHaxe3{ case "rex" : favorite_thing = "shoe"; case "spot" : favorite_thing = "tennis ball"; default : favorite_thing = "some unknown treat"; - // case _ : "some unknown treat"; // same as default + // case _ : favorite_thing = "some unknown treat"; // same as default } // The "_" case above is a "wildcard" value // that will match anything. @@ -397,7 +397,7 @@ class LearnHaxe3{ // if statements var k = if (true) 10 else 20; - trace("K equals ", k); // outputs 10 + trace("k equals ", k); // outputs 10 var other_favorite_thing = switch(my_dog_name) { case "fido" : "teddy"; @@ -495,8 +495,10 @@ class LearnHaxe3{ // foo_instance.public_read = 4; // this will throw an error if uncommented: // trace(foo_instance.public_write); // as will this. - trace(foo_instance + " is the value for foo_instance"); // calls the toString method - trace(foo_instance.toString() + " is the value for foo_instance.toString()"); // same thing + // calls the toString method: + trace(foo_instance + " is the value for foo_instance"); + // same thing: + trace(foo_instance.toString() + " is the value for foo_instance.toString()"); /* @@ -524,8 +526,8 @@ class LearnHaxe3{ */ class FooClass extends BarClass implements BarInterface{ public var public_any:Int; // public variables are accessible anywhere - public var public_read (default,null): Int; // use this style to only enable public read - public var public_write (null, default): Int; // or public write + public var public_read (default, null): Int; // enable only public read + public var public_write (null, default): Int; // or only public write public var property (get, set): Int; // use this style to enable getters/setters // private variables are not available outside the class. @@ -534,9 +536,10 @@ class FooClass extends BarClass implements BarInterface{ // a public constructor public function new(arg:Int){ - super(); // call the constructor of the parent object, since we extended BarClass + // call the constructor of the parent object, since we extended BarClass: + super(); - this.public_any= 0; + this.public_any = 0; this._private = arg; } diff --git a/java.html.markdown b/java.html.markdown index 10dd498c..928eb39f 100644 --- a/java.html.markdown +++ b/java.html.markdown @@ -1,16 +1,16 @@ --- - language: java contributors: - ["Jake Prather", "http://github.com/JakeHP"] - - ["Madison Dickson", "http://github.com/mix3d"] - ["Jakukyo Friel", "http://weakish.github.io"] + - ["Madison Dickson", "http://github.com/mix3d"] + - ["Simon Morgan", "http://sjm.io/"] filename: LearnJava.java - --- -Java is a general-purpose, concurrent, class-based, object-oriented computer programming language. -[Read more here.](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/index.html) +Java is a general-purpose, concurrent, class-based, object-oriented computer +programming language. +[Read more here.](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/) ```java // Single-line comments start with // @@ -31,17 +31,17 @@ import java.security.*; // the file. public class LearnJava { - // A program must have a main method as an entry point + // A program must have a main method as an entry point. public static void main (String[] args) { - // Use System.out.println to print lines + // Use System.out.println() to print lines. System.out.println("Hello World!"); System.out.println( "Integer: " + 10 + " Double: " + 3.14 + " Boolean: " + true); - // To print without a newline, use System.out.print + // To print without a newline, use System.out.print(). System.out.print("Hello "); System.out.print("World"); @@ -69,7 +69,7 @@ public class LearnJava { // L is used to denote that this variable value is of type Long; // anything without is treated as integer by default. - // Note: Java has no unsigned types + // Note: Java has no unsigned types. // Float - Single-precision 32-bit IEEE 754 Floating Point float fooFloat = 234.5f; @@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ public class LearnJava { // Char - A single 16-bit Unicode character char fooChar = 'A'; - // final variables can't be reassigned to another object + // final variables can't be reassigned to another object. final int HOURS_I_WORK_PER_WEEK = 9001; // Strings @@ -101,10 +101,10 @@ public class LearnJava { System.out.println(bazString); // Arrays - //The array size must be decided upon instantiation - //The following formats work for declaring an array - //<datatype>[] <var name> = new <datatype>[<array size>]; - //<datatype> <var name>[] = new <datatype>[<array size>]; + // The array size must be decided upon instantiation + // The following formats work for declaring an array + // <datatype>[] <var name> = new <datatype>[<array size>]; + // <datatype> <var name>[] = new <datatype>[<array size>]; int[] intArray = new int[10]; String[] stringArray = new String[1]; boolean boolArray[] = new boolean[100]; @@ -122,17 +122,17 @@ public class LearnJava { System.out.println("intArray @ 1: " + intArray[1]); // => 1 // Others to check out - // ArrayLists - Like arrays except more functionality is offered, - // and the size is mutable + // ArrayLists - Like arrays except more functionality is offered, and + // the size is mutable. // LinkedLists - Implementation of doubly-linked list. All of the - // operations perform as could be expected for - // a doubly-linked list. - // Maps - A set of objects that maps keys to values. A map cannot contain - // duplicate keys; each key can map to at most one value. - // HashMaps - This class uses a hashtable to implement the Map interface. - // This allows the execution time of basic operations, - // such as get and insert element, to remain constant even - // for large sets. + // operations perform as could be expected for a + // doubly-linked list. + // Maps - A set of objects that maps keys to values. A map cannot + // contain duplicate keys; each key can map to at most one value. + // HashMaps - This class uses a hashtable to implement the Map + // interface. This allows the execution time of basic + // operations, such as get and insert element, to remain + // constant even for large sets. /////////////////////////////////////// // Operators @@ -160,13 +160,13 @@ public class LearnJava { // Bitwise operators! /* - ~ Unary bitwise complement - << Signed left shift - >> Signed right shift - >>> Unsigned right shift - & Bitwise AND - ^ Bitwise exclusive OR - | Bitwise inclusive OR + ~ Unary bitwise complement + << Signed left shift + >> Signed right shift + >>> Unsigned right shift + & Bitwise AND + ^ Bitwise exclusive OR + | Bitwise inclusive OR */ // Incrementations @@ -175,10 +175,10 @@ public class LearnJava { // The ++ and -- operators increment and decrement by 1 respectively. // If they are placed before the variable, they increment then return; // after the variable they return then increment. - System.out.println(i++); //i = 1, prints 0 (post-increment) - System.out.println(++i); //i = 2, prints 2 (pre-increment) - System.out.println(i--); //i = 1, prints 2 (post-decrement) - System.out.println(--i); //i = 0, prints 0 (pre-decrement) + System.out.println(i++); // i = 1, prints 0 (post-increment) + System.out.println(++i); // i = 2, prints 2 (pre-increment) + System.out.println(i--); // i = 1, prints 2 (post-decrement) + System.out.println(--i); // i = 0, prints 0 (pre-decrement) /////////////////////////////////////// // Control Structures @@ -197,73 +197,69 @@ public class LearnJava { // While loop int fooWhile = 0; - while(fooWhile < 100) - { - //System.out.println(fooWhile); - //Increment the counter - //Iterated 100 times, fooWhile 0,1,2...99 + while(fooWhile < 100) { + System.out.println(fooWhile); + // Increment the counter + // Iterated 100 times, fooWhile 0,1,2...99 fooWhile++; } System.out.println("fooWhile Value: " + fooWhile); // Do While Loop int fooDoWhile = 0; - do - { - //System.out.println(fooDoWhile); - //Increment the counter - //Iterated 99 times, fooDoWhile 0->99 + do { + System.out.println(fooDoWhile); + // Increment the counter + // Iterated 99 times, fooDoWhile 0->99 fooDoWhile++; - }while(fooDoWhile < 100); + } while(fooDoWhile < 100); System.out.println("fooDoWhile Value: " + fooDoWhile); // For Loop int fooFor; - //for loop structure => for(<start_statement>; <conditional>; <step>) - for(fooFor=0; fooFor<10; fooFor++){ - //System.out.println(fooFor); - //Iterated 10 times, fooFor 0->9 + // for loop structure => for(<start_statement>; <conditional>; <step>) + for (fooFor = 0; fooFor < 10; fooFor++) { + System.out.println(fooFor); + // Iterated 10 times, fooFor 0->9 } System.out.println("fooFor Value: " + fooFor); // For Each Loop - // An automatic iteration through an array or list of objects. - int[] fooList = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}; - //for each loop structure => for(<object> : <array_object>) - //reads as: for each object in the array - //note: the object type must match the array. - - for( int bar : fooList ){ - //System.out.println(bar); + // The for loop is also able to iterate over arrays as well as objects + // that implement the Iterable interface. + int[] fooList = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}; + // for each loop structure => for (<object> : <iterable>) + // reads as: for each element in the iterable + // note: the object type must match the element type of the iterable. + + for (int bar : fooList) { + System.out.println(bar); //Iterates 9 times and prints 1-9 on new lines } // Switch Case // A switch works with the byte, short, char, and int data types. - // It also works with enumerated types (discussed in Enum Types), - // the String class, and a few special classes that wrap - // primitive types: Character, Byte, Short, and Integer. + // It also works with enumerated types (discussed in Enum Types), the + // String class, and a few special classes that wrap primitive types: + // Character, Byte, Short, and Integer. int month = 3; String monthString; - switch (month){ - case 1: - monthString = "January"; - break; - case 2: - monthString = "February"; + switch (month) { + case 1: monthString = "January"; break; - case 3: - monthString = "March"; + case 2: monthString = "February"; break; - default: - monthString = "Some other month"; + case 3: monthString = "March"; break; + default: monthString = "Some other month"; + break; } System.out.println("Switch Case Result: " + monthString); // Conditional Shorthand // You can use the '?' operator for quick assignments or logic forks. - // Reads as "If (statement) is true, use <first value>, otherwise, use <second value>" + // Reads as "If (statement) is true, use <first value>, otherwise, use + // <second value>" int foo = 5; String bar = (foo < 10) ? "A" : "B"; System.out.println(bar); // Prints A, because the statement is true @@ -287,9 +283,8 @@ public class LearnJava { // String // Typecasting - // You can also cast java objects, there's a lot of details and - // deals with some more intermediate concepts. - // Feel free to check it out here: + // You can also cast Java objects, there's a lot of details and deals + // with some more intermediate concepts. Feel free to check it out here: // http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/subclasses.html @@ -319,9 +314,9 @@ public class LearnJava { // Class Declaration Syntax: -// <public/private/protected> class <class name>{ -// //data fields, constructors, functions all inside. -// //functions are called as methods in Java. +// <public/private/protected> class <class name> { +// // data fields, constructors, functions all inside. +// // functions are called as methods in Java. // } class Bicycle { @@ -342,7 +337,8 @@ class Bicycle { } // This is a constructor that takes arguments - public Bicycle(int startCadence, int startSpeed, int startGear, String name) { + public Bicycle(int startCadence, int startSpeed, int startGear, + String name) { this.gear = startGear; this.cadence = startCadence; this.speed = startSpeed; @@ -388,10 +384,8 @@ class Bicycle { //Method to display the attribute values of this Object. @Override public String toString() { - return "gear: " + gear + - " cadence: " + cadence + - " speed: " + speed + - " name: " + name; + return "gear: " + gear + " cadence: " + cadence + " speed: " + speed + + " name: " + name; } } // end class Bicycle @@ -405,26 +399,26 @@ class PennyFarthing extends Bicycle { super(startCadence, startSpeed, 0, "PennyFarthing"); } - // You should mark a method you're overriding with an @annotation - // To learn more about what annotations are and their purpose - // check this out: http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/annotations/ + // You should mark a method you're overriding with an @annotation. + // To learn more about what annotations are and their purpose check this + // out: http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/annotations/ @Override public void setGear(int gear) { gear = 0; } - } -//Interfaces -//Interface declaration syntax -//<access-level> interface <interface-name> extends <super-interfaces> { -// //Constants -// //Method declarations -//} +// Interfaces +// Interface declaration syntax +// <access-level> interface <interface-name> extends <super-interfaces> { +// // Constants +// // Method declarations +// } -//Example - Food: +// Example - Food: public interface Edible { - public void eat(); //Any class that implements this interface, must implement this method + public void eat(); // Any class that implements this interface, must + // implement this method. } public interface Digestible { @@ -432,33 +426,31 @@ public interface Digestible { } -//We can now create a class that implements both of these interfaces +// We can now create a class that implements both of these interfaces. public class Fruit implements Edible, Digestible { @Override public void eat() { - //... + // ... } @Override public void digest() { - //... + // ... } } -//In java, you can extend only one class, but you can implement many interfaces. -//For example: -public class ExampleClass extends ExampleClassParent implements InterfaceOne, InterfaceTwo { +// In Java, you can extend only one class, but you can implement many +// interfaces. For example: +public class ExampleClass extends ExampleClassParent implements InterfaceOne, + InterfaceTwo { @Override public void InterfaceOneMethod() { - } @Override public void InterfaceTwoMethod() { - } } - ``` ## Further Reading @@ -500,5 +492,3 @@ The links provided here below are just to get an understanding of the topic, fee * [Objects First with Java](http://www.amazon.com/Objects-First-Java-Practical-Introduction/dp/0132492660) * [Java The Complete Reference](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0071606300) - - diff --git a/nim.html.markdown b/nim.html.markdown index aa15e591..c9548a1c 100644 --- a/nim.html.markdown +++ b/nim.html.markdown @@ -155,7 +155,7 @@ var anotherArray = ["Default index", "starts at", "0"] # More data structures are available, including tables, sets, lists, queues, # and crit bit trees. -# http://nimrod-lang.org/lib.html#collections-and-algorithms +# http://nim-lang.org/docs/lib.html#collections-and-algorithms # # IO and Control Flow @@ -174,7 +174,7 @@ else: # `while`, `if`, `continue`, `break` -import strutils as str # http://nimrod-lang.org/strutils.html +import strutils as str # http://nim-lang.org/docs/strutils.html echo "I'm thinking of a number between 41 and 43. Guess which!" let number: int = 42 var @@ -263,11 +263,11 @@ performance, and compile-time features. ## Further Reading -* [Home Page](http://nimrod-lang.org) -* [Download](http://nimrod-lang.org/download.html) -* [Community](http://nimrod-lang.org/community.html) -* [FAQ](http://nimrod-lang.org/question.html) -* [Documentation](http://nimrod-lang.org/documentation.html) -* [Manual](http://nimrod-lang.org/manual.html) -* [Standard Library](http://nimrod-lang.org/lib.html) -* [Rosetta Code](http://rosettacode.org/wiki/Category:Nimrod) +* [Home Page](http://nim-lang.org) +* [Download](http://nim-lang.org/download.html) +* [Community](http://nim-lang.org/community.html) +* [FAQ](http://nim-lang.org/question.html) +* [Documentation](http://nim-lang.org/documentation.html) +* [Manual](http://nim-lang.org/docs/manual.html) +* [Standard Library](http://nim-lang.org/docs/lib.html) +* [Rosetta Code](http://rosettacode.org/wiki/Category:Nim) diff --git a/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown index 64b0aadc..b450ab84 100644 --- a/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown @@ -341,7 +341,7 @@ var myFunc = myObj.myFunc; myFunc(); // = undefined // 相应的，一个函数也可以被指定为一个对象的方法，并且可以通过`this`访问 -// 这个对象的成员，即使在行数被定义时并没有依附在对象上。 +// 这个对象的成员，即使在函数被定义时并没有依附在对象上。 var myOtherFunc = function(){ return this.myString.toUpperCase(); } |