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diff --git a/python3.html.markdown b/python3.html.markdown index 0b4feccc..1f9d0e42 100644 --- a/python3.html.markdown +++ b/python3.html.markdown @@ -4,6 +4,8 @@ contributors: - ["Louie Dinh", "http://pythonpracticeprojects.com"] - ["Steven Basart", "http://github.com/xksteven"] - ["Andre Polykanine", "https://github.com/Oire"] + - ["Zachary Ferguson", "http://github.com/zfergus2"] + - ["evuez", "http://github.com/evuez"] filename: learnpython3.py --- @@ -13,7 +15,7 @@ executable pseudocode. Feedback would be highly appreciated! You can reach me at [@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) or louiedinh [at] [google's email service] -Note: This article applies to Python 3 specifically. Check out the other tutorial if you want to learn the old Python 2.7 +Note: This article applies to Python 3 specifically. Check out [here](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/python/) if you want to learn the old Python 2.7 ```python @@ -32,50 +34,50 @@ Note: This article applies to Python 3 specifically. Check out the other tutoria 3 # => 3 # Math is what you would expect -1 + 1 # => 2 -8 - 1 # => 7 +1 + 1 # => 2 +8 - 1 # => 7 10 * 2 # => 20 -# Except division which returns floats by default +# Except division which returns floats, real numbers, by default 35 / 5 # => 7.0 -# Result of integer division truncated down both for positive and negative. -5 // 3 # => 1 -5.0 // 3.0 # => 1.0 # works on floats too --5 // 3 # => -2 --5.0 // 3.0 # => -2.0 +# Result of integer division truncated down both for positive and negative. +5 // 3 # => 1 +5.0 // 3.0 # => 1.0 # works on floats too +-5 // 3 # => -2 +-5.0 // 3.0 # => -2.0 # When you use a float, results are floats -3 * 2.0 # => 6.0 +3 * 2.0 # => 6.0 # Modulo operation -7 % 3 # => 1 +7 % 3 # => 1 -# Exponentiation (x to the yth power) -2**4 # => 16 +# Exponentiation (x**y, x to the yth power) +2**4 # => 16 # Enforce precedence with parentheses (1 + 3) * 2 # => 8 -# Boolean values are primitives +# Boolean values are primitives (Note: the capitalization) True False # negate with not -not True # => False +not True # => False not False # => True # Boolean Operators # Note "and" and "or" are case-sensitive -True and False #=> False -False or True #=> True +True and False # => False +False or True # => True # Note using Bool operators with ints -0 and 2 #=> 0 --5 or 0 #=> -5 -0 == False #=> True -2 == True #=> False -1 == True #=> True +0 and 2 # => 0 +-5 or 0 # => -5 +0 == False # => True +2 == True # => False +1 == True # => True # Equality is == 1 == 1 # => True @@ -95,29 +97,41 @@ False or True #=> True 1 < 2 < 3 # => True 2 < 3 < 2 # => False +# (is vs. ==) is checks if two variable refer to the same object, but == checks +# if the objects pointed to have the same values. +a = [1, 2, 3, 4] # Point a at a new list, [1, 2, 3, 4] +b = a # Point b at what a is pointing to +b is a # => True, a and b refer to the same object +b == a # => True, a's and b's objects are equal +b = [1, 2, 3, 4] # Point a at a new list, [1, 2, 3, 4] +b is a # => False, a and b do not refer to the same object +b == a # => True, a's and b's objects are equal + # Strings are created with " or ' "This is a string." 'This is also a string.' # Strings can be added too! But try not to do this. "Hello " + "world!" # => "Hello world!" +# Strings can be added without using '+' +"Hello " "world!" # => "Hello world!" # A string can be treated like a list of characters "This is a string"[0] # => 'T' # .format can be used to format strings, like this: -"{} can be {}".format("strings", "interpolated") +"{} can be {}".format("Strings", "interpolated") # => "Strings can be interpolated" # You can repeat the formatting arguments to save some typing. "{0} be nimble, {0} be quick, {0} jump over the {1}".format("Jack", "candle stick") -#=> "Jack be nimble, Jack be quick, Jack jump over the candle stick" +# => "Jack be nimble, Jack be quick, Jack jump over the candle stick" # You can use keywords if you don't want to count. -"{name} wants to eat {food}".format(name="Bob", food="lasagna") #=> "Bob wants to eat lasagna" +"{name} wants to eat {food}".format(name="Bob", food="lasagna") # => "Bob wants to eat lasagna" # If your Python 3 code also needs to run on Python 2.5 and below, you can also # still use the old style of formatting: -"%s can be %s the %s way" % ("strings", "interpolated", "old") +"%s can be %s the %s way" % ("Strings", "interpolated", "old") # => "Strings can be interpolated the old way" # None is an object @@ -126,14 +140,14 @@ None # => None # Don't use the equality "==" symbol to compare objects to None # Use "is" instead. This checks for equality of object identity. "etc" is None # => False -None is None # => True +None is None # => True # None, 0, and empty strings/lists/dicts all evaluate to False. # All other values are True -bool(0) # => False +bool(0) # => False bool("") # => False -bool([]) #=> False -bool({}) #=> False +bool([]) # => False +bool({}) # => False #################################################### @@ -141,9 +155,17 @@ bool({}) #=> False #################################################### # Python has a print function -print("I'm Python. Nice to meet you!") +print("I'm Python. Nice to meet you!") # => I'm Python. Nice to meet you! + +# By default the print function also prints out a newline at the end. +# Use the optional argument end to change the end character. +print("Hello, World", end="!") # => Hello, World! + +# Simple way to get input data from console +input_string_var = input("Enter some data: ") # Returns the data as a string +# Note: In earlier versions of Python, input() method was named as raw_input() -# No need to declare variables before assigning to them. +# No need to declare variables before assigning to them. # Convention is to use lower_case_with_underscores some_var = 5 some_var # => 5 @@ -168,7 +190,7 @@ li.pop() # => 3 and li is now [1, 2, 4] li.append(3) # li is now [1, 2, 4, 3] again. # Access a list like you would any array -li[0] # => 1 +li[0] # => 1 # Look at the last element li[-1] # => 3 @@ -177,52 +199,74 @@ li[4] # Raises an IndexError # You can look at ranges with slice syntax. # (It's a closed/open range for you mathy types.) -li[1:3] # => [2, 4] +li[1:3] # => [2, 4] # Omit the beginning -li[2:] # => [4, 3] +li[2:] # => [4, 3] # Omit the end -li[:3] # => [1, 2, 4] +li[:3] # => [1, 2, 4] # Select every second entry li[::2] # =>[1, 4] -# Revert the list -li[::-1] # => [3, 4, 2, 1] +# Return a reversed copy of the list +li[::-1] # => [3, 4, 2, 1] # Use any combination of these to make advanced slices # li[start:end:step] +# Make a one layer deep copy using slices +li2 = li[:] # => li2 = [1, 2, 4, 3] but (li2 is li) will result in false. + # Remove arbitrary elements from a list with "del" -del li[2] # li is now [1, 2, 3] +del li[2] # li is now [1, 2, 3] + +# Remove first occurrence of a value +li.remove(2) # li is now [1, 3] +li.remove(2) # Raises a ValueError as 2 is not in the list + +# Insert an element at a specific index +li.insert(1, 2) # li is now [1, 2, 3] again + +# Get the index of the first item found +li.index(2) # => 3 +li.index(4) # Raises a ValueError as 4 is not in the list # You can add lists # Note: values for li and for other_li are not modified. -li + other_li # => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] +li + other_li # => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] # Concatenate lists with "extend()" -li.extend(other_li) # Now li is [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] +li.extend(other_li) # Now li is [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] # Check for existence in a list with "in" -1 in li # => True +1 in li # => True # Examine the length with "len()" -len(li) # => 6 +len(li) # => 6 # Tuples are like lists but are immutable. tup = (1, 2, 3) -tup[0] # => 1 +tup[0] # => 1 tup[0] = 3 # Raises a TypeError -# You can do all those list thingies on tuples too -len(tup) # => 3 -tup + (4, 5, 6) # => (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) -tup[:2] # => (1, 2) -2 in tup # => True +# Note that a tuple of length one has to have a comma after the last element but +# tuples of other lengths, even zero, do not. +type((1)) # => <class 'int'> +type((1,)) # => <class 'tuple'> +type(()) # => <class 'tuple'> + +# You can do most of the list operations on tuples too +len(tup) # => 3 +tup + (4, 5, 6) # => (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) +tup[:2] # => (1, 2) +2 in tup # => True # You can unpack tuples (or lists) into variables -a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) # a is now 1, b is now 2 and c is now 3 +a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) # a is now 1, b is now 2 and c is now 3 +# You can also do extended unpacking +a, *b, c = (1, 2, 3, 4) # a is now 1, b is now [2, 3] and c is now 4 # Tuples are created by default if you leave out the parentheses d, e, f = 4, 5, 6 # Now look how easy it is to swap two values -e, d = d, e # d is now 5 and e is now 4 +e, d = d, e # d is now 5 and e is now 4 # Dictionaries store mappings @@ -230,71 +274,96 @@ empty_dict = {} # Here is a prefilled dictionary filled_dict = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3} +# Note keys for dictionaries have to be immutable types. This is to ensure that +# the key can be converted to a constant hash value for quick look-ups. +# Immutable types include ints, floats, strings, tuples. +invalid_dict = {[1,2,3]: "123"} # => Raises a TypeError: unhashable type: 'list' +valid_dict = {(1,2,3):[1,2,3]} # Values can be of any type, however. + # Look up values with [] -filled_dict["one"] # => 1 +filled_dict["one"] # => 1 -# Get all keys as a list with "keys()". -# We need to wrap the call in list() because we are getting back an iterable. We'll talk about those later. -# Note - Dictionary key ordering is not guaranteed. -# Your results might not match this exactly. -list(filled_dict.keys()) # => ["three", "two", "one"] +# Get all keys as an iterable with "keys()". We need to wrap the call in list() +# to turn it into a list. We'll talk about those later. Note - Dictionary key +# ordering is not guaranteed. Your results might not match this exactly. +list(filled_dict.keys()) # => ["three", "two", "one"] -# Get all values as a list with "values()". Once again we need to wrap it in list() to get it out of the iterable. -# Note - Same as above regarding key ordering. -list(filled_dict.values()) # => [3, 2, 1] +# Get all values as an iterable with "values()". Once again we need to wrap it +# in list() to get it out of the iterable. Note - Same as above regarding key +# ordering. +list(filled_dict.values()) # => [3, 2, 1] # Check for existence of keys in a dictionary with "in" -"one" in filled_dict # => True -1 in filled_dict # => False +"one" in filled_dict # => True +1 in filled_dict # => False # Looking up a non-existing key is a KeyError -filled_dict["four"] # KeyError +filled_dict["four"] # KeyError # Use "get()" method to avoid the KeyError -filled_dict.get("one") # => 1 -filled_dict.get("four") # => None +filled_dict.get("one") # => 1 +filled_dict.get("four") # => None # The get method supports a default argument when the value is missing filled_dict.get("one", 4) # => 1 -filled_dict.get("four", 4) # => 4 +filled_dict.get("four", 4) # => 4 # "setdefault()" inserts into a dictionary only if the given key isn't present filled_dict.setdefault("five", 5) # filled_dict["five"] is set to 5 filled_dict.setdefault("five", 6) # filled_dict["five"] is still 5 # Adding to a dictionary -filled_dict.update({"four":4}) #=> {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4} -#filled_dict["four"] = 4 #another way to add to dict +filled_dict.update({"four":4}) # => {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4} +#filled_dict["four"] = 4 #another way to add to dict # Remove keys from a dictionary with del del filled_dict["one"] # Removes the key "one" from filled dict +# From Python 3.5 you can also use the additional unpacking options +{'a': 1, **{'b': 2}} # => {'a': 1, 'b': 2} +{'a': 1, **{'a': 2}} # => {'a': 2} + + # Sets store ... well sets empty_set = set() # Initialize a set with a bunch of values. Yeah, it looks a bit like a dict. Sorry. -some_set = {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4} # some_set is now {1, 2, 3, 4} +some_set = {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4} # some_set is now {1, 2, 3, 4} -#Can set new variables to a set +# Similar to keys of a dictionary, elements of a set have to be immutable. +invalid_set = {[1], 1} # => Raises a TypeError: unhashable type: 'list' +valid_set = {(1,), 1} + +# Can set new variables to a set filled_set = some_set -# Add one more item to the set -filled_set.add(5) # filled_set is now {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} +# Add one more item to the set +filled_set.add(5) # filled_set is now {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} # Do set intersection with & other_set = {3, 4, 5, 6} -filled_set & other_set # => {3, 4, 5} +filled_set & other_set # => {3, 4, 5} # Do set union with | -filled_set | other_set # => {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} +filled_set | other_set # => {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} # Do set difference with - -{1, 2, 3, 4} - {2, 3, 5} # => {1, 4} +{1, 2, 3, 4} - {2, 3, 5} # => {1, 4} + +# Do set symmetric difference with ^ +{1, 2, 3, 4} ^ {2, 3, 5} # => {1, 4, 5} + +# Check if set on the left is a superset of set on the right +{1, 2} >= {1, 2, 3} # => False + +# Check if set on the left is a subset of set on the right +{1, 2} <= {1, 2, 3} # => True # Check for existence in a set with in 2 in filled_set # => True -10 in filled_set # => False +10 in filled_set # => False + #################################################### @@ -326,7 +395,7 @@ for animal in ["dog", "cat", "mouse"]: print("{} is a mammal".format(animal)) """ -"range(number)" returns a list of numbers +"range(number)" returns an iterable of numbers from zero to the given number prints: 0 @@ -338,6 +407,30 @@ for i in range(4): print(i) """ +"range(lower, upper)" returns an iterable of numbers +from the lower number to the upper number +prints: + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 +""" +for i in range(4, 8): + print(i) + +""" +"range(lower, upper, step)" returns an iterable of numbers +from the lower number to the upper number, while incrementing +by step. If step is not indicated, the default value is 1. +prints: + 4 + 6 + 8 +""" +for i in range(4, 8, 2): + print(i) +""" + While loops go until a condition is no longer met. prints: 0 @@ -355,11 +448,18 @@ try: # Use "raise" to raise an error raise IndexError("This is an index error") except IndexError as e: - pass # Pass is just a no-op. Usually you would do recovery here. + pass # Pass is just a no-op. Usually you would do recovery here. except (TypeError, NameError): - pass # Multiple exceptions can be handled together, if required. -else: # Optional clause to the try/except block. Must follow all except blocks + pass # Multiple exceptions can be handled together, if required. +else: # Optional clause to the try/except block. Must follow all except blocks print("All good!") # Runs only if the code in try raises no exceptions +finally: # Execute under all circumstances + print("We can clean up resources here") + +# Instead of try/finally to cleanup resources you can use a with statement +with open("myfile.txt") as f: + for line in f: + print(line) # Python offers a fundamental abstraction called the Iterable. # An iterable is an object that can be treated as a sequence. @@ -367,11 +467,11 @@ else: # Optional clause to the try/except block. Must follow all except blocks filled_dict = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3} our_iterable = filled_dict.keys() -print(our_iterable) #=> range(1,10). This is an object that implements our Iterable interface +print(our_iterable) # => dict_keys(['one', 'two', 'three']). This is an object that implements our Iterable interface. # We can loop over it. for i in our_iterable: - print(i) # Prints one, two, three + print(i) # Prints one, two, three # However we cannot address elements by index. our_iterable[1] # Raises a TypeError @@ -380,19 +480,18 @@ our_iterable[1] # Raises a TypeError our_iterator = iter(our_iterable) # Our iterator is an object that can remember the state as we traverse through it. -# We get the next object by calling the __next__ function. -our_iterator.__next__() #=> "one" +# We get the next object with "next()". +next(our_iterator) # => "one" -# It maintains state as we call __next__. -our_iterator.__next__() #=> "two" -our_iterator.__next__() #=> "three" +# It maintains state as we iterate. +next(our_iterator) # => "two" +next(our_iterator) # => "three" # After the iterator has returned all of its data, it gives you a StopIterator Exception -our_iterator.__next__() # Raises StopIteration +next(our_iterator) # Raises StopIteration # You can grab all the elements of an iterator by calling list() on it. -list(filled_dict.keys()) #=> Returns ["one", "two", "three"] - +list(filled_dict.keys()) # => Returns ["one", "two", "three"] #################################################### @@ -402,22 +501,20 @@ list(filled_dict.keys()) #=> Returns ["one", "two", "three"] # Use "def" to create new functions def add(x, y): print("x is {} and y is {}".format(x, y)) - return x + y # Return values with a return statement + return x + y # Return values with a return statement # Calling functions with parameters -add(5, 6) # => prints out "x is 5 and y is 6" and returns 11 +add(5, 6) # => prints out "x is 5 and y is 6" and returns 11 # Another way to call functions is with keyword arguments -add(y=6, x=5) # Keyword arguments can arrive in any order. - +add(y=6, x=5) # Keyword arguments can arrive in any order. # You can define functions that take a variable number of # positional arguments def varargs(*args): return args -varargs(1, 2, 3) # => (1, 2, 3) - +varargs(1, 2, 3) # => (1, 2, 3) # You can define functions that take a variable number of # keyword arguments, as well @@ -425,7 +522,7 @@ def keyword_args(**kwargs): return kwargs # Let's call it to see what happens -keyword_args(big="foot", loch="ness") # => {"big": "foot", "loch": "ness"} +keyword_args(big="foot", loch="ness") # => {"big": "foot", "loch": "ness"} # You can do both at once, if you like @@ -442,27 +539,36 @@ all_the_args(1, 2, a=3, b=4) prints: # Use * to expand tuples and use ** to expand kwargs. args = (1, 2, 3, 4) kwargs = {"a": 3, "b": 4} -all_the_args(*args) # equivalent to foo(1, 2, 3, 4) -all_the_args(**kwargs) # equivalent to foo(a=3, b=4) -all_the_args(*args, **kwargs) # equivalent to foo(1, 2, 3, 4, a=3, b=4) +all_the_args(*args) # equivalent to foo(1, 2, 3, 4) +all_the_args(**kwargs) # equivalent to foo(a=3, b=4) +all_the_args(*args, **kwargs) # equivalent to foo(1, 2, 3, 4, a=3, b=4) + +# Returning multiple values (with tuple assignments) +def swap(x, y): + return y, x # Return multiple values as a tuple without the parenthesis. + # (Note: parenthesis have been excluded but can be included) +x = 1 +y = 2 +x, y = swap(x, y) # => x = 2, y = 1 +# (x, y) = swap(x,y) # Again parenthesis have been excluded but can be included. -# Function Scope +# Function Scope x = 5 -def setX(num): +def set_x(num): # Local var x not the same as global variable x - x = num # => 43 - print (x) # => 43 - -def setGlobalX(num): + x = num # => 43 + print (x) # => 43 + +def set_global_x(num): global x - print (x) # => 5 - x = num # global var x is now set to 6 - print (x) # => 6 + print (x) # => 5 + x = num # global var x is now set to 6 + print (x) # => 6 -setX(43) -setGlobalX(6) +set_x(43) +set_global_x(6) # Python has first class functions @@ -475,25 +581,28 @@ add_10 = create_adder(10) add_10(3) # => 13 # There are also anonymous functions -(lambda x: x > 2)(3) # => True +(lambda x: x > 2)(3) # => True +(lambda x, y: x ** 2 + y ** 2)(2, 1) # => 5 # TODO - Fix for iterables # There are built-in higher order functions -map(add_10, [1, 2, 3]) # => [11, 12, 13] -filter(lambda x: x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) # => [6, 7] +map(add_10, [1, 2, 3]) # => [11, 12, 13] +map(max, [1, 2, 3], [4, 2, 1]) # => [4, 2, 3] + +filter(lambda x: x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) # => [6, 7] # We can use list comprehensions for nice maps and filters # List comprehension stores the output as a list which can itself be a nested list -[add_10(i) for i in [1, 2, 3]] # => [11, 12, 13] -[x for x in [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] if x > 5] # => [6, 7] +[add_10(i) for i in [1, 2, 3]] # => [11, 12, 13] +[x for x in [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] if x > 5] # => [6, 7] #################################################### ## 5. Classes #################################################### -# We subclass from object to get a class. -class Human(object): +# We use the "class" operator to get a class +class Human: # A class attribute. It is shared by all instances of this class species = "H. sapiens" @@ -501,11 +610,16 @@ class Human(object): # Basic initializer, this is called when this class is instantiated. # Note that the double leading and trailing underscores denote objects # or attributes that are used by python but that live in user-controlled - # namespaces. You should not invent such names on your own. + # namespaces. Methods(or objects or attributes) like: __init__, __str__, + # __repr__ etc. are called magic methods (or sometimes called dunder methods) + # You should not invent such names on your own. def __init__(self, name): # Assign the argument to the instance's name attribute self.name = name + # Initialize property + self.age = 0 + # An instance method. All methods take "self" as the first argument def say(self, msg): return "{name}: {message}".format(name=self.name, message=msg) @@ -521,6 +635,23 @@ class Human(object): def grunt(): return "*grunt*" + # A property is just like a getter. + # It turns the method age() into an read-only attribute + # of the same name. + @property + def age(self): + return self._age + + # This allows the property to be set + @age.setter + def age(self, age): + self._age = age + + # This allows the property to be deleted + @age.deleter + def age(self): + del self._age + # Instantiate a class i = Human(name="Ian") @@ -530,15 +661,26 @@ j = Human("Joel") print(j.say("hello")) # prints out "Joel: hello" # Call our class method -i.get_species() # => "H. sapiens" +i.get_species() # => "H. sapiens" # Change the shared attribute Human.species = "H. neanderthalensis" -i.get_species() # => "H. neanderthalensis" -j.get_species() # => "H. neanderthalensis" +i.get_species() # => "H. neanderthalensis" +j.get_species() # => "H. neanderthalensis" # Call the static method -Human.grunt() # => "*grunt*" +Human.grunt() # => "*grunt*" + +# Update the property +i.age = 42 + +# Get the property +i.age # => 42 + +# Delete the property +del i.age +i.age # => raises an AttributeError + #################################################### @@ -547,12 +689,12 @@ Human.grunt() # => "*grunt*" # You can import modules import math -print(math.sqrt(16)) # => 4 +print(math.sqrt(16)) # => 4.0 # You can get specific functions from a module from math import ceil, floor -print(ceil(3.7)) # => 4.0 -print(floor(3.7)) # => 3.0 +print(ceil(3.7)) # => 4.0 +print(floor(3.7)) # => 3.0 # You can import all functions from a module. # Warning: this is not recommended @@ -560,7 +702,7 @@ from math import * # You can shorten module names import math as m -math.sqrt(16) == m.sqrt(16) # => True +math.sqrt(16) == m.sqrt(16) # => True # Python modules are just ordinary python files. You # can write your own, and import them. The name of the @@ -585,9 +727,7 @@ def double_numbers(iterable): # Instead of generating and returning all values at once it creates one in each # iteration. This means values bigger than 15 wont be processed in # double_numbers. -# Note range is a generator too. Creating a list 1-900000000 would take lot of -# time to be made -# We use a trailing underscore in variable names when we want to use a name that +# We use a trailing underscore in variable names when we want to use a name that # would normally collide with a python keyword range_ = range(1, 900000000) # will double all numbers until a result >=30 found @@ -621,7 +761,7 @@ def say(say_please=False): return msg, say_please -print(say()) # Can you buy me a beer? +print(say()) # Can you buy me a beer? print(say(say_please=True)) # Can you buy me a beer? Please! I am poor :( ``` @@ -629,18 +769,21 @@ print(say(say_please=True)) # Can you buy me a beer? Please! 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