From 4e530b27b0a9d0373e117397429118fd14f152ff Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: dokato Date: Mon, 9 Mar 2015 20:28:26 +0100 Subject: First version of python script translation --- pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown | 629 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 629 insertions(+) create mode 100644 pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown diff --git a/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown b/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..1f4cfd0b --- /dev/null +++ b/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,629 @@ + +--- +name: python +category: language +language: python +filename: learnpython-pl.py +contributors: + - ["Louie Dinh", "http://ldinh.ca"] + - ["Amin Bandali", "http://aminbandali.com"] + - ["Andre Polykanine", "https://github.com/Oire"] +translators: + - ["Dominik Krzemiński", "https://github.com/dokato"] +lang: pl-pl +--- +Python został opracowany przez Guido Van Rossuma na początku lat 90-tych. +Obecnie jest jednym z najbardziej popularnych języków programowania. +Zakochałem się w Pythonie dzięki porządkowi, jaki utrzymywany jest w kodzie. +To po prostu wykonywalny pseudokod. + +Zapraszam do kontaktu. Złapiecie mnie na [@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) lub louiedinh [at] [google's email service] + +Uwaga: Ten artykuł odnosi się do wersji Pythona 2.7, ale powinien +działać w wersjach 2.x. Dla wersji 3.x znajdziesz odpowiedni artykuł na stronie głównej. + +```python + +# Pojedyncze komentarze oznaczamy takim symbolem. + +""" Wielolinijkowe napisy zapisywane są przy użyciu + trzech znaków cudzysłowiu i często + wykorzystywane są jako komentarze +""" + +#################################################### +## 1. Podstawowe typy danych i operatory +#################################################### + +# Liczby to liczby +3 # => 3 + +# Matematyka jest intuicyjna +1 + 1 # => 2 +8 - 1 # => 7 +10 * 2 # => 20 +35 / 5 # => 7 + +# Dzielenie może być kłopotliwe. Poniższe to dzielenie +# całkowitoliczbowe(int) i wynik jest automatycznie zaokrąglany. +5 / 2 # => 2 + +# Aby to naprawić musimy powiedzieć nieco o liczbach zmiennoprzecinkowych. +2.0 # To liczba zmiennoprzecinkowa, tzw. float +11.0 / 4.0 # => 2.75 ahhh...znacznie lepiej + +# Wynik dzielenia całkowitoliczbowego jest obcinany dla liczb +# dodatnich i ujemnych. +5 // 3 # => 1 +5.0 // 3.0 # => 1.0 # działa też na floatach +-5 // 3 # => -2 +-5.0 // 3.0 # => -2.0 + +# Operator modulo - wyznaczanie reszty z dzielenia +7 % 3 # => 1 + +# Potęgowanie (x do potęgi ytej) +2**4 # => 16 + +# Wymuszanie pierwszeństwa w nawiasach +(1 + 3) * 2 # => 8 + +# Operacje logiczne +# Zauważ, że przy "and" i "or" trzeba zwracać uwagę na rozmiar liter +True and False #=> False # Fałsz +False or True #=> True # Prawda + +# Zauważ, że operatorów logicznych można używać z intami +0 and 2 #=> 0 +-5 or 0 #=> -5 +0 == False #=> True +2 == True #=> False +k1 == True #=> True + +# aby zanegować użyj "not" +not True # => False +not False # => True + +# Równość == +1 == 1 # => True +2 == 1 # => False + +# Nierówność != +1 != 1 # => False +2 != 1 # => True + +# Więcej porównań +1 < 10 # => True +1 > 10 # => False +2 <= 2 # => True +2 >= 2 # => True + +# Porównania można układać w łańcuch! +1 < 2 < 3 # => True +2 < 3 < 2 # => False + +# Napisy (typ string) tworzone są przy użyciu cudzysłowów " lub ' +"Jestem napisem." +'Ja też jestem napisem.' + +# Napisy można dodawać! +"Witaj " + "świecie!" # => "Witaj świecie!" + +# ... a nawet mnożone +"Hej" * 3 # => "HejHejHej" + +# Napis może być traktowany jako lista znaków +"To napis"[0] # => 'T' + +# % może być używane do formatowania napisów: +"%s są %s" % ("napisy", "fajne") + +# Jednak nowszym sposobem formatowania jest metoda "format". +# Ta metoda jest obecnie polecana: +"{0} są {1}".format("napisy", "fajne") +# Jeśli nie chce ci się liczyć użyj słów kluczowych. +"{imie} chce zjeść {jadlo}".format(imie="Bob", jasno="lasagne") + +# None jest obiektem +None # => None + +# Nie używaj "==" żeby porównywać obiekty do None +# Zamiast tego użyj "is" +"etc" is None # => False +None is None # => True + +# Operator 'is' testuje identyczność obiektów. To nie jest zbyt +# pożyteczne, gdy działamy tylko na prostych wartościach, +# ale przydaje się, gdy mamy do czynienia z obiektami. + +# None, 0, i pusty napis "" są odpowiednikami logicznego False. +# Wszystkie inne wartości są True +bool(0) # => False +bool("") # => False + + +#################################################### +## 2. Zmienne i zbiory danych +#################################################### + +# Python ma wyrażenie wypisujące "print" we wszystkich wersjach 2.x, ale +# zostało usunięte z wersji 3. +print "Jestem Python. Miło poznać!" +# Python ma też funkcję "print" dostępną w wersjach 2.7 and 3... +# ale w 2.7 musisz dodać import (odkomentuj): +# from __future__ import print_function +print("Ja też jestem Python! ") + +# Nie trzeba deklarować zmiennych przed przypisaniem. +jakas_zmienna = 5 # Konwencja mówi: używaj małych znaków i podłogi _ +jakas_zmienna # => 5 + +# Próba dostępu do niezadeklarowanej zmiennej da błąd. +# Przejdź do sekcji Obsługa wyjątków po więcej... +inna_zmienna # Wyrzuca nazwę błędu + +# "if" może być użyte jako wyrażenie +"huraaa!" if 3 > 2 else 2 # => "huraaa!" + +# Listy: +li = [] +# Możesz zacząć od wypełnionej listy +inna_li = [4, 5, 6] + +# Dodaj na koniec używając "append" +li.append(1) # li to teraz [1] +li.append(2) # li to teraz [1, 2] +li.append(4) # li to teraz [1, 2, 4] +li.append(3) # li to teraz [1, 2, 4, 3] +# Usuwanie z konca da "pop" +li.pop() # => 3 a li stanie się [1, 2, 4] +# Dodajmy ponownie +li.append(3) # li to znowu [1, 2, 4, 3]. + +# Dostęp do list jak do każdej tablicy +li[0] # => 1 +# Użyj = aby nadpisać wcześniej wypełnione miejsca w liście +li[0] = 42 +li[0] # => 42 +li[0] = 1 # Uwaga: ustawiamy starą wartość +# Tak podglądamy ostatni element +li[-1] # => 3 + +# Jeżeli wyjdziesz poza zakres... +li[4] # ... zobaczysz IndexError + +# Możesz tworzyć wyniki. +li[1:3] # => [2, 4] +# Bez początku +li[2:] # => [4, 3] +# Omijamy koniec +li[:3] # => [1, 2, 4] +# Wybierz co drugi +li[::2] # =>[1, 4] +# Odwróć listę +li[::-1] # => [3, 4, 2, 1] +# Użyj kombinacji powyższych aby tworzyć bardziej skomplikowane wycinki +# li[paczatek:koniec:krok] + +# Usuń element używając "del" +del li[2] # li to teraz [1, 2, 3] + +# Listy można dodawać +li + inna_li # => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] +# Uwaga: wartości poszczególnych list się nie zmieniają. + +# Do łączenia list użyj "extend()" +li.extend(other_li) # li to teraz [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] + +# Sprawdź czy jest w liście używając "in" +1 in li # => True + +# "len()" pokazuje długość listy +len(li) # => 6 + + +# Krotki (tuple) są jak listy, ale nie można ich modyfikować. +tup = (1, 2, 3) +tup[0] # => 1 +tup[0] = 3 # wyrzuci TypeError + +# Ale wielu akcji dla list możesz używać przy krotkach +len(tup) # => 3 +tup + (4, 5, 6) # => (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) +tup[:2] # => (1, 2) +2 in tup # => True + +# Można rozpakować krotki i listy do poszczególych zmiennych +a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) # a to teraz 1, b jest 2 a c to 3 +# Jeżeli zapomnisz nawiasów automatycznie tworzone są krotki +d, e, f = 4, 5, 6 +# Popatrz jak prosto zamienić wartości +e, d = d, e # d to teraz 5 a e to 4 + + +# Słowniki są również pożyteczne +pusty_slownik = {} +# Tu tworzymy wypełniony: +pelen_slownik = {"raz": 1, "dwa": 2, "trzy": 3} + +# Podglądany wartość +pelen_slownik["one"] # => 1 + +# Wypisz wszystkie klucze używając "keys()" +pelen_slownik.keys() # => ["trzy", "dwa", "raz"] +# Uwaga: słowniki nie gwarantują kolejności występowania kluczy. + +# A teraz wszystkie wartości "values()" +pelen_slownik.values() # => [3, 2, 1] +# Uwaga: to samo dotyczy wartości. + +# Sprawdzanie czy występuje to "in" +"raz" in pelen_slownik # => True +1 in pelen_slownik # => False + +# Próba dobrania się do nieistniejącego klucza da KeyError +pelen_slownik["cztery"] # KeyError + +# Użyj "get()" method aby uniknąć KeyError +pelen_slownik.get("raz") # => 1 +pelen_slownik.get("cztery") # => None +# Metoda get zwraca domyślną wartość gdy brakuje klucza +pelen_slownik.get("one", 4) # => 1 +pelen_slownik.get("cztery", 4) # => 4 +# zauważ, że pelen_slownik.get("cztery") jest wciąż => None +# (get nie ustawia wartości słownika) + +# przypisz wartość do klucza podobnie jak w listach +pelen_slownik["cztery"] = 4 # teraz: pelen_slownik["cztery"] => 4 + +# "setdefault()" wstawia do słownika tylko jeśli nie było klucza +pelen_slownik.setdefault("piec", 5) # pelen_slownik["piec"] daje 5 +pelen_slownik.setdefault("piec", 6) # pelen_slownik["piec"] to wciąż 5 + + +# Teraz zbiory (set) ... cóż zbiory (to po prostu listy ale bez potórzeń) +pusty_zbior = set() +# Inicjalizujemy "set()" pewnymi wartościami +jakis_zbior = set([1, 2, 2, 3, 4]) # jakis_zbior to teraz set([1, 2, 3, 4]) + +# kolejność nie jest gwarantowana, nawet gdy wydaje się posortowane +inny_zbior = set([4, 3, 2, 2, 1]) # inny_zbior to set([1, 2, 3, 4]) + +# Od Pythona 2.7 nawiasy klamrowe {} mogą być użyte do deklarowania zbioru +pelen_zbior = {1, 2, 2, 3, 4} # => {1, 2, 3, 4} + +# Dodaj więcej elementów przez "add()" +pelen_zbior.add(5) # pelen_zbior is now {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} + +# Znajdź przecięcie zbiorów używając & +inny_zbior = {3, 4, 5, 6} +pelen_zbior & other_set # => {3, 4, 5} + +# Suma zbiorów | +pelen_zbior | other_set # => {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} + +# Różnicę zbiorów da - +{1, 2, 3, 4} - {2, 3, 5} # => {1, 4} + +# Sprawdzanie obecności w zbiorze: "in". +2 in pelen_zbior # => True +10 in pelen_zbior # => False + + +#################################################### +## 3. Kontrola przepływu +#################################################### + +# Tworzymy zmienną some_var +some_var = 5 + +# Tutaj widzisz wyrażenie warunkowe "if". Wcięcia są ważne Pythonie! +# wypisze "some_var jest mniejsza niż 10" +if some_var > 10: + print("some_var jest wieksza niż 10") +elif some_var < 10: # This elif clause is optional. + print("some_var jest mniejsza niż 10") +else: # This is optional too. + print("some_var jest równa 10") + + +""" +Pętla for iteruje po elementach listy wypisując: + pies to ssak + kot to ssak + mysz to ssak +""" +for zwierze in ["pies", "kot", "mysz"]: + # Możesz użyć % aby stworzyć sformatowane napisy + print("%s to ssak" % zwierze) + +""" +"range(liczba)" zwraca listę liczb +od zera do danej liczby: + 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 +""" +for i in range(4): + print(i) + +""" +While to pętla która jest wykonywana dopóki spełniony jest warunek: + 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 +""" +x = 0 +while x < 4: + print(x) + x += 1 # Skrót od x = x + 1 + +# Wyjątki wyłapujemy używając try, except + +# Działa w Pythonie 2.6 i wyższych: +try: + # Użyj "raise" aby wyrzucić wyjąte + raise IndexError("To błąd indeksu") +except IndexError as e: + pass # Pass to brak reakcji na błąd. Zazwyczaj nanosisz tu poprawki. +except (TypeError, NameError): + pass # kilka wyjątków może być przechwyce razem. +else: # Opcjonalna część bloku try/except. Musi wystąpić na końcu + print "Wszystko ok!" # Zadziała tylko, gdy program nie napotka wyjatku. + + +#################################################### +## 4. Funkcjie +#################################################### + +# Użyj "def" aby stworzyć nową funkcję +def dodaj(x, y): + print("x to %s a y to %s" % (x, y)) + return x + y # słówko kluczowe return zwraca wynik działania + +# Tak wywołuje się funkcję z parametrami (args): +dodaj(5, 6) # => wypisze "x to 5 a y to 6" i zwróci 11 + +# Innym sposobem jest wywołanie z parametrami nazwanymi. +dodaj(y=6, x=5) # tutaj kolejność podania nie ma znaczenia. + + +# Można też stworzyć funkcję, które przyjmują różną ilość parametrów +# nienazwanych args, co będzie interpretowane jako krotka jeśli nie użyjesz * +def varargs(*args): + return args + +varargs(1, 2, 3) # => (1, 2, 3) + + +# Można też stworzyć funkcję, które przyjmują różną ilość parametrów +# nazwanych kwargs, które będa interpretowane jako słownik jeśli nie dasz ** +def keyword_args(**kwargs): + return kwargs + +# Wywołajmy to i sprawdźmy co się dzieje +keyword_args(wielka="stopa", loch="ness") # => {"wielka": "stopa", "loch": "ness"} + + +# Możesz też to pomieszać +def all_the_args(*args, **kwargs): + print(args) + print(kwargs) +""" +all_the_args(1, 2, a=3, b=4) wyrzuci: + (1, 2) + {"a": 3, "b": 4} +""" + +# Użyj * aby rozwinąć parametry z krotki args +# i użyj ** aby rozwinąć parametry nazwane ze słownika kwargs. +args = (1, 2, 3, 4) +kwargs = {"a": 3, "b": 4} +all_the_args(*args) # odpowiednik foo(1, 2, 3, 4) +all_the_args(**kwargs) # odpowiednik foo(a=3, b=4) +all_the_args(*args, **kwargs) # odpowiednik foo(1, 2, 3, 4, a=3, b=4) + +# Możesz podać parametry args i kwargs do funkcji równocześnie +# przez rozwinięcie odpowiednio * i ** +def pass_all_the_args(*args, **kwargs): + all_the_args(*args, **kwargs) + print varargs(*args) + print keyword_args(**kwargs) + +# Zakres widoczności +x = 5 + +def setX(num): + # Lokalna zmienna x nie jest tym samym co zmienna x + x = num # => 43 + print x # => 43 + +def setGlobalX(num): + global x + print x # => 5 + x = num # globalna zmienna to teraz 6 + print x # => 6 + +setX(43) +setGlobalX(6) + +# Można tworzyć funkcje wewnętrzne i zwrócić je jako wynik +def rob_dodawacz(x): + def dodawacz(y): + return x + y + return dodawacz + +dodaj_10 = rob_dodawacz(10) +dodaj_10(3) # => 13 + +# Są również funkcje nienazwane "lambda" +(lambda x: x > 2)(3) # => True + +# Są także wbudowane funkcje wysokiego poziomu +map(add_10, [1, 2, 3]) # => [11, 12, 13] +filter(lambda x: x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) # => [6, 7] + +# Można używać wyrażeń listowych do mapowania (map) i filtrowania (filter) +[add_10(i) for i in [1, 2, 3]] # => [11, 12, 13] +[x for x in [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] if x > 5] # => [6, 7] + + +#################################################### +## 5. Klasy +#################################################### + +# Wszystkie klasy są podklasą object +class Czlowiek(object): + + # Atrybut klasy. Występuje we wszystkich instancjach klasy. + gatunek = "H. sapiens" + + # Podstawowa inicjalizacja - wywoływana podczas tworzenia instacji. + # Zauważ, że podwójne podkreślenia przed i za nazwą oznaczają + # obietky lub atrybuty, który żyją tylko w kontrolowanej przez + # użytkownika przestrzeni nazw. Nie używaj ich we własnych metodach. + def __init__(self, nazwa): + # przypisz parametr "nazwa" do atrybutu instancji + self.nazwa = nazwa + + # Metoda instancji. Wszystkie metody biorą "self" jako pierwszy argument + def mow(self, wiadomosc): + return "%s: %s" % (self.nazwa, wiadomosc) + + # Metoda klasowa współdzielona przez instancje. + # Ma wywołującą klasę jako pierwszy argument. + @classmethod + def daj_gatunek(cls): + return cls.gatunek + + # Metoda statyczna jest wywoływana bez argumentów klasy czy instancji. + @staticmethod + def grunt(): + return "*grunt*" + + +# Instancja klasy +i = Czlowiek(name="Ian") +print(i.mow("cześć")) # wypisze "Ian: cześć" + +j = Czlowiek("Joel") +print(j.mow("cześć")) # wypisze "Joel: cześć" + +# Wywołujemy naszą metodę klasową +i.daj_gatunek() # => "H. sapiens" + +# Zmieniamy wspólny parametr +Czlowiek.gatunek = "H. neanderthalensis" +i.daj_gatunek() # => "H. neanderthalensis" +j.daj_gatunek() # => "H. neanderthalensis" + +# Wywołanie metody statycznej +Czlowiek.grunt() # => "*grunt*" + + +#################################################### +## 6. Moduły +#################################################### + +# Tak importuje się moduły: +import math +print(math.sqrt(16)) # => 4 + +# Można podać konkretne funkcje, np. ceil, floor z modułu math +from math import ceil, floor +print(ceil(3.7)) # => 4.0 +print(floor(3.7)) # => 3.0 + +# Można zaimportować wszystkie funkcje z danego modułu. +# Ostrzeżenie: nie jest to polecane. +from math import * + +# Można skracać nazwy modułów. +import math as m +math.sqrt(16) == m.sqrt(16) # => True +# sprawdźmy czy funkcje są równoważne +from math import sqrt +math.sqrt == m.sqrt == sqrt # => True + +# Moduły pythona to zwykłe skrypty napisane w tym języku. Możesz +# pisać własne i importować je. Nazwa modułu to nazwa pliku. + +# W ten sposób sprawdzisz jakie funkcje wchodzą w skład modułu. +import math +dir(math) + + +#################################################### +## 7. Zaawansowane +#################################################### + +# Generatory pomagają tworzyć tzw. "leniwy kod" +def podwojne_liczby(iterowalne): + for i in iterowalne: + yield i + i + +# Generatory tworzą wartości w locie. +# W przeciwienstwie do wygenerowania wartości raz i ich zachowania, +# powstają one na bieżąco, w wyniku iteracji. To oznacza, że wartości +# większe niż 15 nie będą przetworzone w funkcji "podwojne_liczby". +# Zauważ, że xrange to generator, który wykonuje tę samą operację co range. +# Stworzenie listy od 1 do 900000000 zajęłoby sporo czasu i pamięci, +# a xrange tworzy obiekt generatora zamiast tworzyć całą listę jak range. +# Użyto podkreślinika, aby odróżnić nazwę zmiennej od słówka kluczowego +# Pythona. +xrange_ = xrange(1, 900000000) + +# poniższa pętla będzie podwajać liczby aż do 30 +for i in podwojne_liczby(xrange_): + print(i) + if i >= 30: + break + + +# Dekoratory +# w tym przykładzie "beg" jest nakładką na "say" +# Beg wywołuje say. Jeśli say_please jest prawdziwe wtedy wzracana wartość +# zostanie zmieniona + +from functools import wraps + + +def beg(target_function): + @wraps(target_function) + def wrapper(*args, **kwargs): + msg, say_please = target_function(*args, **kwargs) + if say_please: + return "{} {}".format(msg, "Proszę! Jestem spłukany :(") + return msg + return wrapper + + +@beg +def say(say_please=False): + msg = "Kupisz mi piwo?" + return msg, say_please + + +print(say()) # Kupisz mi piwo? +print(say(say_please=True)) # Kupisz mi piwo? Proszę! Jestem spłukany :( +``` + +## Gotowy na więcej? + +### Darmowe źródła online + +* [Learn Python The Hard Way](http://learnpythonthehardway.org/book/) +* [Dive Into Python](http://www.diveintopython.net/) +* [The Official Docs](http://docs.python.org/2.6/) +* [Hitchhiker's Guide to Python](http://docs.python-guide.org/en/latest/) +* [Python Module of the Week](http://pymotw.com/2/) +* [A Crash Course in Python for Scientists](http://nbviewer.ipython.org/5920182) + +### Inne + +* [Programming Python](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596158106/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0596158106&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20) +* [Dive Into Python](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1441413022/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1441413022&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20) +* [Python Essential Reference](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0672329786/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0672329786&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20) + -- cgit v1.2.3 From 348664088768b25f347cbdf96d48222ecc6f0a83 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: dokato Date: Mon, 9 Mar 2015 20:39:16 +0100 Subject: Small changes --- pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown | 18 ++++++++++++------ 1 file changed, 12 insertions(+), 6 deletions(-) diff --git a/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown b/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown index 1f4cfd0b..ae6f5ca6 100644 --- a/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown +++ b/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown @@ -1,4 +1,3 @@ - --- name: python category: language @@ -12,6 +11,7 @@ translators: - ["Dominik Krzemiński", "https://github.com/dokato"] lang: pl-pl --- + Python został opracowany przez Guido Van Rossuma na początku lat 90-tych. Obecnie jest jednym z najbardziej popularnych języków programowania. Zakochałem się w Pythonie dzięki porządkowi, jaki utrzymywany jest w kodzie. @@ -23,12 +23,13 @@ Uwaga: Ten artykuł odnosi się do wersji Pythona 2.7, ale powinien działać w wersjach 2.x. Dla wersji 3.x znajdziesz odpowiedni artykuł na stronie głównej. ```python +# -*- coding: utf-8 -*- # Pojedyncze komentarze oznaczamy takim symbolem. """ Wielolinijkowe napisy zapisywane są przy użyciu trzech znaków cudzysłowiu i często - wykorzystywane są jako komentarze + wykorzystywane są jako komentarze. """ #################################################### @@ -302,7 +303,7 @@ pelen_zbior & other_set # => {3, 4, 5} # Suma zbiorów | pelen_zbior | other_set # => {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} -# Różnicę zbiorów da - +# Różnicę zbiorów da znak - {1, 2, 3, 4} - {2, 3, 5} # => {1, 4} # Sprawdzanie obecności w zbiorze: "in". @@ -317,7 +318,7 @@ pelen_zbior | other_set # => {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} # Tworzymy zmienną some_var some_var = 5 -# Tutaj widzisz wyrażenie warunkowe "if". Wcięcia są ważne Pythonie! +# Tutaj widzisz wyrażenie warunkowe "if". Wcięcia są ważne Pythonie! # wypisze "some_var jest mniejsza niż 10" if some_var > 10: print("some_var jest wieksza niż 10") @@ -611,8 +612,13 @@ print(say(say_please=True)) # Kupisz mi piwo? Proszę! Jestem spłukany :( ``` ## Gotowy na więcej? +### Polskie + +* [Zanurkuj w Pythonie](http://pl.wikibooks.org/wiki/Zanurkuj_w_Pythonie) +* [LearnPythonPl](http://www.learnpython.org/pl/) -### Darmowe źródła online +### Angielskie: +#### Darmowe źródła online * [Learn Python The Hard Way](http://learnpythonthehardway.org/book/) * [Dive Into Python](http://www.diveintopython.net/) @@ -621,7 +627,7 @@ print(say(say_please=True)) # Kupisz mi piwo? Proszę! Jestem spłukany :( * [Python Module of the Week](http://pymotw.com/2/) * [A Crash Course in Python for Scientists](http://nbviewer.ipython.org/5920182) -### Inne +#### Inne * [Programming Python](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596158106/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0596158106&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20) * [Dive Into Python](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1441413022/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1441413022&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20) -- cgit v1.2.3 From 48657c4af5db67db5bb5b7ca43bbcd4d61f225ef Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: dokato Date: Mon, 9 Mar 2015 20:43:57 +0100 Subject: three bugs fixed --- pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown | 6 +++--- 1 file changed, 3 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) diff --git a/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown b/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown index ae6f5ca6..b936faeb 100644 --- a/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown +++ b/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown @@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ not False # => True # None jest obiektem None # => None -# Nie używaj "==" żeby porównywać obiekty do None +# Nie używaj "==" w celu porównania obiektów z None # Zamiast tego użyj "is" "etc" is None # => False None is None # => True @@ -204,7 +204,7 @@ li[::2] # =>[1, 4] # Odwróć listę li[::-1] # => [3, 4, 2, 1] # Użyj kombinacji powyższych aby tworzyć bardziej skomplikowane wycinki -# li[paczatek:koniec:krok] +# li[poczatek:koniec:krok] # Usuń element używając "del" del li[2] # li to teraz [1, 2, 3] @@ -235,7 +235,7 @@ tup[:2] # => (1, 2) 2 in tup # => True # Można rozpakować krotki i listy do poszczególych zmiennych -a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) # a to teraz 1, b jest 2 a c to 3 +a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) # a to teraz 1, b jest 2, a c to 3 # Jeżeli zapomnisz nawiasów automatycznie tworzone są krotki d, e, f = 4, 5, 6 # Popatrz jak prosto zamienić wartości -- cgit v1.2.3 From bb5fcc32d71f9ef3a65e97850c5759da0a055cff Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: dokato Date: Tue, 10 Mar 2015 17:52:24 +0100 Subject: email added there is polish and english version now --- pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown | 4 +++- 1 file changed, 3 insertions(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown b/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown index b936faeb..c3e8287a 100644 --- a/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown +++ b/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown @@ -17,7 +17,9 @@ Obecnie jest jednym z najbardziej popularnych języków programowania. Zakochałem się w Pythonie dzięki porządkowi, jaki utrzymywany jest w kodzie. To po prostu wykonywalny pseudokod. -Zapraszam do kontaktu. Złapiecie mnie na [@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) lub louiedinh [at] [google's email service] +Zapraszam do kontaktu. Złapiecie nas na: +- kontakt polski: raymon92 [at] [google's email service] +- kontakt angielski: [@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) lub louiedinh [at] [google's email service] Uwaga: Ten artykuł odnosi się do wersji Pythona 2.7, ale powinien działać w wersjach 2.x. Dla wersji 3.x znajdziesz odpowiedni artykuł na stronie głównej. -- cgit v1.2.3 From f3ba1c8a19ae42d296b5b10d50f6254ce2736c23 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: robertmargelli Date: Fri, 24 Apr 2015 22:45:14 -0700 Subject: added italian JSON translation --- it-it/json-it.html.markdown | 62 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 62 insertions(+) create mode 100644 it-it/json-it.html.markdown diff --git a/it-it/json-it.html.markdown b/it-it/json-it.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..0c401753 --- /dev/null +++ b/it-it/json-it.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- + +language: json +contributors: + - ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"] + - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] +translators: + - ["Robert Margelli", "http://github.com/sinkswim/"] +lang: it-it + +--- + +Dato che JSON è un formato per lo scambio di dati estremamente semplice, questo sarà con molta probabilità +il più semplice Learn X in Y Minutes. + +Nella sua forma più pura JSON non ha commenti, ma molti parser accettano +commenti in stile C (//, /\* \*/). Per lo scopo prefissato, tuttavia, tutto sarà +100% JSON valido. Fortunatamente, si spiega da sè. + +```json +{ + "chiave": "valore", + + "chiavi": "devono sempre essere racchiuse tra doppi apici", + "numeri": 0, + "stringhe": "Ciaø, møndø. Tutti gli unicode sono permessi, assieme con l \"escaping\".", + "ha booleani?": true, + "il nulla": null, + + "numero grande": 1.2e+100, + + "oggetti": { + "commento": "La maggior parte della tua struttura viene dagli oggetti.", + + "array": [0, 1, 2, 3, "Gli array possono contenere qualsiasi cosa.", 5], + + "un altro oggetto": { + "commento": "Queste cose possono essere annidate, molto utile." + } + }, + + "sciocchezze": [ + { + "sorgenti di potassio": ["banane"] + }, + [ + [1, 0, 0, 0], + [0, 1, 0, 0], + [0, 0, 1, "neo"], + [0, 0, 0, 1] + ] + ], + + "stile alternativo": { + "commento": "Guarda quà!" + , "posizione della virgola": "non conta - fintantochè è prima del valore, allora è valida" + , "un altro commento": "che bello" + }, + + "è stato molto breve": "Ed hai finito. Adesso sai tutto cio che JSON ha da offrire." +} +``` -- cgit v1.2.3 From 02bc5183512e1548bfb3a54bacc85443dc33f86d Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: James Baker Date: Sun, 26 Apr 2015 09:59:15 +0100 Subject: Standard ML has references Standard ML is not a pure language and has imperative structures like references while and seq --- standard-ml.html.markdown | 4 ++-- 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/standard-ml.html.markdown b/standard-ml.html.markdown index b545f3e1..cc5132f1 100644 --- a/standard-ml.html.markdown +++ b/standard-ml.html.markdown @@ -8,8 +8,8 @@ contributors: Standard ML is a functional programming language with type inference and some side-effects. Some of the hard parts of learning Standard ML are: Recursion, pattern matching, type inference (guessing the right types but never allowing -implicit type conversion). If you have an imperative background, not being able -to update variables can feel severely inhibiting. +implicit type conversion). Standard ML is distinguished from Haskell by including +references, allowing variables to be updated. ```ocaml (* Comments in Standard ML begin with (* and end with *). Comments can be -- cgit v1.2.3 From f8260574d9a29d5302dccf8fb883d5e3d60592d0 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: James Baker Date: Sun, 26 Apr 2015 10:00:21 +0100 Subject: Add examples of imperative-style control Make reference and update, add use of a while and use of seq --- standard-ml.html.markdown | 19 +++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 19 insertions(+) diff --git a/standard-ml.html.markdown b/standard-ml.html.markdown index cc5132f1..8fc849cb 100644 --- a/standard-ml.html.markdown +++ b/standard-ml.html.markdown @@ -383,6 +383,25 @@ val test_poem = readPoem "roses.txt" (* gives [ "Roses are red,", "Violets are blue.", "I have a gun.", "Get in the van." ] *) + +(* We can create references to data which can be updated *) +val counter = ref 0 (* Produce a reference with the ref function *) + +(* Assign to a reference with the assignment operator *) +fun set_five reference = reference := 5 + +(* Read a reference with the dereference operator *) +fun equals_five reference = !reference = 5 + +(* We can use while loops for when recursion is messy *) +fun decrement_to_zero r = if !r < 0 + then r := 0 + else while !r >= 0 do r := !r - 1 + +(* This returns the unit value (in practical terms, nothing, a 0-tuple) *) + +(* To allow returning a value, we can use the semicolon to sequence evaluations *) +fun decrement_ret x y = (x := !x - 1; y) ``` ## Further learning -- cgit v1.2.3 From 183ca56459828f567457337204c7ef10351a31f0 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: James Baker Date: Sun, 26 Apr 2015 10:01:36 +0100 Subject: Add myself as a contributor --- standard-ml.html.markdown | 1 + 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+) diff --git a/standard-ml.html.markdown b/standard-ml.html.markdown index 8fc849cb..07896beb 100644 --- a/standard-ml.html.markdown +++ b/standard-ml.html.markdown @@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ language: "Standard ML" contributors: - ["Simon Shine", "http://shine.eu.org/"] - ["David Pedersen", "http://lonelyproton.com/"] + - ["James Baker", "http://www.jbaker.io/"] --- Standard ML is a functional programming language with type inference and some -- cgit v1.2.3 From 7d5368eda1e2402b6b2bed85586fde0c6af87816 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: MoreMoschops Date: Sun, 26 Apr 2015 15:33:29 +0100 Subject: Neither gcc nor clang accept void main. MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit Neither gcc nor clang accept void main. Remove this bad information. Tested as follows: $ cat 045.cpp void main() { } $ g++ 045.cpp 045.cpp:1:11: error: ‘::main’ must return ‘int’ void main() ^ $ clang++ 045.cpp 045.cpp:1:1: error: 'main' must return 'int' void main() ^~~~ int 1 error generated. $ g++ --version g++ (Ubuntu 4.8.2-19ubuntu1) 4.8.2 $ clang++ --version Ubuntu clang version 3.4.2-3ubuntu2~xedgers (tags/RELEASE_34/dot2-final) (based on LLVM 3.4.2) --- c++.html.markdown | 3 +-- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/c++.html.markdown b/c++.html.markdown index 1a84efa4..ae93ceba 100644 --- a/c++.html.markdown +++ b/c++.html.markdown @@ -32,8 +32,7 @@ one of the most widely-used programming languages. // variable declarations, primitive types, and functions. // Just like in C, your program's entry point is a function called -// main with an integer return type, -// though void main() is also accepted by most compilers (gcc, clang, etc.) +// main with an integer return type. // This value serves as the program's exit status. // See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exit_status for more information. int main(int argc, char** argv) -- cgit v1.2.3 From 9d3462953604d0d331191bb1fca82295e1ece6ed Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Etan Reisner Date: Sun, 26 Apr 2015 13:22:48 -0400 Subject: Add myself as a contributor. --- bash.html.markdown | 1 + 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+) diff --git a/bash.html.markdown b/bash.html.markdown index 35bed9a2..b9cd53ff 100644 --- a/bash.html.markdown +++ b/bash.html.markdown @@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ contributors: - ["Anton Strömkvist", "http://lutic.org/"] - ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"] - ["Gregrory Kielian", "https://github.com/gskielian"] + - ["Etan Reisner", "https://github.com/deryni"] filename: LearnBash.sh --- -- cgit v1.2.3 From e2ca2c9550474ca3dad0f7ef8735e614da081258 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Etan Reisner Date: Sun, 26 Apr 2015 13:32:41 -0400 Subject: Add another very common shell variable assignment mistake. --- bash.html.markdown | 9 ++++++++- 1 file changed, 8 insertions(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/bash.html.markdown b/bash.html.markdown index b9cd53ff..77ee37f6 100644 --- a/bash.html.markdown +++ b/bash.html.markdown @@ -37,7 +37,14 @@ VARIABLE="Some string" # But not like this: VARIABLE = "Some string" # Bash will decide that VARIABLE is a command it must execute and give an error -# because it couldn't be found. +# because it can't be found. + +# Or like this: +Variable= 'Some string' +# Bash will decide that 'Some string' is a command it must execute and give an +# error because it can't be found. (In this case the 'Variable=' part is seen +# as a variable assignment valid only for the scope of the 'Some string' +# command.) # Using the variable: echo $VARIABLE -- cgit v1.2.3 From 745ce28d7e72a1de6a1a386f91f8fcae0c99b324 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Tiddo Langerak Date: Mon, 27 Apr 2015 10:16:16 +0200 Subject: Fixed haskell foldr example For #1068 --- haskell.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/haskell.html.markdown b/haskell.html.markdown index f28fcfe7..6a64442f 100644 --- a/haskell.html.markdown +++ b/haskell.html.markdown @@ -282,7 +282,7 @@ foldl (\x y -> 2*x + y) 4 [1,2,3] -- 43 foldr (\x y -> 2*x + y) 4 [1,2,3] -- 16 -- This is now the same as -(2 * 3 + (2 * 2 + (2 * 1 + 4))) +(2 * 1 + (2 * 2 + (2 * 3 + 4))) ---------------------------------------------------- -- 7. Data Types -- cgit v1.2.3 From aa11cc659de990a6c4d4104bcc733f373b079ae7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Etan Reisner Date: Mon, 27 Apr 2015 07:30:17 -0400 Subject: Follow variable capitalization on this branch. --- bash.html.markdown | 4 ++-- 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/bash.html.markdown b/bash.html.markdown index 77ee37f6..e0c12f97 100644 --- a/bash.html.markdown +++ b/bash.html.markdown @@ -40,9 +40,9 @@ VARIABLE = "Some string" # because it can't be found. # Or like this: -Variable= 'Some string' +VARIABLE= 'Some string' # Bash will decide that 'Some string' is a command it must execute and give an -# error because it can't be found. (In this case the 'Variable=' part is seen +# error because it can't be found. (In this case the 'VARIABLE=' part is seen # as a variable assignment valid only for the scope of the 'Some string' # command.) -- cgit v1.2.3 From 5bff1e956ef8003eddfcb64ffdc1161ee3d622bc Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alois Date: Thu, 30 Apr 2015 16:49:49 +0200 Subject: Create typescript-fr.html.markdown Translate the reading block, the introduction part and the type part. --- fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown | 171 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 171 insertions(+) create mode 100644 fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown diff --git a/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e87bacac --- /dev/null +++ b/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,171 @@ +--- +language: TypeScript +contributors: + - ["Philippe Vlérick", "https://github.com/pvlerick"] +translators: + - ["Alois de Gouvello", "https://github.com/aloisdg"] +filename: learntypescript-fr.ts +lang: fr-fr +--- + +TypeScript est un langage visant à faciliter le developpement d'applications large et scalable écrite en JavaScript. +TypeScript ajoute des concepts classiques comme les classes, les modules, les interfaces, les génériques et le typage statique (optionel) à JavaScript. +C'est une surcouche à JavaScript: tout le code JavaScript est valide en TypeScript ce qui permet de l'ajouter de façon transparente à n'importe quel projet. Le compilateur TypeScript émet du JavaScript. + +Cet article se concentrera seulement sur la syntaxe supplémentaire de TypeScript, plutôt que celle de [JavaScript] (../javascript/). + +Pour tester le compilateur de TypeScript, rendez-vous au [Playground] (http://www.typescriptlang.org/Playground) où vous pourrez coder, profiter d'une autocomplétion et voir directement le rendu JavaScript. + +```js +// Il y a 3 types basiques en in TypeScript +var isDone: boolean = false; +var lines: number = 42; +var name: string = "Anders"; + +// Quand c'est impossible de savoir, il ya le type `Any` +var notSure: any = 4; +notSure = "maybe a string instead"; +notSure = false; // ok, définitvement un booléen + +// Pour les collections, il y a les tableaux typés et les tableaux génériques +var list: number[] = [1, 2, 3]; // Un tableaux typé +var list: Array = [1, 2, 3]; // un tableau générique + +// Pour les énumeration +enum Color {Red, Green, Blue}; +var c: Color = Color.Green; + +// Enfin, `void` est utilisé dans le cas spécifique d'une fonction ne retournant rien +function bigHorribleAlert(): void { + alert("I'm a little annoying box!"); +} + +// Functions are first class citizens, support the lambda "fat arrow" syntax and +// use type inference + +// The following are equivalent, the same signature will be infered by the +// compiler, and same JavaScript will be emitted +var f1 = function(i: number): number { return i * i; } +// Return type inferred +var f2 = function(i: number) { return i * i; } +var f3 = (i: number): number => { return i * i; } +// Return type inferred +var f4 = (i: number) => { return i * i; } +// Return type inferred, one-liner means no return keyword needed +var f5 = (i: number) => i * i; + +// Interfaces are structural, anything that has the properties is compliant with +// the interface +interface Person { + name: string; + // Optional properties, marked with a "?" + age?: number; + // And of course functions + move(): void; +} + +// Object that implements the "Person" interface +// Can be treated as a Person since it has the name and move properties +var p: Person = { name: "Bobby", move: () => {} }; +// Objects that have the optional property: +var validPerson: Person = { name: "Bobby", age: 42, move: () => {} }; +// Is not a person because age is not a number +var invalidPerson: Person = { name: "Bobby", age: true }; + +// Interfaces can also describe a function type +interface SearchFunc { + (source: string, subString: string): boolean; +} +// Only the parameters' types are important, names are not important. +var mySearch: SearchFunc; +mySearch = function(src: string, sub: string) { + return src.search(sub) != -1; +} + +// Classes - members are public by default +class Point { + // Properties + x: number; + + // Constructor - the public/private keywords in this context will generate + // the boiler plate code for the property and the initialization in the + // constructor. + // In this example, "y" will be defined just like "x" is, but with less code + // Default values are also supported + + constructor(x: number, public y: number = 0) { + this.x = x; + } + + // Functions + dist() { return Math.sqrt(this.x * this.x + this.y * this.y); } + + // Static members + static origin = new Point(0, 0); +} + +var p1 = new Point(10 ,20); +var p2 = new Point(25); //y will be 0 + +// Inheritance +class Point3D extends Point { + constructor(x: number, y: number, public z: number = 0) { + super(x, y); // Explicit call to the super class constructor is mandatory + } + + // Overwrite + dist() { + var d = super.dist(); + return Math.sqrt(d * d + this.z * this.z); + } +} + +// Modules, "." can be used as separator for sub modules +module Geometry { + export class Square { + constructor(public sideLength: number = 0) { + } + area() { + return Math.pow(this.sideLength, 2); + } + } +} + +var s1 = new Geometry.Square(5); + +// Local alias for referencing a module +import G = Geometry; + +var s2 = new G.Square(10); + +// Generics +// Classes +class Tuple { + constructor(public item1: T1, public item2: T2) { + } +} + +// Interfaces +interface Pair { + item1: T; + item2: T; +} + +// And functions +var pairToTuple = function(p: Pair) { + return new Tuple(p.item1, p.item2); +}; + +var tuple = pairToTuple({ item1:"hello", item2:"world"}); + +// Including references to a definition file: +/// + +``` + +## Lectures complémentaires + * [Site officiel de TypeScript] (http://www.typescriptlang.org/) + * [Spécification du langage TypeScript (pdf)] (http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=267238) + * [Anders Hejlsberg - Introducing TypeScript on Channel 9] (http://channel9.msdn.com/posts/Anders-Hejlsberg-Introducing-TypeScript) + * [Code source sur GitHub] (https://github.com/Microsoft/TypeScript) + * [Definitely Typed - repository for type definitions] (http://definitelytyped.org/) -- cgit v1.2.3 From 6f96532a59012aa1041aaf671c160396a7819167 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alois Date: Thu, 30 Apr 2015 17:12:54 +0200 Subject: Update typescript-fr.html.markdown Translate functions block --- fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown | 20 ++++++++++---------- 1 file changed, 10 insertions(+), 10 deletions(-) diff --git a/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown index e87bacac..718a5e9a 100644 --- a/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown @@ -10,19 +10,19 @@ lang: fr-fr TypeScript est un langage visant à faciliter le developpement d'applications large et scalable écrite en JavaScript. TypeScript ajoute des concepts classiques comme les classes, les modules, les interfaces, les génériques et le typage statique (optionel) à JavaScript. -C'est une surcouche à JavaScript: tout le code JavaScript est valide en TypeScript ce qui permet de l'ajouter de façon transparente à n'importe quel projet. Le compilateur TypeScript émet du JavaScript. +C'est une surcouche de JavaScript : tout le code JavaScript est valide en TypeScript ce qui permet de l'ajouter de façon transparente à n'importe quel projet. Le code TypeScript est transcompilé en JavaScript par le compilateur. Cet article se concentrera seulement sur la syntaxe supplémentaire de TypeScript, plutôt que celle de [JavaScript] (../javascript/). Pour tester le compilateur de TypeScript, rendez-vous au [Playground] (http://www.typescriptlang.org/Playground) où vous pourrez coder, profiter d'une autocomplétion et voir directement le rendu JavaScript. ```js -// Il y a 3 types basiques en in TypeScript +// Il y a 3 types basiques en TypeScript var isDone: boolean = false; var lines: number = 42; var name: string = "Anders"; -// Quand c'est impossible de savoir, il ya le type `Any` +// Quand c'est impossible à déterminer, on utilise le type `Any` var notSure: any = 4; notSure = "maybe a string instead"; notSure = false; // ok, définitvement un booléen @@ -40,18 +40,18 @@ function bigHorribleAlert(): void { alert("I'm a little annoying box!"); } -// Functions are first class citizens, support the lambda "fat arrow" syntax and -// use type inference +// Les fontions sont des entités de première classe. Elles supportent les expressions lambda et +// utilisent l'inférence de types -// The following are equivalent, the same signature will be infered by the -// compiler, and same JavaScript will be emitted +// Les fonctions ci-dessous sont équivalentes, une signature identique sera inférée par le compilateur, +// et le même JavaScript sera généré var f1 = function(i: number): number { return i * i; } -// Return type inferred +// Retourne un type inféré var f2 = function(i: number) { return i * i; } var f3 = (i: number): number => { return i * i; } -// Return type inferred +// Retourne un type inféré var f4 = (i: number) => { return i * i; } -// Return type inferred, one-liner means no return keyword needed +// Retourne un type inféré, ici le mot clé `return` n'est pas nécessaire var f5 = (i: number) => i * i; // Interfaces are structural, anything that has the properties is compliant with -- cgit v1.2.3 From 0964b9e1edff08d0d4bc570a9fad135e2da45d62 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alois Date: Thu, 30 Apr 2015 18:42:13 +0200 Subject: Update typescript-fr.html.markdown Add classe block --- fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown | 59 +++++++++++++++++++-------------------- 1 file changed, 28 insertions(+), 31 deletions(-) diff --git a/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown index 718a5e9a..9e6ee171 100644 --- a/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown @@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ var list: number[] = [1, 2, 3]; // Un tableaux typé var list: Array = [1, 2, 3]; // un tableau générique // Pour les énumeration -enum Color {Red, Green, Blue}; +enum Color { Red, Green, Blue }; var c: Color = Color.Green; // Enfin, `void` est utilisé dans le cas spécifique d'une fonction ne retournant rien @@ -54,73 +54,70 @@ var f4 = (i: number) => { return i * i; } // Retourne un type inféré, ici le mot clé `return` n'est pas nécessaire var f5 = (i: number) => i * i; -// Interfaces are structural, anything that has the properties is compliant with -// the interface +// Les interfaces sont structurés, tout ce qui a les propriétés est compatible avec +// l'interface interface Person { name: string; - // Optional properties, marked with a "?" + // Les propriétés optionnelles sont identifiées avec un "?" age?: number; - // And of course functions + // Et bien sûr, les fonctions move(): void; } -// Object that implements the "Person" interface -// Can be treated as a Person since it has the name and move properties +// Un objet implémentant l'interface "Person" peut être traité comme +// une Person car il a les propriétés "name" et "move" var p: Person = { name: "Bobby", move: () => {} }; -// Objects that have the optional property: -var validPerson: Person = { name: "Bobby", age: 42, move: () => {} }; -// Is not a person because age is not a number -var invalidPerson: Person = { name: "Bobby", age: true }; +// Des objets implémentants la propriété optionnelle : +var validPerson: Person = { name: "Bobby", age: 42, move: () => {} }; // valide car "age" est un nombre +var invalidPerson: Person = { name: "Bobby", age: true }; // invalide car "age" n'est pas un nombre -// Interfaces can also describe a function type +// Les interfaces peuvent aussi décrire un type de fonction interface SearchFunc { (source: string, subString: string): boolean; } -// Only the parameters' types are important, names are not important. +// Seul les types des paramètres sont importants, les noms ne le sont pas var mySearch: SearchFunc; mySearch = function(src: string, sub: string) { return src.search(sub) != -1; } -// Classes - members are public by default +// Les membres des classes sont publiques par défaut class Point { - // Properties + // Propriétés x: number; - // Constructor - the public/private keywords in this context will generate - // the boiler plate code for the property and the initialization in the - // constructor. - // In this example, "y" will be defined just like "x" is, but with less code - // Default values are also supported - + // Constructeur - Les mots clés "public" et "private" dans ce contexte génèrent + // le code de la propriété et son initialisation dans le constructeur. + // Dans cet exemple, "y" sera défini de la même façon que "x", mais avec moins de code + // Les valeurs par défaut sont supportées constructor(x: number, public y: number = 0) { this.x = x; } - // Functions + // Fonctions dist() { return Math.sqrt(this.x * this.x + this.y * this.y); } - // Static members + // Membres statiques static origin = new Point(0, 0); } var p1 = new Point(10 ,20); var p2 = new Point(25); //y will be 0 -// Inheritance +// Héritage class Point3D extends Point { constructor(x: number, y: number, public z: number = 0) { - super(x, y); // Explicit call to the super class constructor is mandatory + super(x, y); // Un appel explicite au constructeur de la super classe est obligatoire. } - // Overwrite + // Redéfinition dist() { var d = super.dist(); return Math.sqrt(d * d + this.z * this.z); } } -// Modules, "." can be used as separator for sub modules +// Modules, "." peut être utilisé comme un séparateur de sous modules. module Geometry { export class Square { constructor(public sideLength: number = 0) { @@ -133,12 +130,12 @@ module Geometry { var s1 = new Geometry.Square(5); -// Local alias for referencing a module +// Alias local pour référencer un module import G = Geometry; var s2 = new G.Square(10); -// Generics +// Génériques // Classes class Tuple { constructor(public item1: T1, public item2: T2) { @@ -151,14 +148,14 @@ interface Pair { item2: T; } -// And functions +// Et fonctions var pairToTuple = function(p: Pair) { return new Tuple(p.item1, p.item2); }; var tuple = pairToTuple({ item1:"hello", item2:"world"}); -// Including references to a definition file: +// Inclure des références à un fichier : /// ``` -- cgit v1.2.3 From f5fec6341b9a7ed280a5dbfd86d9cc5ee4fa82cf Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alois Date: Thu, 30 Apr 2015 18:47:21 +0200 Subject: Update typescript-fr.html.markdown Fix translation --- fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown | 8 ++++---- 1 file changed, 4 insertions(+), 4 deletions(-) diff --git a/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown index 9e6ee171..14caec7c 100644 --- a/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown @@ -8,13 +8,13 @@ filename: learntypescript-fr.ts lang: fr-fr --- -TypeScript est un langage visant à faciliter le developpement d'applications large et scalable écrite en JavaScript. -TypeScript ajoute des concepts classiques comme les classes, les modules, les interfaces, les génériques et le typage statique (optionel) à JavaScript. -C'est une surcouche de JavaScript : tout le code JavaScript est valide en TypeScript ce qui permet de l'ajouter de façon transparente à n'importe quel projet. Le code TypeScript est transcompilé en JavaScript par le compilateur. +TypeScript est un langage visant à faciliter le développement d'applications large et scalable écrite en JavaScript. +TypeScript ajoute des concepts classiques comme les classes, les modules, les interfaces, les génériques et le typage statique (optionnel) à JavaScript. +C'est une sur-couche de JavaScript : tout le code JavaScript est valide en TypeScript ce qui permet de l'ajouter de façon transparente à n'importe quel projet. Le code TypeScript est transcompilé en JavaScript par le compilateur Cet article se concentrera seulement sur la syntaxe supplémentaire de TypeScript, plutôt que celle de [JavaScript] (../javascript/). -Pour tester le compilateur de TypeScript, rendez-vous au [Playground] (http://www.typescriptlang.org/Playground) où vous pourrez coder, profiter d'une autocomplétion et voir directement le rendu JavaScript. +Pour tester le compilateur de TypeScript, rendez-vous au [Playground] (http://www.typescriptlang.org/Playground) où vous pourrez coder, profiter d'une autocomplétion et accéder directement au rendu JavaScript. ```js // Il y a 3 types basiques en TypeScript -- cgit v1.2.3 From abd5437b6d94a4635df8ade836ecde2206aa9625 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alois Date: Thu, 30 Apr 2015 18:54:07 +0200 Subject: Update typescript-fr.html.markdown Adjust to 80 columns --- fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown | 39 ++++++++++++++++++++++----------------- 1 file changed, 22 insertions(+), 17 deletions(-) diff --git a/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown index 14caec7c..63ed4c34 100644 --- a/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown @@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ var name: string = "Anders"; // Quand c'est impossible à déterminer, on utilise le type `Any` var notSure: any = 4; notSure = "maybe a string instead"; -notSure = false; // ok, définitvement un booléen +notSure = false; // ok, définitivement un booléen // Pour les collections, il y a les tableaux typés et les tableaux génériques var list: number[] = [1, 2, 3]; // Un tableaux typé @@ -35,16 +35,17 @@ var list: Array = [1, 2, 3]; // un tableau générique enum Color { Red, Green, Blue }; var c: Color = Color.Green; -// Enfin, `void` est utilisé dans le cas spécifique d'une fonction ne retournant rien +// Enfin, `void` est utilisé dans le cas spécifique +// d'une fonction ne retournant rien function bigHorribleAlert(): void { alert("I'm a little annoying box!"); } -// Les fontions sont des entités de première classe. Elles supportent les expressions lambda et -// utilisent l'inférence de types +// Les fontions sont des entités de première classe. Elles supportent +// les expressions lambda et utilisent l'inférence de types -// Les fonctions ci-dessous sont équivalentes, une signature identique sera inférée par le compilateur, -// et le même JavaScript sera généré +// Les fonctions ci-dessous sont équivalentes, une signature identique +// sera inférée par le compilateur, et le même JavaScript sera généré var f1 = function(i: number): number { return i * i; } // Retourne un type inféré var f2 = function(i: number) { return i * i; } @@ -54,8 +55,8 @@ var f4 = (i: number) => { return i * i; } // Retourne un type inféré, ici le mot clé `return` n'est pas nécessaire var f5 = (i: number) => i * i; -// Les interfaces sont structurés, tout ce qui a les propriétés est compatible avec -// l'interface +// Les interfaces sont structurés, tout ce qui a les propriétés est compatible +// avec l'interface interface Person { name: string; // Les propriétés optionnelles sont identifiées avec un "?" @@ -68,28 +69,30 @@ interface Person { // une Person car il a les propriétés "name" et "move" var p: Person = { name: "Bobby", move: () => {} }; // Des objets implémentants la propriété optionnelle : -var validPerson: Person = { name: "Bobby", age: 42, move: () => {} }; // valide car "age" est un nombre -var invalidPerson: Person = { name: "Bobby", age: true }; // invalide car "age" n'est pas un nombre +// valide car "age" est un nombre +var validPerson: Person = { name: "Bobby", age: 42, move: () => {} }; +// invalide car "age" n'est pas un nombre +var invalidPerson: Person = { name: "Bobby", age: true }; // Les interfaces peuvent aussi décrire un type de fonction interface SearchFunc { (source: string, subString: string): boolean; } -// Seul les types des paramètres sont importants, les noms ne le sont pas +// Seul les types des paramètres sont importants, les noms ne le sont pas. var mySearch: SearchFunc; mySearch = function(src: string, sub: string) { return src.search(sub) != -1; } -// Les membres des classes sont publiques par défaut +// Les membres des classes sont publiques par défaut. class Point { // Propriétés x: number; - // Constructeur - Les mots clés "public" et "private" dans ce contexte génèrent - // le code de la propriété et son initialisation dans le constructeur. - // Dans cet exemple, "y" sera défini de la même façon que "x", mais avec moins de code - // Les valeurs par défaut sont supportées + // Constructeur - Les mots clés "public" et "private" dans ce contexte + // génèrent le code de la propriété et son initialisation dans le + // constructeur. Ici, "y" sera défini de la même façon que "x", + // mais avec moins de code. Les valeurs par défaut sont supportées. constructor(x: number, public y: number = 0) { this.x = x; } @@ -107,7 +110,9 @@ var p2 = new Point(25); //y will be 0 // Héritage class Point3D extends Point { constructor(x: number, y: number, public z: number = 0) { - super(x, y); // Un appel explicite au constructeur de la super classe est obligatoire. + // Un appel explicite au constructeur de la super classe + // est obligatoire. + super(x, y); } // Redéfinition -- cgit v1.2.3 From e13e00945dc4bb20c7cf6b9cd4af87f73b965ddb Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Rinoc Johnson Date: Thu, 30 Apr 2015 17:56:01 -0400 Subject: Fix Python typo. --- python.html.markdown | 8 ++++---- 1 file changed, 4 insertions(+), 4 deletions(-) diff --git a/python.html.markdown b/python.html.markdown index 7281a330..f081a6a7 100644 --- a/python.html.markdown +++ b/python.html.markdown @@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ to Python 2.x. For Python 3.x, take a look at the [Python 3 tutorial](http://lea 2.0 # This is a float 11.0 / 4.0 # => 2.75 ahhh...much better -# Result of integer division truncated down both for positive and negative. +# Result of integer division truncated down both for positive and negative. 5 // 3 # => 1 5.0 // 3.0 # => 1.0 # works on floats too -5 // 3 # => -2 @@ -191,7 +191,7 @@ li[2:] # => [4, 3] li[:3] # => [1, 2, 4] # Select every second entry li[::2] # =>[1, 4] -# Revert the list +# Reverse the list li[::-1] # => [3, 4, 2, 1] # Use any combination of these to make advanced slices # li[start:end:step] @@ -439,14 +439,14 @@ def pass_all_the_args(*args, **kwargs): print varargs(*args) print keyword_args(**kwargs) -# Function Scope +# Function Scope x = 5 def setX(num): # Local var x not the same as global variable x x = num # => 43 print x # => 43 - + def setGlobalX(num): global x print x # => 5 -- cgit v1.2.3 From 5ebe2dcb6eeaf7e34daf07f76dcfa2403f05a332 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Rinoc Johnson Date: Thu, 30 Apr 2015 19:31:38 -0400 Subject: Clarify wording for list reversal. --- python.html.markdown | 4 ++-- 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/python.html.markdown b/python.html.markdown index f081a6a7..ace3f794 100644 --- a/python.html.markdown +++ b/python.html.markdown @@ -191,14 +191,14 @@ li[2:] # => [4, 3] li[:3] # => [1, 2, 4] # Select every second entry li[::2] # =>[1, 4] -# Reverse the list +# Reverse a copy of the list li[::-1] # => [3, 4, 2, 1] # Use any combination of these to make advanced slices # li[start:end:step] # Remove arbitrary elements from a list with "del" del li[2] # li is now [1, 2, 3] - +r # You can add lists li + other_li # => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] # Note: values for li and for other_li are not modified. -- cgit v1.2.3 From ffc5ac247c52071c3e4e639ecd363c4fca89bec9 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Geoff Liu Date: Thu, 30 Apr 2015 23:44:09 -0600 Subject: Python3 doc cleanup --- python3.html.markdown | 42 +++++++++++++++++++++--------------------- 1 file changed, 21 insertions(+), 21 deletions(-) diff --git a/python3.html.markdown b/python3.html.markdown index 470eb6e4..a112912f 100644 --- a/python3.html.markdown +++ b/python3.html.markdown @@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ Note: This article applies to Python 3 specifically. Check out [here](http://lea # Except division which returns floats by default 35 / 5 # => 7.0 -# Result of integer division truncated down both for positive and negative. +# Result of integer division truncated down both for positive and negative. 5 // 3 # => 1 5.0 // 3.0 # => 1.0 # works on floats too -5 // 3 # => -2 @@ -73,8 +73,8 @@ False or True #=> True # Note using Bool operators with ints 0 and 2 #=> 0 -5 or 0 #=> -5 -0 == False #=> True -2 == True #=> False +0 == False #=> True +2 == True #=> False 1 == True #=> True # Equality is == @@ -145,7 +145,7 @@ bool({}) #=> False # Python has a print function print("I'm Python. Nice to meet you!") -# No need to declare variables before assigning to them. +# No need to declare variables before assigning to them. # Convention is to use lower_case_with_underscores some_var = 5 some_var # => 5 @@ -186,7 +186,7 @@ li[2:] # => [4, 3] li[:3] # => [1, 2, 4] # Select every second entry li[::2] # =>[1, 4] -# Revert the list +# Return a reversed copy of the list li[::-1] # => [3, 4, 2, 1] # Use any combination of these to make advanced slices # li[start:end:step] @@ -196,7 +196,7 @@ del li[2] # li is now [1, 2, 3] # You can add lists # Note: values for li and for other_li are not modified. -li + other_li # => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] +li + other_li # => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] # Concatenate lists with "extend()" li.extend(other_li) # Now li is [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] @@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ tup = (1, 2, 3) tup[0] # => 1 tup[0] = 3 # Raises a TypeError -# You can do all those list thingies on tuples too +# You can do most of the list operations on tuples too len(tup) # => 3 tup + (4, 5, 6) # => (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) tup[:2] # => (1, 2) @@ -235,15 +235,15 @@ filled_dict = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3} # Look up values with [] filled_dict["one"] # => 1 -# Get all keys as a list with "keys()". -# We need to wrap the call in list() because we are getting back an iterable. We'll talk about those later. -# Note - Dictionary key ordering is not guaranteed. -# Your results might not match this exactly. +# Get all keys as an iterable with "keys()". We need to wrap the call in list() +# to turn it into a list. We'll talk about those later. Note - Dictionary key +# ordering is not guaranteed. Your results might not match this exactly. list(filled_dict.keys()) # => ["three", "two", "one"] -# Get all values as a list with "values()". Once again we need to wrap it in list() to get it out of the iterable. -# Note - Same as above regarding key ordering. +# Get all values as an iterable with "values()". Once again we need to wrap it +# in list() to get it out of the iterable. Note - Same as above regarding key +# ordering. list(filled_dict.values()) # => [3, 2, 1] @@ -281,7 +281,7 @@ some_set = {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4} # some_set is now {1, 2, 3, 4} # Can set new variables to a set filled_set = some_set -# Add one more item to the set +# Add one more item to the set filled_set.add(5) # filled_set is now {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} # Do set intersection with & @@ -328,7 +328,7 @@ for animal in ["dog", "cat", "mouse"]: print("{} is a mammal".format(animal)) """ -"range(number)" returns a list of numbers +"range(number)" returns an iterable of numbers from zero to the given number prints: 0 @@ -340,7 +340,7 @@ for i in range(4): print(i) """ -"range(lower, upper)" returns a list of numbers +"range(lower, upper)" returns an iterable of numbers from the lower number to the upper number prints: 4 @@ -458,14 +458,14 @@ all_the_args(**kwargs) # equivalent to foo(a=3, b=4) all_the_args(*args, **kwargs) # equivalent to foo(1, 2, 3, 4, a=3, b=4) -# Function Scope +# Function Scope x = 5 def setX(num): # Local var x not the same as global variable x x = num # => 43 print (x) # => 43 - + def setGlobalX(num): global x print (x) # => 5 @@ -512,8 +512,8 @@ class Human(object): # Basic initializer, this is called when this class is instantiated. # Note that the double leading and trailing underscores denote objects # or attributes that are used by python but that live in user-controlled - # namespaces. Methods(or objects or attributes) like: __init__, __str__, - # __repr__ etc. are called magic methods (or sometimes called dunder methods) + # namespaces. Methods(or objects or attributes) like: __init__, __str__, + # __repr__ etc. are called magic methods (or sometimes called dunder methods) # You should not invent such names on your own. def __init__(self, name): # Assign the argument to the instance's name attribute @@ -600,7 +600,7 @@ def double_numbers(iterable): # double_numbers. # Note range is a generator too. Creating a list 1-900000000 would take lot of # time to be made -# We use a trailing underscore in variable names when we want to use a name that +# We use a trailing underscore in variable names when we want to use a name that # would normally collide with a python keyword range_ = range(1, 900000000) # will double all numbers until a result >=30 found -- cgit v1.2.3 From a4c0f3536bc18e9c157a77dc5dd33ae47c6fe03e Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Andrey Samsonov Date: Sat, 2 May 2015 15:31:56 +0400 Subject: WIP --- ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown | 281 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 281 insertions(+) create mode 100644 ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown diff --git a/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..264b7439 --- /dev/null +++ b/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,281 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: bash +contributors: + - ["Max Yankov", "https://github.com/golergka"] + - ["Darren Lin", "https://github.com/CogBear"] + - ["Alexandre Medeiros", "http://alemedeiros.sdf.org"] + - ["Denis Arh", "https://github.com/darh"] + - ["akirahirose", "https://twitter.com/akirahirose"] + - ["Anton Strömkvist", "http://lutic.org/"] + - ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"] + - ["Gregrory Kielian", "https://github.com/gskielian"] + - ["Etan Reisner", "https://github.com/deryni"] +filename: LearnBash.sh +--- + +Bash это командная оболочка unix (unix shell), которая распространяется как оболочка для операционной системы GNU и используется в качестве оболочки по умолчанию для Linux и Mac OS X. +Почти все нижеприведенные примеры могут могут быть частью shell-скриптов или быть исполнены напрямую в shell. + +[Подробнее.](http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/bashref.html) + +```bash +#!/bin/bash +# Первая строка скрипта - это shebang, который сообщает системе как испольнять +# этот скрипт: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shebang_(Unix) +# Как вы уже поняли, комментарии начинаются с #. Shebang - это тоже коммантарий. + +# Простой пример hello world: +echo Hello world! + +# Отдельные команды начинаются с новой строки или разделяются точкой с запятой: +echo 'This is the first line'; echo 'This is the second line' + +# Вот так объявляется пемеренная: +VARIABLE="Some string" + +# Но не так: +VARIABLE = "Some string" +# Bash решит что VARIABLE - это команда, которую он должен исполнить, +# и выдаст ошибку, потому что не сможет найти ее. + +# И не так: +VARIABLE= 'Some string' +# Тут Bash решит что 'Some string' - это команда, которую он должен исполнить, +# и выдаст ошибку, потому что не сможет найти ее (здесь 'VARIABLE=' выглядит +# как присвоение значения переменной, но только в контексте исполнения +# команды 'Some string'). + +# Использование переменой: +echo $VARIABLE +echo "$VARIABLE" +echo '$VARIABLE' +# Когда вы используете переменную — присвоение, экспорт и т.д — вы пищете её +# имя без $. А для получения значения переменной, используйте $. +# Заметте что ' (одинарные кавычки) не раскрывают переменные в них. + +# Подстановка строк в переменных +echo ${VARIABLE/Some/A} +# Это выражение заменит первую встреченную подстроку "Some" на "A" + +# Подстановка из переменной +LENGTH=7 +echo ${VARIABLE:0:LENGTH} +# This will return only the first 7 characters of the value + +# Default value for variable +echo ${FOO:-"DefaultValueIfFOOIsMissingOrEmpty"} +# This works for null (FOO=), empty string (FOO=""), zero (FOO=0) returns 0 + +# Builtin variables: +# There are some useful builtin variables, like +echo "Last program return value: $?" +echo "Script's PID: $$" +echo "Number of arguments: $#" +echo "Scripts arguments: $@" +echo "Scripts arguments seperated in different variables: $1 $2..." + +# Reading a value from input: +echo "What's your name?" +read NAME # Note that we didn't need to declare a new variable +echo Hello, $NAME! + +# We have the usual if structure: +# use 'man test' for more info about conditionals +if [ $NAME -ne $USER ] +then + echo "Your name isn't your username" +else + echo "Your name is your username" +fi + +# There is also conditional execution +echo "Always executed" || echo "Only executed if first command fails" +echo "Always executed" && echo "Only executed if first command does NOT fail" + +# To use && and || with if statements, you need multiple pairs of square brackets: +if [ $NAME == "Steve" ] && [ $AGE -eq 15 ] +then + echo "This will run if $NAME is Steve AND $AGE is 15." +fi + +if [ $NAME == "Daniya" ] || [ $NAME == "Zach" ] +then + echo "This will run if $NAME is Daniya OR Zach." +fi + +# Expressions are denoted with the following format: +echo $(( 10 + 5 )) + +# Unlike other programming languages, bash is a shell — so it works in a context +# of current directory. You can list files and directories in the current +# directory with the ls command: +ls + +# These commands have options that control their execution: +ls -l # Lists every file and directory on a separate line + +# Results of the previous command can be passed to the next command as input. +# grep command filters the input with provided patterns. That's how we can list +# .txt files in the current directory: +ls -l | grep "\.txt" + +# You can redirect command input and output (stdin, stdout, and stderr). +# Read from stdin until ^EOF$ and overwrite hello.py with the lines +# between "EOF": +cat > hello.py << EOF +#!/usr/bin/env python +from __future__ import print_function +import sys +print("#stdout", file=sys.stdout) +print("#stderr", file=sys.stderr) +for line in sys.stdin: + print(line, file=sys.stdout) +EOF + +# Run hello.py with various stdin, stdout, and stderr redirections: +python hello.py < "input.in" +python hello.py > "output.out" +python hello.py 2> "error.err" +python hello.py > "output-and-error.log" 2>&1 +python hello.py > /dev/null 2>&1 +# The output error will overwrite the file if it exists, +# if you want to append instead, use ">>": +python hello.py >> "output.out" 2>> "error.err" + +# Overwrite output.txt, append to error.err, and count lines: +info bash 'Basic Shell Features' 'Redirections' > output.out 2>> error.err +wc -l output.out error.err + +# Run a command and print its file descriptor (e.g. /dev/fd/123) +# see: man fd +echo <(echo "#helloworld") + +# Overwrite output.txt with "#helloworld": +cat > output.out <(echo "#helloworld") +echo "#helloworld" > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | cat > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | tee output.out >/dev/null + +# Cleanup temporary files verbosely (add '-i' for interactive) +rm -v output.out error.err output-and-error.log + +# Commands can be substituted within other commands using $( ): +# The following command displays the number of files and directories in the +# current directory. +echo "There are $(ls | wc -l) items here." + +# The same can be done using backticks `` but they can't be nested - the preferred way +# is to use $( ). +echo "There are `ls | wc -l` items here." + +# Bash uses a case statement that works similarly to switch in Java and C++: +case "$VARIABLE" in + #List patterns for the conditions you want to meet + 0) echo "There is a zero.";; + 1) echo "There is a one.";; + *) echo "It is not null.";; +esac + +# for loops iterate for as many arguments given: +# The contents of $VARIABLE is printed three times. +for VARIABLE in {1..3} +do + echo "$VARIABLE" +done + +# Or write it the "traditional for loop" way: +for ((a=1; a <= 3; a++)) +do + echo $a +done + +# They can also be used to act on files.. +# This will run the command 'cat' on file1 and file2 +for VARIABLE in file1 file2 +do + cat "$VARIABLE" +done + +# ..or the output from a command +# This will cat the output from ls. +for OUTPUT in $(ls) +do + cat "$OUTPUT" +done + +# while loop: +while [ true ] +do + echo "loop body here..." + break +done + +# You can also define functions +# Definition: +function foo () +{ + echo "Arguments work just like script arguments: $@" + echo "And: $1 $2..." + echo "This is a function" + return 0 +} + +# or simply +bar () +{ + echo "Another way to declare functions!" + return 0 +} + +# Calling your function +foo "My name is" $NAME + +# There are a lot of useful commands you should learn: +# prints last 10 lines of file.txt +tail -n 10 file.txt +# prints first 10 lines of file.txt +head -n 10 file.txt +# sort file.txt's lines +sort file.txt +# report or omit repeated lines, with -d it reports them +uniq -d file.txt +# prints only the first column before the ',' character +cut -d ',' -f 1 file.txt +# replaces every occurrence of 'okay' with 'great' in file.txt, (regex compatible) +sed -i 's/okay/great/g' file.txt +# print to stdout all lines of file.txt which match some regex +# The example prints lines which begin with "foo" and end in "bar" +grep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt +# pass the option "-c" to instead print the number of lines matching the regex +grep -c "^foo.*bar$" file.txt +# if you literally want to search for the string, +# and not the regex, use fgrep (or grep -F) +fgrep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt + + +# Read Bash shell builtins documentation with the bash 'help' builtin: +help +help help +help for +help return +help source +help . + +# Read Bash manpage documentation with man +apropos bash +man 1 bash +man bash + +# Read info documentation with info (? for help) +apropos info | grep '^info.*(' +man info +info info +info 5 info + +# Read bash info documentation: +info bash +info bash 'Bash Features' +info bash 6 +info --apropos bash +``` -- cgit v1.2.3 From 8758bb845b063b76b55d2c178d0dc393b2a39c5c Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Andrey Samsonov Date: Sat, 2 May 2015 15:34:56 +0400 Subject: Clear that length and position can be set by variable in substring extraction --- bash.html.markdown | 3 ++- 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/bash.html.markdown b/bash.html.markdown index e0c12f97..81f85d28 100644 --- a/bash.html.markdown +++ b/bash.html.markdown @@ -59,7 +59,8 @@ echo ${VARIABLE/Some/A} # This will substitute the first occurance of "Some" with "A" # Substring from a variable -echo ${VARIABLE:0:7} +LENGTH=7 +echo ${VARIABLE:0:LENGTH} # This will return only the first 7 characters of the value # Default value for variable -- cgit v1.2.3 From 6848f45ebeee759afdaa34e6cdf367fe31bf1bab Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Andrey Samsonov Date: Sat, 2 May 2015 16:21:03 +0400 Subject: Clear explanation of default value expression --- bash.html.markdown | 3 ++- 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/bash.html.markdown b/bash.html.markdown index e0c12f97..58dc3003 100644 --- a/bash.html.markdown +++ b/bash.html.markdown @@ -64,7 +64,8 @@ echo ${VARIABLE:0:7} # Default value for variable echo ${FOO:-"DefaultValueIfFOOIsMissingOrEmpty"} -# This works for null (FOO=), empty string (FOO=""), zero (FOO=0) returns 0 +# This works for null (FOO=) and empty string (FOO=""); zero (FOO=0) returns 0. +# Note that it only returns default value and doesn't change variable value. # Builtin variables: # There are some useful builtin variables, like -- cgit v1.2.3 From af9588f8adb39717660ed66768c475d5228a8af7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Andrey Samsonov Date: Sun, 3 May 2015 00:19:06 +0400 Subject: Bash Russian translation --- ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown | 218 ++++++++++++++++++++++---------------------- 1 file changed, 109 insertions(+), 109 deletions(-) diff --git a/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown index 264b7439..f8b28294 100644 --- a/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown @@ -21,108 +21,110 @@ Bash это командная оболочка unix (unix shell), котора ```bash #!/bin/bash -# Первая строка скрипта - это shebang, который сообщает системе как испольнять +# Первая строка скрипта - это shebang, который сообщает системе как исполнять # этот скрипт: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shebang_(Unix) -# Как вы уже поняли, комментарии начинаются с #. Shebang - это тоже коммантарий. +# Как вы уже поняли, комментарии начинаются с #. Shebang — тоже коммантарий. # Простой пример hello world: echo Hello world! # Отдельные команды начинаются с новой строки или разделяются точкой с запятой: -echo 'This is the first line'; echo 'This is the second line' +echo 'Это первая строка'; echo 'Это вторая строка' # Вот так объявляется пемеренная: -VARIABLE="Some string" +VARIABLE="Просто строка" -# Но не так: -VARIABLE = "Some string" +# но не так: +VARIABLE = "Просто строка" # Bash решит что VARIABLE - это команда, которую он должен исполнить, # и выдаст ошибку, потому что не сможет найти ее. -# И не так: -VARIABLE= 'Some string' -# Тут Bash решит что 'Some string' - это команда, которую он должен исполнить, -# и выдаст ошибку, потому что не сможет найти ее (здесь 'VARIABLE=' выглядит -# как присвоение значения переменной, но только в контексте исполнения -# команды 'Some string'). +# и не так: +VARIABLE= 'Просто строка' +# Тут Bash решит, что 'Просто строка' - это команда, которую он должен исполнить, +# и выдаст ошибку, потому что не сможет найти такой команды +# (здесь 'VARIABLE=' выглядит как присвоение значения переменной, +# но только в контексте исполнения команды 'Просто строка'). # Использование переменой: echo $VARIABLE echo "$VARIABLE" echo '$VARIABLE' -# Когда вы используете переменную — присвоение, экспорт и т.д — вы пищете её +# Когда вы используете переменную - присвоение, экспорт и т.д - пишите её # имя без $. А для получения значения переменной, используйте $. # Заметте что ' (одинарные кавычки) не раскрывают переменные в них. -# Подстановка строк в переменных -echo ${VARIABLE/Some/A} -# Это выражение заменит первую встреченную подстроку "Some" на "A" +# Подстановка строк в переменные +echo ${VARIABLE/Просто/A} +# Это выражение заменит первую встреченную подстроку "Просто" на "A" # Подстановка из переменной LENGTH=7 echo ${VARIABLE:0:LENGTH} -# This will return only the first 7 characters of the value +# Это выражение вернет только первые 7 символов переменной VARIABLE -# Default value for variable +# Значение по умолчанию echo ${FOO:-"DefaultValueIfFOOIsMissingOrEmpty"} -# This works for null (FOO=), empty string (FOO=""), zero (FOO=0) returns 0 - -# Builtin variables: -# There are some useful builtin variables, like -echo "Last program return value: $?" -echo "Script's PID: $$" -echo "Number of arguments: $#" -echo "Scripts arguments: $@" -echo "Scripts arguments seperated in different variables: $1 $2..." - -# Reading a value from input: -echo "What's your name?" -read NAME # Note that we didn't need to declare a new variable -echo Hello, $NAME! - -# We have the usual if structure: -# use 'man test' for more info about conditionals +# Это сработает при отсутствующем значении (FOO=) и пустой строке (FOO=""); +# ноль (FOO=0) вернет 0. +# Заметте, что в любом случае значение самой переменной FOO не изменится. + +# Встроенные переменные: +# В bash есть полезные встроенные переменные, например +echo "Последее возвращенное значение: $?" +echo "PID скрипта: $$" +echo "Количество аргументов: $#" +echo "Аргументы скрипта: $@" +echo "Аргументы скрипта рапределенные по отдельным переменным: $1 $2..." + +# Чтение аргументов из входа: +echo "Как Вас зовут?" +read NAME # Заметте, что нам не нужно определять новую переменную +echo Привет, $NAME! + +# У нас есть обычная структура if: +# наберите 'man test' для подробностях о форматах условия if [ $NAME -ne $USER ] then - echo "Your name isn't your username" + echo "Имя не совпадает с именем пользователя" else - echo "Your name is your username" + echo "Имя совпадает с именем пользователя" fi -# There is also conditional execution -echo "Always executed" || echo "Only executed if first command fails" -echo "Always executed" && echo "Only executed if first command does NOT fail" +# Также есть условное исполнение +echo "Исполнится всегда" || echo "Исполнится, если первая команда провалится" +echo "Исполнится всегда" && echo "Исполнится, если первая команда выполнится удачно" -# To use && and || with if statements, you need multiple pairs of square brackets: +# Можно использовать && и || в выражениях if, когда нужно несколько пар скобок: if [ $NAME == "Steve" ] && [ $AGE -eq 15 ] then - echo "This will run if $NAME is Steve AND $AGE is 15." + echo "Исполнится, если $NAME равно Steve И $AGE равно 15." fi if [ $NAME == "Daniya" ] || [ $NAME == "Zach" ] then - echo "This will run if $NAME is Daniya OR Zach." + echo "Исполнится, если $NAME равно Daniya ИЛИ Zach." fi -# Expressions are denoted with the following format: +# Выражения обозначаются таким форматом: echo $(( 10 + 5 )) -# Unlike other programming languages, bash is a shell — so it works in a context -# of current directory. You can list files and directories in the current -# directory with the ls command: +# В отличае от других языков программирования, bash это командная оболочка - +# значит он работает в контексте текущей директории. +# Вы можете просматривать файлы и директории в текущей директории командой ls: ls -# These commands have options that control their execution: -ls -l # Lists every file and directory on a separate line +# У этой команды есть опции: +ls -l # Показать каждый файл и директорию на отдельной строке -# Results of the previous command can be passed to the next command as input. -# grep command filters the input with provided patterns. That's how we can list -# .txt files in the current directory: +# Результат предыдущей команды может быть направлен на вход следующей. +# Команда grep фильтрует ввод по шаблону. +# Так мы можем просмотреть только *.txt файлы в текущей директории: ls -l | grep "\.txt" -# You can redirect command input and output (stdin, stdout, and stderr). -# Read from stdin until ^EOF$ and overwrite hello.py with the lines -# between "EOF": +# Вы можете перенаправить ввод и вывод команды (stdin, stdout и stderr). +# Следующая команда означает: читать из stdin пока не встретится ^EOF$ и +# перезаписать hello.py следующим строками (до строки "EOF"): cat > hello.py << EOF #!/usr/bin/env python from __future__ import print_function @@ -133,128 +135,126 @@ for line in sys.stdin: print(line, file=sys.stdout) EOF -# Run hello.py with various stdin, stdout, and stderr redirections: +# Запуск hello.py с разными вариантами перенаправления потоков +# стандартных ввода, вывода и ошибок: python hello.py < "input.in" python hello.py > "output.out" python hello.py 2> "error.err" python hello.py > "output-and-error.log" 2>&1 python hello.py > /dev/null 2>&1 -# The output error will overwrite the file if it exists, -# if you want to append instead, use ">>": +# Поток ошибок перезапишет файл, если этот файл существует, +# поэтому если вы хотите дописывать файл используйте ">>": python hello.py >> "output.out" 2>> "error.err" -# Overwrite output.txt, append to error.err, and count lines: +# Переписать output.txt, дописать error.err и сосчитать строки: info bash 'Basic Shell Features' 'Redirections' > output.out 2>> error.err wc -l output.out error.err -# Run a command and print its file descriptor (e.g. /dev/fd/123) -# see: man fd +# Запустить команду и вывести ее файловый дескриптор (смотрите: man fd) echo <(echo "#helloworld") -# Overwrite output.txt with "#helloworld": +# Перезаписать output.txt строкой "#helloworld": cat > output.out <(echo "#helloworld") echo "#helloworld" > output.out echo "#helloworld" | cat > output.out echo "#helloworld" | tee output.out >/dev/null -# Cleanup temporary files verbosely (add '-i' for interactive) +# Подчистить временные файлы с подробным выводом ('-i' - интерактивый режим) rm -v output.out error.err output-and-error.log -# Commands can be substituted within other commands using $( ): -# The following command displays the number of files and directories in the -# current directory. -echo "There are $(ls | wc -l) items here." +# Команды могут быть подставлены в строку используя $( ): +# следующие команды выводят число файлов и директорий в текущей директории. +echo "Здесь $(ls | wc -l) элементов." -# The same can be done using backticks `` but they can't be nested - the preferred way -# is to use $( ). -echo "There are `ls | wc -l` items here." +# То же самое можно сделать использую обратные кавычки, но они не могут быть +# вложенными - предпочтительно использовать $( ). +echo "Здесь `ls | wc -l` элементов." -# Bash uses a case statement that works similarly to switch in Java and C++: +# В Bash есть структура case, которая похожа на switch в Java и C++: case "$VARIABLE" in - #List patterns for the conditions you want to meet - 0) echo "There is a zero.";; - 1) echo "There is a one.";; - *) echo "It is not null.";; + # Перечислите шаблоны для условий, которые хотите отловить + 0) echo "Тут ноль.";; + 1) echo "Тут один.";; + *) echo "Это не пустое значение.";; esac -# for loops iterate for as many arguments given: -# The contents of $VARIABLE is printed three times. +# Цикл for перебирает элементы переданные в аргументе: +# Содержимое $VARIABLE будет напечатано три раза. for VARIABLE in {1..3} do echo "$VARIABLE" done -# Or write it the "traditional for loop" way: +# Или перепишем "традиционным" синтаксисом цикла for: for ((a=1; a <= 3; a++)) do echo $a done -# They can also be used to act on files.. -# This will run the command 'cat' on file1 and file2 +# Цикл for можно использовать для действий с файлами. +# Запустим команду 'cat' для файлов file1 и file2 for VARIABLE in file1 file2 do cat "$VARIABLE" done -# ..or the output from a command -# This will cat the output from ls. +# ..или выводом из команд +# Запустим cat для вывода из ls. for OUTPUT in $(ls) do cat "$OUTPUT" done -# while loop: +# Цикл while: while [ true ] do - echo "loop body here..." + echo "тело цикла здесь..." break done -# You can also define functions -# Definition: +# Вы можете определять функции +# Определение: function foo () { - echo "Arguments work just like script arguments: $@" - echo "And: $1 $2..." - echo "This is a function" + echo "Аргументы работают также как аругменты скрипта: $@" + echo "и: $1 $2..." + echo "Это функция" return 0 } -# or simply +# или просто bar () { - echo "Another way to declare functions!" + echo "Другой способ определить функцию!" return 0 } -# Calling your function -foo "My name is" $NAME +# Вызов функции +foo "Мое имя" $NAME -# There are a lot of useful commands you should learn: -# prints last 10 lines of file.txt +# Есть много полезных команд, которые нужно знать: +# напечатать последние 10 строк файла file.txt tail -n 10 file.txt -# prints first 10 lines of file.txt +# напечатать первые 10 строк файла file.txt head -n 10 file.txt -# sort file.txt's lines +# отсортировать строки file.txt sort file.txt -# report or omit repeated lines, with -d it reports them +# отобрать или наоборот пропустить повторяющиеся строки (с опцией -d отбирает) uniq -d file.txt -# prints only the first column before the ',' character +# напечатать только первую колонку перед символом ',' cut -d ',' -f 1 file.txt -# replaces every occurrence of 'okay' with 'great' in file.txt, (regex compatible) +# заменить каждое 'okay' на 'great' в файле file.txt (regex поддерживается) sed -i 's/okay/great/g' file.txt -# print to stdout all lines of file.txt which match some regex -# The example prints lines which begin with "foo" and end in "bar" +# вывести в stdout все строки из file.txt, совпадающие с шаблоном regex; +# этот пример выводит строки, которые начинаются на "foo" и оканчиваются "bar" grep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt -# pass the option "-c" to instead print the number of lines matching the regex +# передайте опцию -c чтобы вывести число строк, в которых совпал шаблон grep -c "^foo.*bar$" file.txt -# if you literally want to search for the string, -# and not the regex, use fgrep (or grep -F) +# чтобы искать прямо строку, а не шаблон regex, используйте fgrep (или grep -F) fgrep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt -# Read Bash shell builtins documentation with the bash 'help' builtin: +# Читайте встроенную документацию оболочки Bash командой 'help': help help help help for @@ -262,18 +262,18 @@ help return help source help . -# Read Bash manpage documentation with man +# Читайте Bash man-документацию apropos bash man 1 bash man bash -# Read info documentation with info (? for help) +# Читайте документацию info (? для помощи) apropos info | grep '^info.*(' man info info info info 5 info -# Read bash info documentation: +# Читайте bash info документацию: info bash info bash 'Bash Features' info bash 6 -- cgit v1.2.3 From 3a9138beafc9f0ca0b007ac7c27f664f6c7c42af Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: robertmargelli Date: Sat, 2 May 2015 17:00:56 -0700 Subject: added italian translation of bash --- .DS_Store | Bin 0 -> 6148 bytes it-it/bash-it.html.markdown | 275 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 2 files changed, 275 insertions(+) create mode 100644 .DS_Store create mode 100644 it-it/bash-it.html.markdown diff --git a/.DS_Store b/.DS_Store new file mode 100644 index 00000000..79a35b6f Binary files /dev/null and b/.DS_Store differ diff --git a/it-it/bash-it.html.markdown b/it-it/bash-it.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a4391258 --- /dev/null +++ b/it-it/bash-it.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,275 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: bash +contributors: + - ["Max Yankov", "https://github.com/golergka"] + - ["Darren Lin", "https://github.com/CogBear"] + - ["Alexandre Medeiros", "http://alemedeiros.sdf.org"] + - ["Denis Arh", "https://github.com/darh"] + - ["akirahirose", "https://twitter.com/akirahirose"] + - ["Anton Strömkvist", "http://lutic.org/"] + - ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"] + - ["Gregrory Kielian", "https://github.com/gskielian"] +filename: LearnBash.sh +translators: + - ["Robert Margelli", "http://github.com/sinkswim/"] +lang: it-it +--- + +Bash è il nome della shell di unix, la quale è stata distribuita anche come shell del sistema oprativo GNU e la shell di default su Linux e Mac OS X. +Quasi tutti gli esempi sottostanti possono fare parte di uno shell script o eseguiti direttamente nella shell. + +[Per saperne di piu'.](http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/bashref.html) + +```bash +#!/bin/bash +# La prima riga dello script è lo shebang il quale dice al sistema come eseguire +# lo script: http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabang +# Come avrai già immaginato, i commenti iniziano con #. Lo shebang stesso è un commento. + +# Semplice esempio ciao mondo: +echo Ciao mondo! + +# Ogni comando inizia su una nuova riga, o dopo un punto e virgola: +echo 'Questa è la prima riga'; echo 'Questa è la seconda riga' + +# Per dichiarare una variabile: +VARIABILE="Una stringa" + +# Ma non così: +VARIABILE = "Una stringa" +# Bash stabilirà che VARIABILE è un comando da eseguire e darà un errore +# perchè non esiste. + +# Usare la variabile: +echo $VARIABILE +echo "$VARIABILE" +echo '$VARIABILE' +# Quando usi la variabile stessa - assegnala, esportala, oppure — scrivi +# il suo nome senza $. Se vuoi usare il valore della variabile, devi usare $. +# Nota che ' (singolo apice) non espande le variabili! + +# Sostituzione di stringhe nelle variabili +echo ${VARIABILE/Una/A} +# Questo sostituirà la prima occorrenza di "Una" con "La" + +# Sottostringa di una variabile +echo ${VARIABILE:0:7} +# Questo ritornera solamente i primi 7 caratteri + +# Valore di default per la variabile +echo ${FOO:-"ValoreDiDefaultSeFOOMancaOÈ Vuoto"} +# Questo funziona per null (FOO=), stringa vuota (FOO=""), zero (FOO=0) ritorna 0 + +# Variabili builtin: +# Ci sono delle variabili builtin molto utili, come +echo "Valore di ritorno dell'ultimo programma eseguito: $?" +echo "PID dello script: $$" +echo "Numero di argomenti: $#" +echo "Argomenti dello script: $@" +echo "Argomenti dello script separati in variabili distinte: $1 $2..." + +# Leggere un valore di input: +echo "Come ti chiami?" +read NOME # Nota che non abbiamo dovuto dichiarare una nuova variabile +echo Ciao, $NOME! + +# Classica struttura if: +# usa 'man test' per maggiori informazioni sulle condizionali +if [ $NOME -ne $USER ] +then + echo "Il tuo nome non è lo username" +else + echo "Il tuo nome è lo username" +fi + +# C'è anche l'esecuzione condizionale +echo "Sempre eseguito" || echo "Eseguito solo se la prima condizione fallisce" +echo "Sempre eseguito" && echo "Eseguito solo se la prima condizione NON fallisce" + +# Per usare && e || con l'if, c'è bisogno di piu' paia di parentesi quadre: +if [ $NOME == "Steve" ] && [ $ETA -eq 15 ] +then + echo "Questo verrà eseguito se $NOME è Steve E $ETA è 15." +fi + +if [ $NOME == "Daniya" ] || [ $NOME == "Zach" ] +then + echo "Questo verrà eseguito se $NAME è Daniya O Zach." +fi + +# Le espressioni sono nel seguente formato: +echo $(( 10 + 5 )) + +# A differenza di altri linguaggi di programmazione, bash è una shell - quindi lavora nel contesto +# della cartella corrente. Puoi elencare i file e le cartelle nella cartella +# corrente con il comando ls: +ls + +# Questi comandi hanno opzioni che controllano la loro esecuzione: +ls -l # Elenca tutti i file e le cartelle su una riga separata + +# I risultati del comando precedente possono essere passati al comando successivo come input. +# Il comando grep filtra l'input con il pattern passato. Ecco come possiamo elencare i +# file .txt nella cartella corrente: +ls -l | grep "\.txt" + +# Puoi redirezionare l'input e l'output del comando (stdin, stdout, e stderr). +# Leggi da stdin finchè ^EOF$ e sovrascrivi hello.py con le righe +# comprese tra "EOF": +cat > hello.py << EOF +#!/usr/bin/env python +from __future__ import print_function +import sys +print("#stdout", file=sys.stdout) +print("#stderr", file=sys.stderr) +for line in sys.stdin: + print(line, file=sys.stdout) +EOF + +# Esegui hello.py con diverse redirezioni stdin, stdout, e stderr: +python hello.py < "input.in" +python hello.py > "output.out" +python hello.py 2> "error.err" +python hello.py > "output-and-error.log" 2>&1 +python hello.py > /dev/null 2>&1 +# Lo output error sovrascriverà il file se esiste, +# se invece vuoi appendere usa ">>": +python hello.py >> "output.out" 2>> "error.err" + +# Sovrascrivi output.txt, appendi a error.err, e conta le righe: +info bash 'Basic Shell Features' 'Redirections' > output.out 2>> error.err +wc -l output.out error.err + +# Esegui un comando e stampa il suo file descriptor (esempio: /dev/fd/123) +# vedi: man fd +echo <(echo "#ciaomondo") + +# Sovrascrivi output.txt con "#helloworld": +cat > output.out <(echo "#helloworld") +echo "#helloworld" > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | cat > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | tee output.out >/dev/null + +# Pulisci i file temporanei verbosamente (aggiungi '-i' per la modalità interattiva) +rm -v output.out error.err output-and-error.log + +# I comandi possono essere sostituiti con altri comandi usando $( ): +# Il comando seguente mostra il numero di file e cartelle nella +# cartella corrente. +echo "Ci sono $(ls | wc -l) oggetti qui." + +# Lo stesso puo' essere usato usando backticks `` ma non possono essere innestati - il modo migliore +# è usando $( ). +echo "Ci sono `ls | wc -l` oggetti qui." + +# Bash utilizza uno statemente case che funziona in maniera simile allo switch in Java e C++: +case "$VARIABILE" in + #Lista di pattern per le condizioni che vuoi soddisfare + 0) echo "C'è uno zero.";; + 1) echo "C'è un uno.";; + *) echo "Non è null.";; +esac + +# I cicli for iterano per ogni argomento fornito: +# I contenuti di $VARIABILE sono stampati tre volte. +for VARIABILE in {1..3} +do + echo "$VARIABILE" +done + +# O scrivilo con il "ciclo for tradizionale": +for ((a=1; a <= 3; a++)) +do + echo $a +done + +# Possono essere usati anche per agire su file.. +# Questo eseguirà il comando 'cat' su file1 e file2 +for VARIABILE in file1 file2 +do + cat "$VARIABILE" +done + +# ..o dall'output di un comando +# Questo eseguirà cat sull'output di ls. +for OUTPUT in $(ls) +do + cat "$OUTPUT" +done + +# while loop: +while [ true ] +do + echo "corpo del loop..." + break +done + +# Puoi anche definire funzioni +# Definizione: +function foo () +{ + echo "Gli argomenti funzionano come gli argomenti dello script: $@" + echo "E: $1 $2..." + echo "Questa è una funzione" + return 0 +} + +# o semplicemente +bar () +{ + echo "Un altro modo per dichiarare funzioni!" + return 0 +} + +# Per chiamare la funzione +foo "Il mio nome è" $NOME + +# Ci sono un sacco di comandi utili che dovresti imparare: +# stampa le ultime 10 righe di file.txt +tail -n 10 file.txt +# stampa le prime 10 righe di file.txt +head -n 10 file.txt +# ordina le righe di file.txt +sort file.txt +# riporta o ometti le righe ripetute, con -d le riporta +uniq -d file.txt +# stampa solamente la prima colonna prima del carattere ',' +cut -d ',' -f 1 file.txt +# sostituisce ogni occorrenza di 'okay' con 'great' in file.txt (compatible con le regex) +sed -i 's/okay/great/g' file.txt +# stampa su stdout tutte le righe di file.txt che soddisfano una certa regex +# L'esempio stampa le righe che iniziano con "foo" e che finiscono con "bar" +grep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt +# passa l'opzione "-c" per stampare invece il numero delle righe che soddisfano la regex +grep -c "^foo.*bar$" file.txt +# se vuoi letteralmente cercare la stringa, +# e non la regex, usa fgrep (o grep -F) +fgrep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt + + +# Leggi la documentazione dei builtin di bash con il builtin 'help' di bash: +help +help help +help for +help return +help source +help . + +# Leggi la manpage di bash con man +apropos bash +man 1 bash +man bash + +# Leggi la documentazione con info (? per help) +apropos info | grep '^info.*(' +man info +info info +info 5 info + +# Leggi la documentazione di bash: +info bash +info bash 'Bash Features' +info bash 6 +info --apropos bash +``` -- cgit v1.2.3 From e5c7c1db4c0597da69fd867ea0831ab71068ba8a Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: robertmargelli Date: Sat, 2 May 2015 17:03:38 -0700 Subject: rm .DS --- .DS_Store | Bin 6148 -> 0 bytes 1 file changed, 0 insertions(+), 0 deletions(-) delete mode 100644 .DS_Store diff --git a/.DS_Store b/.DS_Store deleted file mode 100644 index 79a35b6f..00000000 Binary files a/.DS_Store and /dev/null differ -- cgit v1.2.3 From df788639e6e4ee824ecf817e28e8dcaac48b5504 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: sinkswim Date: Sat, 2 May 2015 17:24:45 -0700 Subject: Update bash-it.html.markdown --- it-it/bash-it.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/it-it/bash-it.html.markdown b/it-it/bash-it.html.markdown index a4391258..f892845f 100644 --- a/it-it/bash-it.html.markdown +++ b/it-it/bash-it.html.markdown @@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ echo ${VARIABILE/Una/A} # Sottostringa di una variabile echo ${VARIABILE:0:7} -# Questo ritornera solamente i primi 7 caratteri +# Questo ritornerà solamente i primi 7 caratteri # Valore di default per la variabile echo ${FOO:-"ValoreDiDefaultSeFOOMancaOÈ Vuoto"} -- cgit v1.2.3 From 88dd3f24dab91c35f73157a1b1fffcf6d9bc4dc3 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Jim Garrison Date: Sat, 2 May 2015 22:26:12 -0700 Subject: [julia/en] Update for Julia 0.3 and fix a few typos --- julia.html.markdown | 8 ++++---- 1 file changed, 4 insertions(+), 4 deletions(-) diff --git a/julia.html.markdown b/julia.html.markdown index 3a52018c..5ccd6484 100644 --- a/julia.html.markdown +++ b/julia.html.markdown @@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ filename: learnjulia.jl Julia is a new homoiconic functional language focused on technical computing. While having the full power of homoiconic macros, first-class functions, and low-level control, Julia is as easy to learn and use as Python. -This is based on the current development version of Julia, as of October 18th, 2013. +This is based on Julia 0.3. ```ruby @@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ false # $ can be used for string interpolation: "2 + 2 = $(2 + 2)" # => "2 + 2 = 4" -# You can put any Julia expression inside the parenthesis. +# You can put any Julia expression inside the parentheses. # Another way to format strings is the printf macro. @printf "%d is less than %f" 4.5 5.3 # 5 is less than 5.300000 @@ -190,7 +190,7 @@ end # inside the julia folder to find these files. # You can initialize arrays from ranges -a = [1:5] # => 5-element Int64 Array: [1,2,3,4,5] +a = [1:5;] # => 5-element Int64 Array: [1,2,3,4,5] # You can look at ranges with slice syntax. a[1:3] # => [1, 2, 3] @@ -264,7 +264,7 @@ in(("two", 3), filled_dict) # => false haskey(filled_dict, "one") # => true haskey(filled_dict, 1) # => false -# Trying to look up a non-existant key will raise an error +# Trying to look up a non-existent key will raise an error try filled_dict["four"] # => ERROR: key not found: four in getindex at dict.jl:489 catch e -- cgit v1.2.3 From 288fcf7c2e03610400088381fae528294daa9f54 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alois Date: Sun, 3 May 2015 18:37:52 +0200 Subject: Create json-fr.html.markdown --- fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown | 62 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 62 insertions(+) create mode 100644 fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown diff --git a/fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..9664dd73 --- /dev/null +++ b/fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- +language: json +filename: learnjson-fr.json +contributors: + - ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"] + - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] + translators: + - ["Alois de Gouvello","https://github.com/aloisdg"] + lang: fr-fr +--- + +Comme JSON est un format d'échange de données êxtremement simple, ce Apprendre X en Y minutes +est susceptible d'être le plus simple jamais réalisé. + +JSON dans son état le plus pur n'a aucun commentaire, mais la majorité des parseurs accepterons +les commentaires du langage C (//, /\* \*/). Pour les besoins de ce document, cependant, +tout sera du JSON 100% valide. Heureusement, il s'explique par lui-même. + + +```json +{ + "Clé": "valeur", + + "Clés": "devront toujours être entourées par des guillemets", + "nombres": 0, + "chaînes de caractères": "Hellø, wørld. Tous les caractères Unicode sont autorisés, accompagné d'un \"caractère d'échappement\".", + "a des booléens ?": true, + "rien": null, + + "grand nombre": 1.2e+100, + + "objets": { + "commentaire": "La majorité de votre strucutre sera des objets.", + + "tableau": [0, 1, 2, 3, "Les tableaux peuvent contenir n'importe quoi.", 5], + + "un autre objet": { + "commentaire": "Ces choses peuvent être imbriquées. C'est très utile." + } + }, + + "bêtises": [ + { + "sources de potassium": ["bananes"] + }, + [ + [1, 0, 0, 0], + [0, 1, 0, 0], + [0, 0, 1, "neo"], + [0, 0, 0, 1] + ] + ], + + "style alternatif": { + "commentaire": "regarde ça !" + , "position de la virgule": "n'a pas d'importance - aussi longtemps qu'elle est avant la valeur, alors elle est valide." + , "un autre commentaire": "comme c'est gentil" + }, + + "C'était court": "Et, vous avez terminé. Maintenant, vous savez tout ce que JSON a à offrir." +} +``` -- cgit v1.2.3 From c09e8af49e05cfba07a95e6cc471a874fe703563 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alois Date: Sun, 3 May 2015 18:49:19 +0200 Subject: Update json-fr.html.markdown Thank you @vendethiel for your comments --- fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown | 4 ++-- 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown index 9664dd73..dc46e043 100644 --- a/fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown @@ -9,11 +9,11 @@ contributors: lang: fr-fr --- -Comme JSON est un format d'échange de données êxtremement simple, ce Apprendre X en Y minutes +Comme JSON est un format d'échange de données extrêmement simple, ce Apprendre X en Y minutes est susceptible d'être le plus simple jamais réalisé. JSON dans son état le plus pur n'a aucun commentaire, mais la majorité des parseurs accepterons -les commentaires du langage C (//, /\* \*/). Pour les besoins de ce document, cependant, +les commentaires du langage C (`//`, `\* \*`). Pour les besoins de ce document, cependant, tout sera du JSON 100% valide. Heureusement, il s'explique par lui-même. -- cgit v1.2.3 From c0bfad80f0b9590081bf9e6a3cd9eea933632a29 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alois Date: Sun, 3 May 2015 20:43:17 +0200 Subject: Update typescript-fr.html.markdown Add modifications from @vendethiel's comments. See #1075 --- fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown | 23 ++++++++++++----------- 1 file changed, 12 insertions(+), 11 deletions(-) diff --git a/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown index 63ed4c34..b8807104 100644 --- a/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ filename: learntypescript-fr.ts lang: fr-fr --- -TypeScript est un langage visant à faciliter le développement d'applications large et scalable écrite en JavaScript. +TypeScript est un langage visant à faciliter le développement d'applications larges et scalables, écrites en JavaScript. TypeScript ajoute des concepts classiques comme les classes, les modules, les interfaces, les génériques et le typage statique (optionnel) à JavaScript. -C'est une sur-couche de JavaScript : tout le code JavaScript est valide en TypeScript ce qui permet de l'ajouter de façon transparente à n'importe quel projet. Le code TypeScript est transcompilé en JavaScript par le compilateur +C'est une surcouche de JavaScript : tout le code JavaScript est valide en TypeScript ce qui permet de l'ajouter de façon transparente à n'importe quel projet. Le code TypeScript est transcompilé en JavaScript par le compilateur. Cet article se concentrera seulement sur la syntaxe supplémentaire de TypeScript, plutôt que celle de [JavaScript] (../javascript/). @@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ var isDone: boolean = false; var lines: number = 42; var name: string = "Anders"; -// Quand c'est impossible à déterminer, on utilise le type `Any` +// Si nous ne pouvons pas déterminer le type, on utilise `Any` var notSure: any = 4; notSure = "maybe a string instead"; notSure = false; // ok, définitivement un booléen @@ -38,11 +38,11 @@ var c: Color = Color.Green; // Enfin, `void` est utilisé dans le cas spécifique // d'une fonction ne retournant rien function bigHorribleAlert(): void { - alert("I'm a little annoying box!"); + alert("Je suis une petite boîte ennuyeuse !"); } -// Les fontions sont des entités de première classe. Elles supportent -// les expressions lambda et utilisent l'inférence de types +// Les fonctions sont des entités de première classe. Le langage supporte +// les expressions lambda et utilise l'inférence de type // Les fonctions ci-dessous sont équivalentes, une signature identique // sera inférée par le compilateur, et le même JavaScript sera généré @@ -55,8 +55,8 @@ var f4 = (i: number) => { return i * i; } // Retourne un type inféré, ici le mot clé `return` n'est pas nécessaire var f5 = (i: number) => i * i; -// Les interfaces sont structurés, tout ce qui a les propriétés est compatible -// avec l'interface +// Les interfaces sont structurées, tout les objets qui ont ces propriétés +// sont compatible avec l'interface interface Person { name: string; // Les propriétés optionnelles sont identifiées avec un "?" @@ -78,7 +78,8 @@ var invalidPerson: Person = { name: "Bobby", age: true }; interface SearchFunc { (source: string, subString: string): boolean; } -// Seul les types des paramètres sont importants, les noms ne le sont pas. + +// Seul les types des paramètres sont importants. Les noms ne le sont pas. var mySearch: SearchFunc; mySearch = function(src: string, sub: string) { return src.search(sub) != -1; @@ -86,7 +87,7 @@ mySearch = function(src: string, sub: string) { // Les membres des classes sont publiques par défaut. class Point { - // Propriétés + // Propriétés x: number; // Constructeur - Les mots clés "public" et "private" dans ce contexte @@ -105,7 +106,7 @@ class Point { } var p1 = new Point(10 ,20); -var p2 = new Point(25); //y will be 0 +var p2 = new Point(25); // y sera 0 // Héritage class Point3D extends Point { -- cgit v1.2.3 From 699c6d22390e359d586ad584eb44ab757858b4c4 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alois Date: Sun, 3 May 2015 20:55:14 +0200 Subject: Fix Markdown --- json.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/json.html.markdown b/json.html.markdown index f5287138..f57b82b8 100644 --- a/json.html.markdown +++ b/json.html.markdown @@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ As JSON is an extremely simple data-interchange format, this is most likely goin to be the simplest Learn X in Y Minutes ever. JSON in its purest form has no actual comments, but most parsers will accept -C-style (//, /\* \*/) comments. For the purposes of this, however, everything is +C-style (`//`, `/* */`) comments. For the purposes of this, however, everything is going to be 100% valid JSON. Luckily, it kind of speaks for itself. ```json -- cgit v1.2.3 From 5042c531cc1ced74ae5e12dac225ba219ff713dc Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alois Date: Sun, 3 May 2015 20:58:03 +0200 Subject: Fix Markdown --- fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown index dc46e043..41d79b18 100644 --- a/fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown @@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ Comme JSON est un format d'échange de données extrêmement simple, ce Apprendr est susceptible d'être le plus simple jamais réalisé. JSON dans son état le plus pur n'a aucun commentaire, mais la majorité des parseurs accepterons -les commentaires du langage C (`//`, `\* \*`). Pour les besoins de ce document, cependant, +les commentaires du langage C (`//`, `/* */`). Pour les besoins de ce document, cependant, tout sera du JSON 100% valide. Heureusement, il s'explique par lui-même. -- cgit v1.2.3 From 86f406d99c829d0f3074f18346173387f1eb6064 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alois Date: Sun, 3 May 2015 20:59:27 +0200 Subject: Fix Header --- fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown | 4 ++-- 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown index 41d79b18..49c95820 100644 --- a/fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/json-fr.html.markdown @@ -4,9 +4,9 @@ filename: learnjson-fr.json contributors: - ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"] - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] - translators: +translators: - ["Alois de Gouvello","https://github.com/aloisdg"] - lang: fr-fr +lang: fr-fr --- Comme JSON est un format d'échange de données extrêmement simple, ce Apprendre X en Y minutes -- cgit v1.2.3 From afb44df97380cbfe037cdf5cf6bcb07355615552 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: chtiprog Date: Sun, 7 Dec 2014 01:47:25 +0100 Subject: Add French translation for R --- fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown | 721 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 721 insertions(+) create mode 100644 fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown diff --git a/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8db78ef3 --- /dev/null +++ b/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,721 @@ +--- +language: R +contributors: + - ["e99n09", "http://github.com/e99n09"] + - ["isomorphismes", "http://twitter.com/isomorphisms"] +translators: + - ["Anne-Catherine Dehier", "https://github.com/spellart"] +filename: learnr-fr.r +--- + +R est un langage de programmation statistique. Il dispose de nombreuses +librairies pour le téléchargement et le nettoyage des ensembles de données, +l'exécution de procédures statistiques, et pour faire des graphiques. +On peut également exécuter les commmandes R à l'aide d'un document LaTeX. + + +```r + +# Les commentaires commencent avec des symboles numériques. + +# Il n'est pas possible de faire des commentaires multilignes, +# mais on peut superposer plusieurs commentaires comme ceci. + +# Sur Windows ou Mac, taper COMMAND-ENTER pour exécuter une ligne + + + +############################################################################# +# Les choses que vous pouvez faire sans rien comprendre à la programmation +############################################################################# + +# In this section, we show off some of the cool stuff you can do in +# Dans cette section, nous vous montrons quelques trucs cools que vous +# pouvez faire avec R sans rien comprendre à la programmation. +# Ne vous inquiétez pas si vous ne comprenez pas tout ce que le code fait. +# Profitez simplement ! + +data() # parcours les ensembles de données préchargées +data(rivers) # obtiens celui-ci: "Lengths of Major North American Rivers" +ls() # notez que "rivers" apparaît maintenant dans votre espace de travail +head(rivers) # Jetez un coup d'oeil à l'ensemble de données +# 735 320 325 392 524 450 + +length(rivers) # Combien de rivers ont été mesurées ? +# 141 +summary(rivers) # quelles sont les statistiques sommaires ? +# Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. +# 135.0 310.0 425.0 591.2 680.0 3710.0 + +# Fait un diagramme à tiges et à feuilles (visualisation de données de +types histogramme) +stem(rivers) + + +# Le point décimal est de 2 chiffres à droite du | +# +# 0 | 4 +# 2 | 011223334555566667778888899900001111223333344455555666688888999 +# 4 | 111222333445566779001233344567 +# 6 | 000112233578012234468 +# 8 | 045790018 +# 10 | 04507 +# 12 | 1471 +# 14 | 56 +# 16 | 7 +# 18 | 9 +# 20 | +# 22 | 25 +# 24 | 3 +# 26 | +# 28 | +# 30 | +# 32 | +# 34 | +# 36 | 1 + +stem(log(rivers)) # Notez que les données ne sont ni normales ni lognormales ! +# Prenez-ça les fondamentalistes, la courbe en cloche + +# Le point décimal est à 1 chiffre à gauche du | +# +# 48 | 1 +# 50 | +# 52 | 15578 +# 54 | 44571222466689 +# 56 | 023334677000124455789 +# 58 | 00122366666999933445777 +# 60 | 122445567800133459 +# 62 | 112666799035 +# 64 | 00011334581257889 +# 66 | 003683579 +# 68 | 0019156 +# 70 | 079357 +# 72 | 89 +# 74 | 84 +# 76 | 56 +# 78 | 4 +# 80 | +# 82 | 2 + +# Fais un histogramme : +hist(rivers, col="#333333", border="white", breaks=25) # amusez-vous avec ces parenthèses +hist(log(rivers), col="#333333", border="white", breaks=25) # vous ferez plus de tracés plus tard + +# Ici d'autres données nettes qui viennent préchargées. R en a des tonnes. +data(discoveries) +plot(discoveries, col="#333333", lwd=3, xlab="Year", + main="Number of important discoveries per year") +plot(discoveries, col="#333333", lwd=3, type = "h", xlab="Year", + main="Number of important discoveries per year") + +# Plutôt que de laisser l'ordre par défaut (par années) +# Nous pourrions aussi trier pour voir ce qu'il y a de typique +sort(discoveries) +# [1] 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 +# [26] 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 +# [51] 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 +# [76] 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 9 10 12 + +stem(discoveries, scale=2) +# +# Le point décimale est à la | +# +# 0 | 000000000 +# 1 | 000000000000 +# 2 | 00000000000000000000000000 +# 3 | 00000000000000000000 +# 4 | 000000000000 +# 5 | 0000000 +# 6 | 000000 +# 7 | 0000 +# 8 | 0 +# 9 | 0 +# 10 | 0 +# 11 | +# 12 | 0 + +max(discoveries) +# 12 +summary(discoveries) +# Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. +# 0.0 2.0 3.0 3.1 4.0 12.0 + +# Lance un dès quelques fois +round(runif(7, min=.5, max=6.5)) +# 1 4 6 1 4 6 4 +# Vos numéros diffèreront des miens à moins que nous mettions le même random.seed(31337) + +# Dessine à partir d'une normale Gaussienne 9 fois +rnorm(9) +# [1] 0.07528471 1.03499859 1.34809556 -0.82356087 0.61638975 -1.88757271 +# [7] -0.59975593 0.57629164 1.08455362 + + + +################################################## +# les types de données et l'arithmétique de base +################################################## + +# Now for the programming-oriented part of the tutorial. +# In this section you will meet the important data types of R: +# integers, numerics, characters, logicals, and factors. +# There are others, but these are the bare minimum you need to +# get started. + +# Maintenant pour la partie orientée programmation du tutoriel. +# Dans cette section vous rencontrerez les types de données importants de R : +# les entiers, les numériques, les caractères, les logiques, et les facteurs. + +# LES ENTIERS +# Les entiers de mémoire longue sont écrit avec L +5L # 5 +class(5L) # "integer" +# (Essayez ?class pour plus d'information sur la fonction class().) +# Avec R, chaque valeur seule, comme 5L, est considéré comme un vecteur de longueur 1 +length(5L) # 1 +# On peut avoir un vecteur d'entiers avec une longueur > 1 aussi : +c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L) # 4 5 8 3 +length(c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L)) # 4 +class(c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L)) # "integer" + +# LES NUMÉRIQUES +# Un "numeric" est un nombre à virgule flottante avec une double précision +5 # 5 +class(5) # "numeric" +# Encore une fois, tout dans R est un vecteur ; +# Vous pouvez faire un vecteur numérique avec plus d'un élément +c(3,3,3,2,2,1) # 3 3 3 2 2 1 +# Vous pouvez utiliser la notation scientifique aussi +5e4 # 50000 +6.02e23 # nombre d'Avogadro +1.6e-35 # longueur de Planck +# Vous pouvez également avoir des nombres infiniments grands ou petits +class(Inf) # "numeric" +class(-Inf) # "numeric" +# Vous pouvez utiliser "Inf", par exemple, dans integrate(dnorm, 3, Inf); +# Ça permet d'éviter des tableaux Z-scores. + +# ARITHMÉTIQUES DE BASE +# Vous pouvez faire de l'arithmétique avec des nombres +# Faire des opérations arithmétiques en mixant des entiers et des numériques +# donne un autre numérique +10L + 66L # 76 # un entier plus un entier donne un entier +53.2 - 4 # 49.2 # un numérique moins un numérique donne un numérique +2.0 * 2L # 4 # un numérique multiplié par un entier donne un numérique +3L / 4 # 0.75 # un entier sur un numérique donne un numérique +3 %% 2 # 1 # le reste de deux numériques est un autre numérique +# Les opérations arithmétiques illégales rapportent un "Not A Number" : +0 / 0 # NaN +class(NaN) # "numeric" +# You can do arithmetic on two vectors with length greater than 1, +# Vous pouvez faire des opérations arithmétiques avec deux vecteurs d'une +# longueur plus grande que 1, à condition que la longueur du plus grand +# vecteur soit un multiple entier du plus petit +c(1,2,3) + c(1,2,3) # 2 4 6 + +# LES CARACTÈRES +# Il n'y a pas de différences entre les chaînes de caractères et les caractères en R +"Horatio" # "Horatio" +class("Horatio") # "character" +class('H') # "character" +# Ceux-ci sont tous les deux des vecteurs de longueur 1 +# Ici un plus long : +c('alef', 'bet', 'gimmel', 'dalet', 'he') +# => +# "alef" "bet" "gimmel" "dalet" "he" +length(c("Call","me","Ishmael")) # 3 +# Vous pouvez faire des expressions rationnelles sur les vecteurs de caractères : +substr("Fortuna multis dat nimis, nulli satis.", 9, 15) # "multis " +gsub('u', 'ø', "Fortuna multis dat nimis, nulli satis.") # "Fortøna møltis dat nimis, nølli satis." +# R possède plusieurs vecteurs de caractères préconstruits : +letters +# => +# [1] "a" "b" "c" "d" "e" "f" "g" "h" "i" "j" "k" "l" "m" "n" "o" "p" "q" "r" "s" +# [20] "t" "u" "v" "w" "x" "y" "z" +month.abb # "Jan" "Feb" "Mar" "Apr" "May" "Jun" "Jul" "Aug" "Sep" "Oct" "Nov" "Dec" + +# LES TYPES LOGIQUES +# En R, un "logical" est un booléen +class(TRUE) # "logical" +class(FALSE) # "logical" +# Leur comportement est normal +TRUE == TRUE # TRUE +TRUE == FALSE # FALSE +FALSE != FALSE # FALSE +FALSE != TRUE # TRUE +# Les données manquantes (NA) sont logiques également +class(NA) # "logical" +# Ici nous avons un vecteur de type logique avec plusieurs éléments : +c('Z', 'o', 'r', 'r', 'o') == "Zorro" # FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE +c('Z', 'o', 'r', 'r', 'o') == "Z" # TRUE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE + +# LES FACTEURS +# The factor class is for categorical data +# La classe facteur sert aux données catégorielles +# les facteurs peuvent être ordonnés (comme les niveaux de catégorie d'enfants) +# ou non ordonnés (comme le sexe) +factor(c("female", "female", "male", NA, "female")) +# female female male female +# Les niveaux : female male +# Les "levels" sont les valeurs que les données catégorielles peuvent prendre +# Notez que cette donnée manquante n'entre pas dans le niveau +levels(factor(c("male", "male", "female", NA, "female"))) # "female" "male" +# Si le vecteur de facteurs a une longueur 1, ses niveaux seront de longueur 1 également +length(factor("male")) # 1 +length(levels(factor("male"))) # 1 +# On rencontre communément des facteurs dans des trames de données, +# une structure de données que nous couvrirons plus tard +data(infert) # "Infertility after Spontaneous and Induced Abortion" +levels(infert$education) # "0-5yrs" "6-11yrs" "12+ yrs" + +# NULL +# "NULL" est bizarre ; on l'utilise pour effacer un vecteur +class(NULL) # NULL +parakeet +# => +# [1] "beak" "feathers" "wings" "eyes" +parakeet <- NULL +parakeet +# => +# NULL + +# LES CONTRAINTES DE TYPES +# Les contraintes de types servent à forcer une valeur à prendre un type différent +as.character(c(6, 8)) # "6" "8" +as.logical(c(1,0,1,1)) # TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE +# Si vous mettez des éléments de différents types dans un vecteur, des coercitions bizarres se produisent : +c(TRUE, 4) # 1 4 +c("dog", TRUE, 4) # "dog" "TRUE" "4" +as.numeric("Bilbo") +# => +# [1] NA +# Message d'avertissement : +# NAs est introduit par coercition + +# Notez également : ce n'étaient que des types de données basiques +# Il y a beaucoup d'autres types de données, comme pour les dates, les séries de temps, etc ... + + + +################################################## +# Variables, boucles , if/else +################################################## + +# Une variable est comme une boîte où l'on garde une valeur pour l'utiliser plus tard. +# Nous appellons ça "assigner" une valeur à une variable. +# Avoir des variables nous permets d'écrire des boucles, des fonctions, et +# des instructions conditionnelles (if/else) + +# LES VARIABLES +# Beaucoup de façons d'assigner des choses : +x = 5 # c'est possible +y <- "1" # c'est préféré +TRUE -> z # ça marche mais c'est bizarre + +# LES BOUCLES +# Il y a les boucles for : +for (i in 1:4) { + print(i) +} +# Il y a les boucles while : +a <- 10 +while (a > 4) { + cat(a, "...", sep = "") + a <- a - 1 +} +# Gardez à l'esprit que les boucles for et while s'exécute lentement en R +# Des opérations sur des vecteurs entiers (ex un ligne entière, une colonne entière), +# ou la fonction apply()-type (nous en parlerons plus tard), sont préférés + +# IF/ELSE +# Encore une fois assez standard +if (4 > 3) { + print("4 is greater than 3") +} else { + print("4 is not greater than 3") +} +# => +# [1] "4 is greater than 3" + +# LES FONCTIONS +# se définissent comme ceci : +jiggle <- function(x) { + x = x + rnorm(1, sd=.1) #add in a bit of (controlled) noise + return(x) +} +# Appelée comme n'importe quelle autre fonction R : +jiggle(5) # 5±ε. After set.seed(2716057), jiggle(5)==5.005043 + + + +########################################################################### +# Les structures de données : les vecteurs, les matrices, les trames de données et les tableaux +########################################################################### + +# À UNE DIMENSION + +# Commençons par le tout début, et avec quelque chose que vous connaissez déjà : les vecteurs. +vec <- c(8, 9, 10, 11) +vec # 8 9 10 11 +# Nous demandons des éléments spécifiques en les mettant entre crochets +# (Notez que R commence à compter par 1) +vec[1] # 8 +letters[18] # "r" +LETTERS[13] # "M" +month.name[9] # "September" +c(6, 8, 7, 5, 3, 0, 9)[3] # 7 +# Nous pouvons également rechercher des indices de composants spécifiques, +which(vec %% 2 == 0) # 1 3 +# Récupèrer seulement quelques premières ou dernières entrées du vecteur, +head(vec, 1) # 8 +tail(vec, 2) # 10 11 +# ou trouver si un certaine valeur est dans le vecteur +any(vec == 10) # TRUE +# Si un index "dépasse" vous obtiendrez NA : +vec[6] # NA +# Vous pouvez trouver la longueur de votre vecteur avec length() +length(vec) # 4 +# Vous pouvez réaliser des opérations sur des vecteurs entiers ou des sous-ensembles de vecteurs +vec * 4 # 16 20 24 28 +vec[2:3] * 5 # 25 30 +any(vec[2:3] == 8) # FALSE +# Et R a beaucoup de fonctions préconstruites pour résumer les vecteurs +mean(vec) # 9.5 +var(vec) # 1.666667 +sd(vec) # 1.290994 +max(vec) # 11 +min(vec) # 8 +sum(vec) # 38 +# Quelques fonctions préconstruites sympas supplémentaires : +5:15 # 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 +seq(from=0, to=31337, by=1337) +# => +# [1] 0 1337 2674 4011 5348 6685 8022 9359 10696 12033 13370 14707 +# [13] 16044 17381 18718 20055 21392 22729 24066 25403 26740 28077 29414 30751 + +# À DEUX DIMENSIONS (TOUT DANS UNE CLASSE) + +# Vous pouvez faire une matrice de toutes les entrées du même type comme ceci : +mat <- matrix(nrow = 3, ncol = 2, c(1,2,3,4,5,6)) +mat +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 1 4 +# [2,] 2 5 +# [3,] 3 6 +# Différemment du vecteur, la classe d'une matrice est "matrix",peut importe ce qu'elle contient +class(mat) # => "matrix" +# Demander la première ligne +mat[1,] # 1 4 +# Réaliser une opération sur la première colonne +3 * mat[,1] # 3 6 9 +# Ask for a specific cell +mat[3,2] # 6 + +# Transposer la matrice entière +t(mat) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] +# [1,] 1 2 3 +# [2,] 4 5 6 + +# La multiplication de matrices +mat %*% t(mat) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] +# [1,] 17 22 27 +# [2,] 22 29 36 +# [3,] 27 36 45 + +# cbind() colle des vecteurs ensemble en colonne pour faire une matrice +mat2 <- cbind(1:4, c("dog", "cat", "bird", "dog")) +mat2 +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] "1" "dog" +# [2,] "2" "cat" +# [3,] "3" "bird" +# [4,] "4" "dog" +class(mat2) # matrix +# Encore une fois notez ce qui se passe ! +# Parce que les matrices peuvent contenir des entrées de toutes sortes de classes, +# tout sera converti en classe caractère +c(class(mat2[,1]), class(mat2[,2])) + +# rbind() colle des vecteurs ensemble par lignes pour faire une matrice +mat3 <- rbind(c(1,2,4,5), c(6,7,0,4)) +mat3 +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] +# [1,] 1 2 4 5 +# [2,] 6 7 0 4 +# Ah, tout de la même classe. Pas de coercitions. Beaucoup mieux. + +# À DEUX DIMENSIONS (DE CLASSES DIFFÉRENTES) + +# Pour des colonnes de différents types, utiliser une trame de donnée +# Cette structure de données est si utile pour la programmation statistique, +# qu'une version a été ajoutée à Python dans le paquet "pandas". + +students <- data.frame(c("Cedric","Fred","George","Cho","Draco","Ginny"), + c(3,2,2,1,0,-1), + c("H", "G", "G", "R", "S", "G")) +names(students) <- c("name", "year", "house") # name the columns +class(students) # "data.frame" +students +# => +# name year house +# 1 Cedric 3 H +# 2 Fred 2 G +# 3 George 2 G +# 4 Cho 1 R +# 5 Draco 0 S +# 6 Ginny -1 G +class(students$year) # "numeric" +class(students[,3]) # "factor" +# Trouver les dimensions +nrow(students) # 6 +ncol(students) # 3 +dim(students) # 6 3 +# La fonction data.frame() convertit les vecteurs caractères en vecteurs de facteurs +# par défaut; désactiver cette fonction en règlant stringsAsFactors = FALSE +# quand vous créer la data.frame +?data.frame + +# Il y a plusieurs façons tortueuses de subdiviser les trames de données +# toutes subtilement différentes +students$year # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 +students[,2] # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 +students[,"year"] # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 + +# Une version augmentée de la structure data.frame est data.table +# Si vous travaillez avec des données volumineuses ou des panels, ou avez +# besoin de fusionner quelques ensembles de données, data.table peut être +# un bon choix. Ici un tour éclair : +install.packages("data.table") # download the package from CRAN +require(data.table) # load it +students <- as.data.table(students) +students # note the slightly different print-out +# => +# name year house +# 1: Cedric 3 H +# 2: Fred 2 G +# 3: George 2 G +# 4: Cho 1 R +# 5: Draco 0 S +# 6: Ginny -1 G +students[name=="Ginny"] # get rows with name == "Ginny" +# => +# name year house +# 1: Ginny -1 G +students[year==2] # get rows with year == 2 +# => +# name year house +# 1: Fred 2 G +# 2: George 2 G +# data.table facilite la fusion entre deux ensembles de données +# Faisons un autre data.table pour fusionner students +founders <- data.table(house=c("G","H","R","S"), + founder=c("Godric","Helga","Rowena","Salazar")) +founders +# => +# house founder +# 1: G Godric +# 2: H Helga +# 3: R Rowena +# 4: S Salazar +setkey(students, house) +setkey(founders, house) +students <- founders[students] # merge the two data sets by matching "house" +setnames(students, c("house","houseFounderName","studentName","year")) +students[,order(c("name","year","house","houseFounderName")), with=F] +# => +# studentName year house houseFounderName +# 1: Fred 2 G Godric +# 2: George 2 G Godric +# 3: Ginny -1 G Godric +# 4: Cedric 3 H Helga +# 5: Cho 1 R Rowena +# 6: Draco 0 S Salazar + +# data.table facilite le sommaire des tableaux +students[,sum(year),by=house] +# => +# house V1 +# 1: G 3 +# 2: H 3 +# 3: R 1 +# 4: S 0 + +# Pour supprimer une colonne d'une data.frame ou data.table, +# assignez-lui la valeur NULL +students$houseFounderName <- NULL +students +# => +# studentName year house +# 1: Fred 2 G +# 2: George 2 G +# 3: Ginny -1 G +# 4: Cedric 3 H +# 5: Cho 1 R +# 6: Draco 0 S + +# Supprimer une ligne en subdivisant +# En utilisant data.table : +students[studentName != "Draco"] +# => +# house studentName year +# 1: G Fred 2 +# 2: G George 2 +# 3: G Ginny -1 +# 4: H Cedric 3 +# 5: R Cho 1 +# En utilisant data.frame : +students <- as.data.frame(students) +students[students$house != "G",] +# => +# house houseFounderName studentName year +# 4 H Helga Cedric 3 +# 5 R Rowena Cho 1 +# 6 S Salazar Draco 0 + +# MULTI-DIMENSIONNELLE (TOUS ÉLÉMENTS D'UN TYPE) + +# Les arrays créent des tableaux de n dimensions +# Tous les éléments doivent être du même type +# Vous pouvez faire un tableau à 2 dimensions (une sorte de matrice) +array(c(c(1,2,4,5),c(8,9,3,6)), dim=c(2,4)) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] +# [1,] 1 4 8 3 +# [2,] 2 5 9 6 +# Vous pouvez utiliser array pour faire des matrices à 3 dimensions aussi +array(c(c(c(2,300,4),c(8,9,0)),c(c(5,60,0),c(66,7,847))), dim=c(3,2,2)) +# => +# , , 1 +# +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 2 8 +# [2,] 300 9 +# [3,] 4 0 +# +# , , 2 +# +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 5 66 +# [2,] 60 7 +# [3,] 0 847 + +# LES LISTES (MULTI-DIMENSIONNELLES, ÉVENTUELLEMMENT DÉCHIRÉES, DE DIFFÉRENTS TYPES) + +# Enfin R a des listes (de vecteurs) +list1 <- list(time = 1:40) +list1$price = c(rnorm(40,.5*list1$time,4)) # random +list1 +# Vous pouvez obtenir des éléments de la liste comme ceci +list1$time # one way +list1[["time"]] # another way +list1[[1]] # yet another way +# => +# [1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 +# [34] 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 +# Vous pouvez subdiviser les éléments d'une liste comme n'importe quel vecteur +list1$price[4] + +# Les listes ne sont pas les structures de données les plus efficaces +# pour travailler en R; +# À moins d'avoir une très bonne raison, vous devriez appliquer data.frames +# Les listes sont souvent retournées par des fonctions qui effectuent des régressions linéaires + +################################################## +# La famille de fonction apply() +################################################## + +# Vous vous rappelez mat ? +mat +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 1 4 +# [2,] 2 5 +# [3,] 3 6 +# Utilisez apply(X, MARGIN, FUN) pour appliquer la fonction FUN à la matrice X +# sur les lignes (MAR = 1) ou les colonnes (MAR = 2) +# R fait FUN à chaque lignes (ou colonnes) de X, beaucoup plus rapidement +# qu'une bouce for ou while le ferait +apply(mat, MAR = 2, jiggle) +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 3 15 +# [2,] 7 19 +# [3,] 11 23 +# D'autres fonctions : ?lapply, ?sapply + +# Ne soyez pas trop intimidé ; tout le monde reconnaît que c'est un peu déroutant + +# Le paque plyr vise à remplacer (et améliorer !) la famille *apply(). +install.packages("plyr") +require(plyr) +?plyr + + + +######################### +# Charger des données +######################### + +# "pets.csv" est un fichier sur internet +# (mais il pourrait être tout aussi facilement sur votre ordinateur) +pets <- read.csv("http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/pets.csv") +pets +head(pets, 2) # first two rows +tail(pets, 1) # last row + +# Pour sauver une trame de donnée ou une matrice en fichier .csv +write.csv(pets, "pets2.csv") # to make a new .csv file +# définir le répertoire de travail avec setwd(), le récupérer avec getwd() + +# Essayez ?read.csv et ?write.csv pour plus d'informations + + + +######################### +# Les tracés +######################### + +# LES FONCTIONS DE TRACÉS PRÉCONSTRUITES +# Les diagrammes de dispersion ! +plot(list1$time, list1$price, main = "fake data") +# Les régressions ! +linearModel <- lm(price ~ time, data = list1) +linearModel # sort le résultat de la régression +# Tracer une ligne de regression sur une tracé existant +abline(linearModel, col = "red") +# Obtenir une variété de diagnostiques sympas +plot(linearModel) +# Les histogrammes ! +hist(rpois(n = 10000, lambda = 5), col = "thistle") +# Les diagrammes en bâtons ! +barplot(c(1,4,5,1,2), names.arg = c("red","blue","purple","green","yellow")) + +# GGPLOT2 +# Mais ceux-ci ne sont même pas les plus jolis tracés de R +# Essayez le paquet ggplot2 pour d'avantages de graphiques meilleurs +install.packages("ggplot2") +require(ggplot2) +?ggplot2 +pp <- ggplot(students, aes(x=house)) +pp + geom_histogram() +ll <- as.data.table(list1) +pp <- ggplot(ll, aes(x=time,price)) +pp + geom_point() +# ggplot2 a une documentation excellente (disponible sur http://docs.ggplot2.org/current/) + + + +``` + +## How do I get R? + +* Get R and the R GUI from [http://www.r-project.org/](http://www.r-project.org/) +* [RStudio](http://www.rstudio.com/ide/) is another GUI -- cgit v1.2.3 From a6c01bf515c02522f3ff128a7d55806908ea3871 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Chtiprog Date: Sun, 3 May 2015 21:44:23 -0300 Subject: add french translation of R --- fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown | 286 +++++++++++++++++++++++++---------------------- 1 file changed, 154 insertions(+), 132 deletions(-) diff --git a/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown index 8db78ef3..d6879c1f 100644 --- a/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown @@ -9,9 +9,9 @@ filename: learnr-fr.r --- R est un langage de programmation statistique. Il dispose de nombreuses -librairies pour le téléchargement et le nettoyage des ensembles de données, -l'exécution de procédures statistiques, et pour faire des graphiques. -On peut également exécuter les commmandes R à l'aide d'un document LaTeX. +librairies pour le téléchargement et le nettoyage d'ensembles de données, +l'exécution de procédures statistiques, et la réalisation de graphiques. +On peut également exécuter les commmandes `R` au sein d'un document LaTeX. ```r @@ -25,30 +25,30 @@ On peut également exécuter les commmandes R à l'aide d'un document LaTeX. -############################################################################# -# Les choses que vous pouvez faire sans rien comprendre à la programmation -############################################################################# +######################################################################## +# Les choses que vous pouvez faire sans rien comprendre +# à la programmation +######################################################################## -# In this section, we show off some of the cool stuff you can do in # Dans cette section, nous vous montrons quelques trucs cools que vous # pouvez faire avec R sans rien comprendre à la programmation. # Ne vous inquiétez pas si vous ne comprenez pas tout ce que le code fait. # Profitez simplement ! -data() # parcours les ensembles de données préchargées -data(rivers) # obtiens celui-ci: "Lengths of Major North American Rivers" -ls() # notez que "rivers" apparaît maintenant dans votre espace de travail -head(rivers) # Jetez un coup d'oeil à l'ensemble de données +data() # parcours les ensembles de données préchargées +data(rivers) # récupère ceci : "Lengths of Major North American Rivers" +ls() # notez que "rivers" apparaît maintenant dans votre espace de travail +head(rivers) # donne un aperçu des données # 735 320 325 392 524 450 length(rivers) # Combien de rivers ont été mesurées ? # 141 -summary(rivers) # quelles sont les statistiques sommaires ? -# Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. -# 135.0 310.0 425.0 591.2 680.0 3710.0 +summary(rivers) # Quels sont les principales données statistiques ? +# Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. +# 135.0 310.0 425.0 591.2 680.0 3710.0 # Fait un diagramme à tiges et à feuilles (visualisation de données de -types histogramme) +# types histogramme) stem(rivers) @@ -64,23 +64,24 @@ stem(rivers) # 14 | 56 # 16 | 7 # 18 | 9 -# 20 | +# 20 | # 22 | 25 # 24 | 3 -# 26 | -# 28 | -# 30 | -# 32 | -# 34 | +# 26 | +# 28 | +# 30 | +# 32 | +# 34 | # 36 | 1 -stem(log(rivers)) # Notez que les données ne sont ni normales ni lognormales ! -# Prenez-ça les fondamentalistes, la courbe en cloche +stem(log(rivers)) # Notez que les données ne sont ni normales +# ni lognormales ! +# Prenez-ça, la courbe en cloche # Le point décimal est à 1 chiffre à gauche du | # # 48 | 1 -# 50 | +# 50 | # 52 | 15578 # 54 | 44571222466689 # 56 | 023334677000124455789 @@ -95,14 +96,14 @@ stem(log(rivers)) # Notez que les données ne sont ni normales ni lognormales ! # 74 | 84 # 76 | 56 # 78 | 4 -# 80 | +# 80 | # 82 | 2 # Fais un histogramme : -hist(rivers, col="#333333", border="white", breaks=25) # amusez-vous avec ces parenthèses +hist(rivers, col="#333333", border="white", breaks=25) # amusez-vous avec ces paramètres hist(log(rivers), col="#333333", border="white", breaks=25) # vous ferez plus de tracés plus tard -# Ici d'autres données nettes qui viennent préchargées. R en a des tonnes. +# Ici d'autres données qui viennent préchargées. R en a des tonnes. data(discoveries) plot(discoveries, col="#333333", lwd=3, xlab="Year", main="Number of important discoveries per year") @@ -118,7 +119,7 @@ sort(discoveries) # [76] 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 9 10 12 stem(discoveries, scale=2) -# +# # Le point décimale est à la | # # 0 | 000000000 @@ -132,19 +133,20 @@ stem(discoveries, scale=2) # 8 | 0 # 9 | 0 # 10 | 0 -# 11 | +# 11 | # 12 | 0 max(discoveries) # 12 summary(discoveries) -# Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. -# 0.0 2.0 3.0 3.1 4.0 12.0 +# Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. +# 0.0 2.0 3.0 3.1 4.0 12.0 -# Lance un dès quelques fois +# Lance un dès plusieurs fois round(runif(7, min=.5, max=6.5)) # 1 4 6 1 4 6 4 -# Vos numéros diffèreront des miens à moins que nous mettions le même random.seed(31337) +# Vos numéros diffèreront des miens à moins que nous mettions +# le même random.seed(31337) # Dessine à partir d'une normale Gaussienne 9 fois rnorm(9) @@ -153,15 +155,9 @@ rnorm(9) -################################################## +############################################################## # les types de données et l'arithmétique de base -################################################## - -# Now for the programming-oriented part of the tutorial. -# In this section you will meet the important data types of R: -# integers, numerics, characters, logicals, and factors. -# There are others, but these are the bare minimum you need to -# get started. +############################################################## # Maintenant pour la partie orientée programmation du tutoriel. # Dans cette section vous rencontrerez les types de données importants de R : @@ -171,22 +167,23 @@ rnorm(9) # Les entiers de mémoire longue sont écrit avec L 5L # 5 class(5L) # "integer" -# (Essayez ?class pour plus d'information sur la fonction class().) -# Avec R, chaque valeur seule, comme 5L, est considéré comme un vecteur de longueur 1 +# (Essayez ?class pour plus d'informations sur la fonction class().) +# Avec R, chaque valeur seule, comme 5L, est considéré comme +# un vecteur de longueur 1 length(5L) # 1 -# On peut avoir un vecteur d'entiers avec une longueur > 1 aussi : +# On peut avoir un vecteur d'entiers avec une longueur > 1 : c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L) # 4 5 8 3 length(c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L)) # 4 class(c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L)) # "integer" # LES NUMÉRIQUES -# Un "numeric" est un nombre à virgule flottante avec une double précision +# Un "numeric" est un nombre à virgule flottante d'une précision double 5 # 5 class(5) # "numeric" # Encore une fois, tout dans R est un vecteur ; # Vous pouvez faire un vecteur numérique avec plus d'un élément c(3,3,3,2,2,1) # 3 3 3 2 2 1 -# Vous pouvez utiliser la notation scientifique aussi +# Vous pouvez aussi utiliser la notation scientifique 5e4 # 50000 6.02e23 # nombre d'Avogadro 1.6e-35 # longueur de Planck @@ -198,24 +195,25 @@ class(-Inf) # "numeric" # ARITHMÉTIQUES DE BASE # Vous pouvez faire de l'arithmétique avec des nombres -# Faire des opérations arithmétiques en mixant des entiers et des numériques +# Faire des opérations arithmétiques en mixant des entiers +# et des numériques # donne un autre numérique 10L + 66L # 76 # un entier plus un entier donne un entier 53.2 - 4 # 49.2 # un numérique moins un numérique donne un numérique 2.0 * 2L # 4 # un numérique multiplié par un entier donne un numérique 3L / 4 # 0.75 # un entier sur un numérique donne un numérique -3 %% 2 # 1 # le reste de deux numériques est un autre numérique -# Les opérations arithmétiques illégales rapportent un "Not A Number" : +3 %% 2 # 1 # le reste de deux numériques est un autre numérique +# Les opérations arithmétiques illégales donnent un "Not A Number" : 0 / 0 # NaN class(NaN) # "numeric" -# You can do arithmetic on two vectors with length greater than 1, # Vous pouvez faire des opérations arithmétiques avec deux vecteurs d'une # longueur plus grande que 1, à condition que la longueur du plus grand # vecteur soit un multiple entier du plus petit c(1,2,3) + c(1,2,3) # 2 4 6 # LES CARACTÈRES -# Il n'y a pas de différences entre les chaînes de caractères et les caractères en R +# Il n'y a pas de différences entre les chaînes de caractères et +# les caractères en R "Horatio" # "Horatio" class("Horatio") # "character" class('H') # "character" @@ -225,7 +223,7 @@ c('alef', 'bet', 'gimmel', 'dalet', 'he') # => # "alef" "bet" "gimmel" "dalet" "he" length(c("Call","me","Ishmael")) # 3 -# Vous pouvez faire des expressions rationnelles sur les vecteurs de caractères : +# Vous pouvez utiliser des expressions rationnelles sur les vecteurs de caractères : substr("Fortuna multis dat nimis, nulli satis.", 9, 15) # "multis " gsub('u', 'ø', "Fortuna multis dat nimis, nulli satis.") # "Fortøna møltis dat nimis, nølli satis." # R possède plusieurs vecteurs de caractères préconstruits : @@ -246,45 +244,57 @@ FALSE != FALSE # FALSE FALSE != TRUE # TRUE # Les données manquantes (NA) sont logiques également class(NA) # "logical" +# On utilise | et & pour les operations logiques. +# OR +TRUE | FALSE # TRUE +# AND +TRUE & FALSE # FALSE +# Vous pouvez tester si x est TRUE +isTRUE(TRUE) # TRUE # Ici nous avons un vecteur de type logique avec plusieurs éléments : c('Z', 'o', 'r', 'r', 'o') == "Zorro" # FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE c('Z', 'o', 'r', 'r', 'o') == "Z" # TRUE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE # LES FACTEURS -# The factor class is for categorical data -# La classe facteur sert aux données catégorielles -# les facteurs peuvent être ordonnés (comme les niveaux de catégorie d'enfants) +# La classe facteur sert pour les données catégorielles +# les facteurs peuvent être ordonnés (comme les niveaux de +# catégorie d'enfants) # ou non ordonnés (comme le sexe) factor(c("female", "female", "male", NA, "female")) # female female male female # Les niveaux : female male -# Les "levels" sont les valeurs que les données catégorielles peuvent prendre -# Notez que cette donnée manquante n'entre pas dans le niveau +# Les "levels" sont les valeurs que les données catégorielles +# peuvent prendre +# Notez que les données manquantes n'entrent pas dans le niveau levels(factor(c("male", "male", "female", NA, "female"))) # "female" "male" -# Si le vecteur de facteurs a une longueur 1, ses niveaux seront de longueur 1 également +# Si le vecteur de facteurs a une longueur 1, ses niveaux seront +# de longueur 1 également length(factor("male")) # 1 length(levels(factor("male"))) # 1 -# On rencontre communément des facteurs dans des trames de données, -# une structure de données que nous couvrirons plus tard +# On rencontre communément des facteurs dans des "data frame", +# un type de données que nous couvrirons plus tard data(infert) # "Infertility after Spontaneous and Induced Abortion" levels(infert$education) # "0-5yrs" "6-11yrs" "12+ yrs" # NULL # "NULL" est bizarre ; on l'utilise pour effacer un vecteur class(NULL) # NULL +parakeet = c("beak", "feathers", "wings", "eyes") parakeet # => -# [1] "beak" "feathers" "wings" "eyes" +# [1] "beak" "feathers" "wings" "eyes" parakeet <- NULL parakeet # => # NULL # LES CONTRAINTES DE TYPES -# Les contraintes de types servent à forcer une valeur à prendre un type différent +# Les contraintes de types servent à forcer une valeur à prendre +# un type différent as.character(c(6, 8)) # "6" "8" as.logical(c(1,0,1,1)) # TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE -# Si vous mettez des éléments de différents types dans un vecteur, des coercitions bizarres se produisent : +# Si vous mettez des éléments de différents types dans un vecteur, +# des coercitions bizarres se produisent : c(TRUE, 4) # 1 4 c("dog", TRUE, 4) # "dog" "TRUE" "4" as.numeric("Bilbo") @@ -294,17 +304,19 @@ as.numeric("Bilbo") # NAs est introduit par coercition # Notez également : ce n'étaient que des types de données basiques -# Il y a beaucoup d'autres types de données, comme pour les dates, les séries de temps, etc ... +# Il y a beaucoup d'autres types de données, comme pour les dates, +# les séries temporelles, etc ... -################################################## +####################################### # Variables, boucles , if/else -################################################## +####################################### -# Une variable est comme une boîte où l'on garde une valeur pour l'utiliser plus tard. +# Une variable est comme une boîte dans laquelle on garde une valeur +# pour l'utiliser plus tard. # Nous appellons ça "assigner" une valeur à une variable. -# Avoir des variables nous permets d'écrire des boucles, des fonctions, et +# Avoir des variables nous permet d'écrire des boucles, des fonctions, et # des instructions conditionnelles (if/else) # LES VARIABLES @@ -321,19 +333,22 @@ for (i in 1:4) { # Il y a les boucles while : a <- 10 while (a > 4) { - cat(a, "...", sep = "") - a <- a - 1 + cat(a, "...", sep = "") + a <- a - 1 } -# Gardez à l'esprit que les boucles for et while s'exécute lentement en R -# Des opérations sur des vecteurs entiers (ex un ligne entière, une colonne entière), -# ou la fonction apply()-type (nous en parlerons plus tard), sont préférés +# Gardez à l'esprit que les boucles for et while s'exécutent lentement +# en R +# Des opérations sur des vecteurs entiers (ex une ligne entière, +# une colonne entière), +# ou les fonctions de type apply() (nous en parlerons plus tard), +# sont préférées # IF/ELSE # Encore une fois assez standard if (4 > 3) { - print("4 is greater than 3") + print("4 is greater than 3") } else { - print("4 is not greater than 3") + print("4 is not greater than 3") } # => # [1] "4 is greater than 3" @@ -341,25 +356,27 @@ if (4 > 3) { # LES FONCTIONS # se définissent comme ceci : jiggle <- function(x) { - x = x + rnorm(1, sd=.1) #add in a bit of (controlled) noise - return(x) + x = x + rnorm(1, sd=.1) #add in a bit of (controlled) noise + return(x) } -# Appelée comme n'importe quelle autre fonction R : +# Appelées comme n'importe quelles autres fonction R : jiggle(5) # 5±ε. After set.seed(2716057), jiggle(5)==5.005043 -########################################################################### -# Les structures de données : les vecteurs, les matrices, les trames de données et les tableaux -########################################################################### +########################################################################## +# Les structures de données : les vecteurs, les matrices, +# les data frame et les tableaux +########################################################################## # À UNE DIMENSION -# Commençons par le tout début, et avec quelque chose que vous connaissez déjà : les vecteurs. +# Commençons par le tout début, et avec quelque chose que +# vous connaissez déjà : les vecteurs. vec <- c(8, 9, 10, 11) vec # 8 9 10 11 # Nous demandons des éléments spécifiques en les mettant entre crochets -# (Notez que R commence à compter par 1) +# (Notez que R commence à compter à partir de 1) vec[1] # 8 letters[18] # "r" LETTERS[13] # "M" @@ -367,7 +384,7 @@ month.name[9] # "September" c(6, 8, 7, 5, 3, 0, 9)[3] # 7 # Nous pouvons également rechercher des indices de composants spécifiques, which(vec %% 2 == 0) # 1 3 -# Récupèrer seulement quelques premières ou dernières entrées du vecteur, +# Récupèrer seulement les premières ou dernières entrées du vecteur, head(vec, 1) # 8 tail(vec, 2) # 10 11 # ou trouver si un certaine valeur est dans le vecteur @@ -376,7 +393,8 @@ any(vec == 10) # TRUE vec[6] # NA # Vous pouvez trouver la longueur de votre vecteur avec length() length(vec) # 4 -# Vous pouvez réaliser des opérations sur des vecteurs entiers ou des sous-ensembles de vecteurs +# Vous pouvez réaliser des opérations sur des vecteurs entiers ou des +# sous-ensembles de vecteurs vec * 4 # 16 20 24 28 vec[2:3] * 5 # 25 30 any(vec[2:3] == 8) # FALSE @@ -396,7 +414,7 @@ seq(from=0, to=31337, by=1337) # À DEUX DIMENSIONS (TOUT DANS UNE CLASSE) -# Vous pouvez faire une matrice de toutes les entrées du même type comme ceci : +# Vous pouvez créer une matrice à partir d'entrées du même type comme ceci : mat <- matrix(nrow = 3, ncol = 2, c(1,2,3,4,5,6)) mat # => @@ -404,13 +422,14 @@ mat # [1,] 1 4 # [2,] 2 5 # [3,] 3 6 -# Différemment du vecteur, la classe d'une matrice est "matrix",peut importe ce qu'elle contient +# Différemment du vecteur, la classe d'une matrice est "matrix", +# peut importe ce qu'elle contient class(mat) # => "matrix" # Demander la première ligne mat[1,] # 1 4 # Réaliser une opération sur la première colonne 3 * mat[,1] # 3 6 9 -# Ask for a specific cell +# Demander une cellule spécifique mat[3,2] # 6 # Transposer la matrice entière @@ -432,15 +451,15 @@ mat %*% t(mat) mat2 <- cbind(1:4, c("dog", "cat", "bird", "dog")) mat2 # => -# [,1] [,2] -# [1,] "1" "dog" -# [2,] "2" "cat" -# [3,] "3" "bird" +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] "1" "dog" +# [2,] "2" "cat" +# [3,] "3" "bird" # [4,] "4" "dog" class(mat2) # matrix -# Encore une fois notez ce qui se passe ! -# Parce que les matrices peuvent contenir des entrées de toutes sortes de classes, -# tout sera converti en classe caractère +# Encore une fois regardez ce qui se passe ! +# Parce que les matrices peuvent contenir des entrées de toutes sortes de +# classes, tout sera converti en classe caractère c(class(mat2[,1]), class(mat2[,2])) # rbind() colle des vecteurs ensemble par lignes pour faire une matrice @@ -454,7 +473,7 @@ mat3 # À DEUX DIMENSIONS (DE CLASSES DIFFÉRENTES) -# Pour des colonnes de différents types, utiliser une trame de donnée +# Pour des colonnes de différents types, utiliser une data frame # Cette structure de données est si utile pour la programmation statistique, # qu'une version a été ajoutée à Python dans le paquet "pandas". @@ -478,25 +497,25 @@ class(students[,3]) # "factor" nrow(students) # 6 ncol(students) # 3 dim(students) # 6 3 -# La fonction data.frame() convertit les vecteurs caractères en vecteurs de facteurs -# par défaut; désactiver cette fonction en règlant stringsAsFactors = FALSE -# quand vous créer la data.frame +# La fonction data.frame() convertit les vecteurs caractères en vecteurs de +# facteurs par défaut; désactiver cette fonction en règlant +# stringsAsFactors = FALSE quand vous créer la data.frame ?data.frame -# Il y a plusieurs façons tortueuses de subdiviser les trames de données +# Il y a plusieurs façons de subdiviser les trames de données # toutes subtilement différentes students$year # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 students[,2] # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 students[,"year"] # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 # Une version augmentée de la structure data.frame est data.table -# Si vous travaillez avec des données volumineuses ou des panels, ou avez +# Si vous travaillez avec des données volumineuses ou des panels, ou avez # besoin de fusionner quelques ensembles de données, data.table peut être # un bon choix. Ici un tour éclair : -install.packages("data.table") # download the package from CRAN -require(data.table) # load it +install.packages("data.table") # télécharge le paquet depuis CRAN +require(data.table) # le charge students <- as.data.table(students) -students # note the slightly different print-out +students # regardez la différence à l'impression # => # name year house # 1: Cedric 3 H @@ -505,17 +524,17 @@ students # note the slightly different print-out # 4: Cho 1 R # 5: Draco 0 S # 6: Ginny -1 G -students[name=="Ginny"] # get rows with name == "Ginny" +students[name=="Ginny"] # obtiens les lignes avec name == "Ginny" # => # name year house # 1: Ginny -1 G -students[year==2] # get rows with year == 2 +students[year==2] # obtiens les lignes avec year == 2 # => # name year house # 1: Fred 2 G # 2: George 2 G # data.table facilite la fusion entre deux ensembles de données -# Faisons un autre data.table pour fusionner students +# Faisons une autre data.table pour fusionner students founders <- data.table(house=c("G","H","R","S"), founder=c("Godric","Helga","Rowena","Salazar")) founders @@ -527,7 +546,7 @@ founders # 4: S Salazar setkey(students, house) setkey(founders, house) -students <- founders[students] # merge the two data sets by matching "house" +students <- founders[students] # merge les deux ensembles de données qui matchent "house" setnames(students, c("house","houseFounderName","studentName","year")) students[,order(c("name","year","house","houseFounderName")), with=F] # => @@ -539,7 +558,7 @@ students[,order(c("name","year","house","houseFounderName")), with=F] # 5: Cho 1 R Rowena # 6: Draco 0 S Salazar -# data.table facilite le sommaire des tableaux +# data.table facilite le résumé des tableaux students[,sum(year),by=house] # => # house V1 @@ -561,7 +580,7 @@ students # 5: Cho 1 R # 6: Draco 0 S -# Supprimer une ligne en subdivisant +# Supprimer une ligne en subdivisant # En utilisant data.table : students[studentName != "Draco"] # => @@ -607,16 +626,17 @@ array(c(c(c(2,300,4),c(8,9,0)),c(c(5,60,0),c(66,7,847))), dim=c(3,2,2)) # [2,] 60 7 # [3,] 0 847 -# LES LISTES (MULTI-DIMENSIONNELLES, ÉVENTUELLEMMENT DÉCHIRÉES, DE DIFFÉRENTS TYPES) +# LES LISTES (MULTI-DIMENSIONNELLES, ÉVENTUELLEMMENT DÉCHIRÉES, +# DE DIFFÉRENTS TYPES) # Enfin R a des listes (de vecteurs) list1 <- list(time = 1:40) list1$price = c(rnorm(40,.5*list1$time,4)) # random list1 # Vous pouvez obtenir des éléments de la liste comme ceci -list1$time # one way -list1[["time"]] # another way -list1[[1]] # yet another way +list1$time # une façon +list1[["time"]] # une autre façon +list1[[1]] # encore une façon différente # => # [1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 # [34] 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 @@ -624,13 +644,14 @@ list1[[1]] # yet another way list1$price[4] # Les listes ne sont pas les structures de données les plus efficaces -# pour travailler en R; -# À moins d'avoir une très bonne raison, vous devriez appliquer data.frames -# Les listes sont souvent retournées par des fonctions qui effectuent des régressions linéaires +# à utiliser avec R; +# À moins d'avoir une très bonne raison, vous devriez utiliser data.frames +# Les listes sont souvent retournées par des fonctions qui effectuent +# des régressions linéaires -################################################## +########################################## # La famille de fonction apply() -################################################## +########################################## # Vous vous rappelez mat ? mat @@ -641,8 +662,8 @@ mat # [3,] 3 6 # Utilisez apply(X, MARGIN, FUN) pour appliquer la fonction FUN à la matrice X # sur les lignes (MAR = 1) ou les colonnes (MAR = 2) -# R fait FUN à chaque lignes (ou colonnes) de X, beaucoup plus rapidement -# qu'une bouce for ou while le ferait +# R exécute FUN à chaque lignes (ou colonnes) de X, beaucoup plus rapidement +# que le ferait une boucle for ou while apply(mat, MAR = 2, jiggle) # => # [,1] [,2] @@ -650,7 +671,7 @@ apply(mat, MAR = 2, jiggle) # [2,] 7 19 # [3,] 11 23 # D'autres fonctions : ?lapply, ?sapply - + # Ne soyez pas trop intimidé ; tout le monde reconnaît que c'est un peu déroutant # Le paque plyr vise à remplacer (et améliorer !) la famille *apply(). @@ -660,9 +681,9 @@ require(plyr) -######################### +############################ # Charger des données -######################### +############################ # "pets.csv" est un fichier sur internet # (mais il pourrait être tout aussi facilement sur votre ordinateur) @@ -671,7 +692,7 @@ pets head(pets, 2) # first two rows tail(pets, 1) # last row -# Pour sauver une trame de donnée ou une matrice en fichier .csv +# Pour sauvegarder une data frame ou une matrice en fichier .csv write.csv(pets, "pets2.csv") # to make a new .csv file # définir le répertoire de travail avec setwd(), le récupérer avec getwd() @@ -679,9 +700,9 @@ write.csv(pets, "pets2.csv") # to make a new .csv file -######################### +################ # Les tracés -######################### +################ # LES FONCTIONS DE TRACÉS PRÉCONSTRUITES # Les diagrammes de dispersion ! @@ -700,7 +721,7 @@ barplot(c(1,4,5,1,2), names.arg = c("red","blue","purple","green","yellow")) # GGPLOT2 # Mais ceux-ci ne sont même pas les plus jolis tracés de R -# Essayez le paquet ggplot2 pour d'avantages de graphiques meilleurs +# Essayez le paquet ggplot2 pour d'avantages de graphiques install.packages("ggplot2") require(ggplot2) ?ggplot2 @@ -709,13 +730,14 @@ pp + geom_histogram() ll <- as.data.table(list1) pp <- ggplot(ll, aes(x=time,price)) pp + geom_point() -# ggplot2 a une documentation excellente (disponible sur http://docs.ggplot2.org/current/) +# ggplot2 a une documentation excellente +#(disponible sur http://docs.ggplot2.org/current/) ``` -## How do I get R? +## Comment j'obtiens R ? -* Get R and the R GUI from [http://www.r-project.org/](http://www.r-project.org/) -* [RStudio](http://www.rstudio.com/ide/) is another GUI +* Obtiens R et R GUI depuis [http://www.r-project.org/](http://www.r-project.org/) +* [RStudio](http://www.rstudio.com/ide/) est un autre GUI -- cgit v1.2.3 From c21cf5a1e230dadf81bc4e31e2d2f9133551b365 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Geoff Liu Date: Mon, 4 May 2015 02:40:04 -0600 Subject: Templates and such --- c++.html.markdown | 102 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 102 insertions(+) diff --git a/c++.html.markdown b/c++.html.markdown index ae93ceba..10c39c9c 100644 --- a/c++.html.markdown +++ b/c++.html.markdown @@ -432,6 +432,81 @@ int main () { return 0; } +///////////////////// +// Templates +///////////////////// + +// Templates in C++ are mostly used for generic programming, though they are +// much more powerful than generics constructs in other languages. It also +// supports explicit and partial specialization, functional-style type classes, +// and also it's Turing-complete. + +// We start with the kind of generic programming you might be familiar with. To +// define a class or function that takes a type parameter: +template +class Box { + // In this class, T can be used as any other type. + void insert(const T&) { ... } +}; + +// During compilation, the compiler actually generates copies of each template +// with parameters substituted, and so the full definition of the class must be +// present at each invocation. This is why you will see template classes defined +// entirely in header files. + +// To instantiate a template class on the stack: +Box intBox; + +// and you can use it as you would expect: +intBox.insert(123); + +// You can, of course, nest templates: +Box > boxOfBox; +boxOfBox.insert(intBox); + +// Up until C++11, you muse place a space between the two '>'s, otherwise '>>' +// will be parsed as the right shift operator. + +// You will sometimes see +// template +// instead. The 'class' keyword and 'typename' keyword are _mostly_ +// interchangeable in this case. For full explanation, see +// http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typename +// (yes, that keyword has its own Wikipedia page). + +// Similarly, a template function: +template +void barkThreeTimes(const T& input) +{ + input.bark(); + input.bark(); + input.bark(); +} + +// Notice that nothing is specified about the type parameters here. The compiler +// will generate and then type-check every invocation of the template, so the +// above function works with any type 'T' that has a const 'bark' method! + +Dog fluffy; +fluffy.setName("Fluffy") +barkThreeTimes(fluffy); Prints "Fluffy barks" three times. + +// Template parameters don't have to be classes, though this is used very rarely: +template +void printMessage() { + cout << "Learn C++ in " << Y << " minutes!" << endl; +} + +// And you can explicitly specialize templates for more efficient code: +template<> +void printMessage<10>() { + cout << "Learn C++ faster in only 10 minutes!" << endl; +} + +printMessage<20>(); // Prints "Learn C++ in 20 minutes!" +printMessage<10>(); // Prints "Learn C++ faster in only 10 minutes!" + + ///////////////////// // Exception Handling ///////////////////// @@ -585,6 +660,33 @@ void doSomethingWithAFile(const std::string& filename) // vector (i.e. self-resizing array), hash maps, and so on // all automatically destroy their contents when they fall out of scope. // - Mutexes using lock_guard and unique_lock + + +///////////////////// +// Fun stuff +///////////////////// + +// Aspects of C++ that may be surprising to newcomers (and even some veterans): + +// You can override private methods! +class Foo { + virtual void bar(); +}; +class FooSub : public Foo { + virtual void bar(); // overrides Foo::bar! +}; + +// 0, false, NULL are all the same thing! +bool* pt = new bool; +*pt = 0; // Sets the value points by 'pt' to false. +pt = 0; // Sets 'pt' to the null pointer. Yes both lines compile without warning. + +// '=' != '=' +Foo f1 = f2; // Calls Foo::Foo(const Foo&) or some variant copy constructor. + +Foo f1; +f1 = f2; // Calls Foo::operator=(Foo&) or variant. + ``` Futher Reading: -- cgit v1.2.3 From 05c2617aaf6d040b1e4372d8f83df11288ff2279 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Geoff Liu Date: Mon, 4 May 2015 02:45:31 -0600 Subject: Minor fix --- c++.html.markdown | 7 ++++--- 1 file changed, 4 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) diff --git a/c++.html.markdown b/c++.html.markdown index 10c39c9c..e50c33fa 100644 --- a/c++.html.markdown +++ b/c++.html.markdown @@ -489,15 +489,16 @@ void barkThreeTimes(const T& input) Dog fluffy; fluffy.setName("Fluffy") -barkThreeTimes(fluffy); Prints "Fluffy barks" three times. +barkThreeTimes(fluffy); // Prints "Fluffy barks" three times. -// Template parameters don't have to be classes, though this is used very rarely: +// Template parameters don't have to be classes: template void printMessage() { cout << "Learn C++ in " << Y << " minutes!" << endl; } -// And you can explicitly specialize templates for more efficient code: +// And you can explicitly specialize templates for more efficient code (most +// real-world uses of specialization are not as trivial as this): template<> void printMessage<10>() { cout << "Learn C++ faster in only 10 minutes!" << endl; -- cgit v1.2.3 From 6c635d1c3e5bb88940fb0afb01218d2e7d3f11c0 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Geoff Liu Date: Tue, 5 May 2015 00:45:14 -0600 Subject: Response to comments --- c++.html.markdown | 39 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++-------- 1 file changed, 31 insertions(+), 8 deletions(-) diff --git a/c++.html.markdown b/c++.html.markdown index e50c33fa..517ce367 100644 --- a/c++.html.markdown +++ b/c++.html.markdown @@ -497,8 +497,10 @@ void printMessage() { cout << "Learn C++ in " << Y << " minutes!" << endl; } -// And you can explicitly specialize templates for more efficient code (most -// real-world uses of specialization are not as trivial as this): +// And you can explicitly specialize templates for more efficient code. Of +// course, most real-world uses of specialization are not as trivial as this. +// Note that you still need to declare the function (or class) as a template +// even if you explicitly specified all parameters. template<> void printMessage<10>() { cout << "Learn C++ faster in only 10 minutes!" << endl; @@ -667,7 +669,9 @@ void doSomethingWithAFile(const std::string& filename) // Fun stuff ///////////////////// -// Aspects of C++ that may be surprising to newcomers (and even some veterans): +// Aspects of C++ that may be surprising to newcomers (and even some veterans). +// This section is, unfortunately, wildly incomplete; C++ is one of the easiest +// languages with which to shoot yourself in the foot. // You can override private methods! class Foo { @@ -677,16 +681,35 @@ class FooSub : public Foo { virtual void bar(); // overrides Foo::bar! }; -// 0, false, NULL are all the same thing! + +// 0 == false == NULL (most of the time)! bool* pt = new bool; *pt = 0; // Sets the value points by 'pt' to false. -pt = 0; // Sets 'pt' to the null pointer. Yes both lines compile without warning. +pt = 0; // Sets 'pt' to the null pointer. Both lines compile without warnings. + +// nullptr is supposed to fix some of that issue: +int* pt2 = new int; +*pt2 = nullptr; // Doesn't compile +pt2 = nullptr; // Sets pt2 to null. + +// But somehow 'bool' type is an exception. +*pt = nullptr; // This still compiles, even though '*pt' is a bool! + + +// '=' != '=' != '='! +// Calls Foo::Foo(const Foo&) or some variant copy constructor. +Foo f2; +Foo f1 = f2; -// '=' != '=' -Foo f1 = f2; // Calls Foo::Foo(const Foo&) or some variant copy constructor. +// Calls Foo::Foo(const Foo&) or variant, but only copies the 'Foo' part of +// 'fooSub'. Any extra members of 'fooSub' are discarded. This lovely behavior +// is called "object slicing." +FooSub fooSub; +Foo f1 = fooSub; +// Calls Foo::operator=(Foo&) or variant. Foo f1; -f1 = f2; // Calls Foo::operator=(Foo&) or variant. +f1 = f2; ``` Futher Reading: -- cgit v1.2.3 From 4e28ec0efdc127b51930aaa8de4f92e08c66011f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: robertmargelli Date: Tue, 5 May 2015 21:21:53 -0700 Subject: new C++ it version --- it-it/c++-it.html.markdown | 597 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 597 insertions(+) create mode 100644 it-it/c++-it.html.markdown diff --git a/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown b/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8914c234 --- /dev/null +++ b/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,597 @@ +--- +language: c++ +filename: learncpp.cpp +contributors: + - ["Steven Basart", "http://github.com/xksteven"] + - ["Matt Kline", "https://github.com/mrkline"] +translators: + - ["Robert Margelli", "http://github.com/sinkswim/"] +lang: it-it +--- + +Il C++ e' un linguaggio di programmazione il quale, +[secondo il suo inventore Bjarne Stroustrup](http://channel9.msdn.com/Events/Lang-NEXT/Lang-NEXT-2014/Keynote), +e' stato progettato per + +- essere un "miglior C" +- supportare l'astrazione dei dati +- supportare la programmazione orientata agli oggetti +- supportare la programmazione generica + +Nonostante la sintassi possa risultare piu' difficile o complessa di linguaggi piu' recenti, +e' usato in maniera vasta poiche' viene compilato in istruzioni macchina che possono +essere eseguite direttamente dal processore ed offre un controllo stretto sull'hardware (come il linguaggio C) +ed allo stesso tempo offre caratteristiche ad alto livello come i generici, le eccezioni, e le classi. +Questa combinazione di velocita' e funzionalita' rende il C++ +uno dei piu' utilizzati linguaggi di programmazione. + +```c++ +////////////////// +// Confronto con il C +////////////////// + +// Il C++ e' _quasi_ un superset del C e con esso condivide la sintassi di base per +// la dichiarazione di variabili, tipi primitivi, e funzioni. + +// Proprio come nel C, l'inizio del programma e' una funzione chiamata +// main con un intero come tipo di ritorno, +// nonostante void main() sia anch'essa accettata dalla maggior parte dei compilatori(gcc, clang, ecc...) +// Questo valore serve come stato d'uscita del programma. +// Vedi http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valore_di_uscita per maggiori informazioni. +int main(int argc, char** argv) +{ + // Gli argomenti a linea di comando sono passati tramite argc e argv cosi' come + // avviene in C. + // argc indica il numero di argomenti, + // e argv e' un array in stile-C di stringhe (char*) + // che rappresenta gl iargomenti. + // Il primo argomento e' il nome che e' stato assegnato al programma. + // argc e argv possono essere omessi se non hai bisogno di argomenti, + // in questa maniera la funzione avra' int main() come firma. + + // Lo stato di uscita 0 indica successo. + return 0; +} + +// Tuttavia, il C++ varia nei seguenti modi: + +// In C++, i caratteri come letterali sono da un byte. +sizeof('c') == 1 + +// In C, i caratteri come letterali sono della stessa dimensione degli interi. +sizeof('c') == sizeof(10) + + +// C++ ha prototipizzazione rigida +void func(); // funziona che non accetta argomenti + +// In C +void func(); // funzione che puo' accettare un qualsiasi numero di argomenti + +// Usa nullptr invece di NULL in C++ +int* ip = nullptr; + +// Gli header C standard sono disponibili in C++, +// ma sono prefissati con "c" e non hanno il suffisso ".h". +#include + +int main() +{ + printf("Ciao, mondo!\n"); + return 0; +} + +/////////////////////////////// +// Overloading per le funzioni +////////////////////////////// + +// Il C++ supporta l'overloading per le funzioni +// sia dato che ogni funzione accetta parametri diversi. + +void print(char const* myString) +{ + printf("Stringa %s\n", myString); +} + +void print(int myInt) +{ + printf("Il mio int e' %d", myInt); +} + +int main() +{ + print("Ciao"); // Viene chiamata void print(const char*) + print(15); // Viene chiamata void print(int) +} + +//////////////////////// +// Argomenti di default +/////////////////////// + +// Puoi fornire argomenti di default per una funzione +// se non sono forniti dal chiamante. + +void faiQualcosaConInteri(int a = 1, int b = 4) +{ + // fai qualcosa con gli interi qui +} + +int main() +{ + faiQualcosaConInteri(); // a = 1, b = 4 + faiQualcosaConInteri(20); // a = 20, b = 4 + faiQualcosaConInteri(20, 5); // a = 20, b = 5 +} + +// Gli argomenti di default devono essere alla fine della lista degli argomenti. + +void dichiarazioneInvalida(int a = 1, int b) // Errore! +{ +} + + +///////////// +// Namespaces +///////////// + +// I namespaces forniscono visibilita' separata per dichiarazioni di variabili, funzioni, +// ed altro. +// I namespaces possono essere annidati. + +namespace Primo { + namespace Annidato { + void foo() + { + printf("Questa e' Primo::Annidato::foo\n"); + } + } // fine di namespace Annidato +} // fine di namespace Primo + +namespace Secondo { + void foo() + { + printf("Questa e' Secondo::foo\n") + } +} + +void foo() +{ + printf("Questa e' foo globale\n"); +} + +int main() +{ + // Assume che tutto venga dal namespace "Secondo" + // a meno che non venga dichiarato altrimenti. + using namespace Secondo; + + foo(); // stampa "Questa e' Secondo::foo" + Primo::Annidato::foo(); // stampa "Questa e' Primo::Annidato::foo" + ::foo(); // stampa "Questa e' foo globale" +} + +/////////////// +// Input/Output +/////////////// + +// L'input e l'output in C++ utilizza gli streams +// cin, cout, e cerr i quali rappresentano stdin, stdout, e stderr. +// << e' l'operatore di inserzione >> e' l'operatore di estrazione. + +#include // Include for I/O streams + +using namespace std; // Gli streams sono nel namespace std (libreria standard) + +int main() +{ + int myInt; + + // Stampa su stdout (o terminalee/schermo) + cout << "Inserisci il tuo numero preferito:\n"; + // Prende l'input + cin >> myInt; + + // cout puo' anche essere formattato + cout << "Il tuo numero preferito e' " << myInt << "\n"; + // stampa "Il tuo numero preferito e' " + + cerr << "Usato per messaggi di errore"; +} + +//////////// +// Stringhe +/////////// + +// Le stringhe in C++ sono oggetti ed hanno molte funzioni membro +#include + +using namespace std; // Anche le stringhe sono contenute nel namespace std (libreria standard) + +string myString = "Ciao"; +string myOtherString = " Mondo"; + +// + e' usato per la concatenazione. +cout << myString + myOtherString; // "Ciao Mondo" + +cout << myString + " Bella"; // "Ciao Bella" + +// le stringhe in C++ possono essere modificate. +myString.append(" Mario"); +cout << myString; // "Ciao Mario" + + +/////////////// +// Riferimenti +////////////// + +// Oltre ai puntatori come quelli in C, +// il C++ ha i _riferimenti_. +// Questi non sono tipi puntatori che non possono essere riassegnati una volta settati +// e non possono essere null. +// Inoltre, essi hanno la stessa sintassi della variabile stessa: +// * non e' necessario per la dereferenziazione e +// & ("indirizzo di") non e' usato per l'assegnamento. + +using namespace std; + +string foo = "Io sono foo"; +string bar = "Io sono bar"; + + +string& fooRef = foo; // Questo crea un riferimento a foo. +fooRef += ". Ciao!"; // Modifica foo attraverso il riferimento +cout << fooRef; // Stampa "Io sono foo. Ciao!" + +// Non riassegna "fooRef". Questo e' come scrivere "foo = bar", e +// foo == "Io sono bar" +// dopo questa riga. +fooRef = bar; + +const string& barRef = bar; // Crea un riferimento const a bar. +// Come in C, i valori const (i puntatori e i riferimenti) non possono essere modificati. +barRef += ". Ciao!"; // Errore, i riferimenti const non possono essere modificati. + +////////////////////////////////////////////////// +// Classi e programmazione orientata agli oggetti +///////////////////////////////////////////////// + +// Primo esempio delle classi +#include + +// Dichiara una classe. +// Le classi sono in genere dichiara in un header file (.h o .hpp). +class Cane { + // Variabili e funzioni membro sono private di default. + std::string nome; + int peso; + +// Tutti i membri dopo questo sono pubblici (public) +// finche' "private:" o "protected:" non compaiono. +public: + + // Costruttore di default + Cane(); + + // Dichiarazioni di funzioni membro (le implentazioni sono a seguito) + // Nota che stiamo usando std::string invece di porre + // using namespace std; + // sopra. + // Mai usare uno statement "using namespace" in uno header. + void impostaNome(const std::string& nomeCane); + + void impostaPeso(int pesoCane); + + // Le funzioni che non modificano lo stato dell'oggetto + // dovrebbero essere marcate come const. + // Questo permette di chiamarle con un riferimento const all'oggetto. + // Inoltre, nota che le funzioni devono essere dichiarate espliciamente come _virtual_ + // per essere sovrascritte in classi derivate. + // Le funzioni non sono virtual di default per motivi di performance. + virtual void print() const; + + // Le funzioni possono essere definite anche all'interno del corpo della classe. + // Le funzioni definite in questo modo sono automaticamente inline. + void abbaia() const { std::cout << nome << " abbaia!\n"; } + + // Assieme con i costruttori, il C++ fornisce i distruttori. + // Questi sono chiamati quando un oggetto e' rimosso o esce dalla visibilita'. + // Questo permette paradigmi potenti come il RAII + // (vedi sotto) + // I distruttori devono essere virtual per permettere a classi di essere derivate da questa. + virtual ~Dog(); + +}; // Un punto e virgola deve seguire la definizione della funzione + +// Class member functions are usually implemented in .cpp files. +void Dog::Dog() +{ + std::cout << "A dog has been constructed\n"; +} + +// Objects (such as strings) should be passed by reference +// if you are modifying them or const reference if you are not. +void Dog::setName(const std::string& dogsName) +{ + name = dogsName; +} + +void Dog::setWeight(int dogsWeight) +{ + weight = dogsWeight; +} + +// Notice that "virtual" is only needed in the declaration, not the definition. +void Dog::print() const +{ + std::cout << "Dog is " << name << " and weighs " << weight << "kg\n"; +} + +void Dog::~Dog() +{ + cout << "Goodbye " << name << "\n"; +} + +int main() { + Dog myDog; // prints "A dog has been constructed" + myDog.setName("Barkley"); + myDog.setWeight(10); + myDog.printDog(); // prints "Dog is Barkley and weighs 10 kg" + return 0; +} // prints "Goodbye Barkley" + +// Inheritance: + +// This class inherits everything public and protected from the Dog class +class OwnedDog : public Dog { + + void setOwner(const std::string& dogsOwner) + + // Override the behavior of the print function for all OwnedDogs. See + // http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(computer_science)#Subtyping + // for a more general introduction if you are unfamiliar with + // subtype polymorphism. + // The override keyword is optional but makes sure you are actually + // overriding the method in a base class. + void print() const override; + +private: + std::string owner; +}; + +// Meanwhile, in the corresponding .cpp file: + +void OwnedDog::setOwner(const std::string& dogsOwner) +{ + owner = dogsOwner; +} + +void OwnedDog::print() const +{ + Dog::print(); // Call the print function in the base Dog class + std::cout << "Dog is owned by " << owner << "\n"; + // Prints "Dog is and weights " + // "Dog is owned by " +} + +////////////////////////////////////////// +// Initialization and Operator Overloading +////////////////////////////////////////// + +// In C++ you can overload the behavior of operators such as +, -, *, /, etc. +// This is done by defining a function which is called +// whenever the operator is used. + +#include +using namespace std; + +class Point { +public: + // Member variables can be given default values in this manner. + double x = 0; + double y = 0; + + // Define a default constructor which does nothing + // but initialize the Point to the default value (0, 0) + Point() { }; + + // The following syntax is known as an initialization list + // and is the proper way to initialize class member values + Point (double a, double b) : + x(a), + y(b) + { /* Do nothing except initialize the values */ } + + // Overload the + operator. + Point operator+(const Point& rhs) const; + + // Overload the += operator + Point& operator+=(const Point& rhs); + + // It would also make sense to add the - and -= operators, + // but we will skip those for brevity. +}; + +Point Point::operator+(const Point& rhs) const +{ + // Create a new point that is the sum of this one and rhs. + return Point(x + rhs.x, y + rhs.y); +} + +Point& Point::operator+=(const Point& rhs) +{ + x += rhs.x; + y += rhs.y; + return *this; +} + +int main () { + Point up (0,1); + Point right (1,0); + // This calls the Point + operator + // Point up calls the + (function) with right as its paramater + Point result = up + right; + // Prints "Result is upright (1,1)" + cout << "Result is upright (" << result.x << ',' << result.y << ")\n"; + return 0; +} + +//////////////////////////// +// Gestione delle eccezioni +/////////////////////////// + +// La libreria standard fornisce un paio di tipi d'eccezioni +// (vedi http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/error/exception) +// ma ogni tipo puo' essere lanciato come eccezione +#include + +// Tutte le eccezioni lanciate all'interno del blocco _try_ possono essere catturate dai successivi +// handlers _catch_. +try { + // Non allocare eccezioni nello heap usando _new_. + throw std::exception("E' avvenuto un problema"); +} +// Cattura le eccezioni come riferimenti const se sono oggetti +catch (const std::exception& ex) +{ + std::cout << ex.what(); +// Cattura ogni eccezioni non catturata dal blocco _catch_ precedente +} catch (...) +{ + std::cout << "Catturata un'eccezione sconosciuta"; + throw; // Rilancia l'eccezione +} + +/////// +// RAII +/////// + +// RAII sta per Resource Allocation Is Initialization. +// Spesso viene considerato come il piu' potente paradigma in C++. +// E' un concetto semplice: un costruttore di un oggetto +// acquisisce le risorse di tale oggetto ed il distruttore le rilascia. + +// Per comprendere come questo sia vantaggioso, +// consideriamo una funzione che usa un gestore di file in C: +void faiQualcosaConUnFile(const char* nomefile) +{ + // Per cominciare, assumiamo che niente possa fallire. + + FILE* fh = fopen(nomefile, "r"); // Apri il file in modalita' lettura. + + faiQualcosaConUnFile(fh); + faiQualcosAltroConEsso(fh); + + fclose(fh); // Chiudi il gestore di file. +} + +// Unfortunately, things are quickly complicated by error handling. +// Suppose fopen can fail, and that doSomethingWithTheFile and +// doSomethingElseWithIt return error codes if they fail. +// (Exceptions are the preferred way of handling failure, +// but some programmers, especially those with a C background, +// disagree on the utility of exceptions). +// We now have to check each call for failure and close the file handle +// if a problem occurred. +bool doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename) +{ + FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r"); // Open the file in read mode + if (fh == nullptr) // The returned pointer is null on failure. + return false; // Report that failure to the caller. + + // Assume each function returns false if it failed + if (!doSomethingWithTheFile(fh)) { + fclose(fh); // Close the file handle so it doesn't leak. + return false; // Propagate the error. + } + if (!doSomethingElseWithIt(fh)) { + fclose(fh); // Close the file handle so it doesn't leak. + return false; // Propagate the error. + } + + fclose(fh); // Close the file handle so it doesn't leak. + return true; // Indicate success +} + +// C programmers often clean this up a little bit using goto: +bool doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename) +{ + FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r"); + if (fh == nullptr) + return false; + + if (!doSomethingWithTheFile(fh)) + goto failure; + + if (!doSomethingElseWithIt(fh)) + goto failure; + + fclose(fh); // Close the file + return true; // Indicate success + +failure: + fclose(fh); + return false; // Propagate the error +} + +// If the functions indicate errors using exceptions, +// things are a little cleaner, but still sub-optimal. +void doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename) +{ + FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r"); // Open the file in read mode + if (fh == nullptr) + throw std::exception("Could not open the file."); + + try { + doSomethingWithTheFile(fh); + doSomethingElseWithIt(fh); + } + catch (...) { + fclose(fh); // Be sure to close the file if an error occurs. + throw; // Then re-throw the exception. + } + + fclose(fh); // Close the file + // Everything succeeded +} + +// Compare this to the use of C++'s file stream class (fstream) +// fstream uses its destructor to close the file. +// Recall from above that destructors are automatically called +// whenever an object falls out of scope. +void doSomethingWithAFile(const std::string& filename) +{ + // ifstream is short for input file stream + std::ifstream fh(filename); // Open the file + + // Do things with the file + doSomethingWithTheFile(fh); + doSomethingElseWithIt(fh); + +} // The file is automatically closed here by the destructor + +// This has _massive_ advantages: +// 1. No matter what happens, +// the resource (in this case the file handle) will be cleaned up. +// Once you write the destructor correctly, +// It is _impossible_ to forget to close the handle and leak the resource. +// 2. Note that the code is much cleaner. +// The destructor handles closing the file behind the scenes +// without you having to worry about it. +// 3. The code is exception safe. +// An exception can be thrown anywhere in the function and cleanup +// will still occur. + +// All idiomatic C++ code uses RAII extensively for all resources. +// Additional examples include +// - Memory using unique_ptr and shared_ptr +// - Containers - the standard library linked list, +// vector (i.e. self-resizing array), hash maps, and so on +// all automatically destroy their contents when they fall out of scope. +// - Mutexes using lock_guard and unique_lock +``` +Letture consigliate: + +Un riferimento aggiornato del linguaggio puo' essere trovato qui + + +Risorse addizionali possono essere trovate qui -- cgit v1.2.3 From 763e7eb224fce450cbf35004d4a5e11e57198cf0 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: robertmargelli Date: Wed, 6 May 2015 11:09:31 -0700 Subject: added and finished C++-it --- it-it/c++-it.html.markdown | 370 ++++++++++++++++++++++----------------------- 1 file changed, 185 insertions(+), 185 deletions(-) diff --git a/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown b/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown index 8914c234..429c976f 100644 --- a/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown +++ b/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown @@ -9,45 +9,45 @@ translators: lang: it-it --- -Il C++ e' un linguaggio di programmazione il quale, +Il C++ è un linguaggio di programmazione il quale, [secondo il suo inventore Bjarne Stroustrup](http://channel9.msdn.com/Events/Lang-NEXT/Lang-NEXT-2014/Keynote), -e' stato progettato per +è stato progettato per - essere un "miglior C" - supportare l'astrazione dei dati - supportare la programmazione orientata agli oggetti - supportare la programmazione generica -Nonostante la sintassi possa risultare piu' difficile o complessa di linguaggi piu' recenti, -e' usato in maniera vasta poiche' viene compilato in istruzioni macchina che possono +Nonostante la sintassi possa risultare più difficile o complessa di linguaggi più recenti, +è usato in maniera vasta poichè viene compilato in istruzioni macchina che possono essere eseguite direttamente dal processore ed offre un controllo stretto sull'hardware (come il linguaggio C) ed allo stesso tempo offre caratteristiche ad alto livello come i generici, le eccezioni, e le classi. -Questa combinazione di velocita' e funzionalita' rende il C++ -uno dei piu' utilizzati linguaggi di programmazione. +Questa combinazione di velocità e funzionalità rende il C++ +uno dei più utilizzati linguaggi di programmazione. ```c++ ////////////////// // Confronto con il C ////////////////// -// Il C++ e' _quasi_ un superset del C e con esso condivide la sintassi di base per +// Il C++ è _quasi_ un superset del C e con esso condivide la sintassi di base per // la dichiarazione di variabili, tipi primitivi, e funzioni. -// Proprio come nel C, l'inizio del programma e' una funzione chiamata +// Proprio come nel C, l'inizio del programma è una funzione chiamata // main con un intero come tipo di ritorno, // nonostante void main() sia anch'essa accettata dalla maggior parte dei compilatori(gcc, clang, ecc...) // Questo valore serve come stato d'uscita del programma. // Vedi http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valore_di_uscita per maggiori informazioni. int main(int argc, char** argv) { - // Gli argomenti a linea di comando sono passati tramite argc e argv cosi' come + // Gli argomenti a linea di comando sono passati tramite argc e argv così come // avviene in C. // argc indica il numero di argomenti, - // e argv e' un array in stile-C di stringhe (char*) + // e argv è un array in stile-C di stringhe (char*) // che rappresenta gl iargomenti. - // Il primo argomento e' il nome che e' stato assegnato al programma. + // Il primo argomento è il nome che è stato assegnato al programma. // argc e argv possono essere omessi se non hai bisogno di argomenti, - // in questa maniera la funzione avra' int main() come firma. + // in questa maniera la funzione avrà int main() come firma. // Lo stato di uscita 0 indica successo. return 0; @@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ sizeof('c') == sizeof(10) void func(); // funziona che non accetta argomenti // In C -void func(); // funzione che puo' accettare un qualsiasi numero di argomenti +void func(); // funzione che può accettare un qualsiasi numero di argomenti // Usa nullptr invece di NULL in C++ int* ip = nullptr; @@ -95,7 +95,7 @@ void print(char const* myString) void print(int myInt) { - printf("Il mio int e' %d", myInt); + printf("Il mio int è %d", myInt); } int main() @@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ void dichiarazioneInvalida(int a = 1, int b) // Errore! // Namespaces ///////////// -// I namespaces forniscono visibilita' separata per dichiarazioni di variabili, funzioni, +// I namespaces forniscono visibilità separata per dichiarazioni di variabili, funzioni, // ed altro. // I namespaces possono essere annidati. @@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ namespace Primo { namespace Annidato { void foo() { - printf("Questa e' Primo::Annidato::foo\n"); + printf("Questa è Primo::Annidato::foo\n"); } } // fine di namespace Annidato } // fine di namespace Primo @@ -150,13 +150,13 @@ namespace Primo { namespace Secondo { void foo() { - printf("Questa e' Secondo::foo\n") + printf("Questa è Secondo::foo\n") } } void foo() { - printf("Questa e' foo globale\n"); + printf("Questa è foo globale\n"); } int main() @@ -165,9 +165,9 @@ int main() // a meno che non venga dichiarato altrimenti. using namespace Secondo; - foo(); // stampa "Questa e' Secondo::foo" - Primo::Annidato::foo(); // stampa "Questa e' Primo::Annidato::foo" - ::foo(); // stampa "Questa e' foo globale" + foo(); // stampa "Questa è Secondo::foo" + Primo::Annidato::foo(); // stampa "Questa è Primo::Annidato::foo" + ::foo(); // stampa "Questa è foo globale" } /////////////// @@ -176,7 +176,7 @@ int main() // L'input e l'output in C++ utilizza gli streams // cin, cout, e cerr i quali rappresentano stdin, stdout, e stderr. -// << e' l'operatore di inserzione >> e' l'operatore di estrazione. +// << è l'operatore di inserzione >> è l'operatore di estrazione. #include // Include for I/O streams @@ -191,9 +191,9 @@ int main() // Prende l'input cin >> myInt; - // cout puo' anche essere formattato - cout << "Il tuo numero preferito e' " << myInt << "\n"; - // stampa "Il tuo numero preferito e' " + // cout può anche essere formattato + cout << "Il tuo numero preferito è " << myInt << "\n"; + // stampa "Il tuo numero preferito è " cerr << "Usato per messaggi di errore"; } @@ -210,7 +210,7 @@ using namespace std; // Anche le stringhe sono contenute nel namespace std (libr string myString = "Ciao"; string myOtherString = " Mondo"; -// + e' usato per la concatenazione. +// + è usato per la concatenazione. cout << myString + myOtherString; // "Ciao Mondo" cout << myString + " Bella"; // "Ciao Bella" @@ -229,8 +229,8 @@ cout << myString; // "Ciao Mario" // Questi non sono tipi puntatori che non possono essere riassegnati una volta settati // e non possono essere null. // Inoltre, essi hanno la stessa sintassi della variabile stessa: -// * non e' necessario per la dereferenziazione e -// & ("indirizzo di") non e' usato per l'assegnamento. +// * non è necessario per la dereferenziazione e +// & ("indirizzo di") non è usato per l'assegnamento. using namespace std; @@ -242,7 +242,7 @@ string& fooRef = foo; // Questo crea un riferimento a foo. fooRef += ". Ciao!"; // Modifica foo attraverso il riferimento cout << fooRef; // Stampa "Io sono foo. Ciao!" -// Non riassegna "fooRef". Questo e' come scrivere "foo = bar", e +// Non riassegna "fooRef". Questo è come scrivere "foo = bar", e // foo == "Io sono bar" // dopo questa riga. fooRef = bar; @@ -266,7 +266,7 @@ class Cane { int peso; // Tutti i membri dopo questo sono pubblici (public) -// finche' "private:" o "protected:" non compaiono. +// finchè "private:" o "protected:" non compaiono. public: // Costruttore di default @@ -294,7 +294,7 @@ public: void abbaia() const { std::cout << nome << " abbaia!\n"; } // Assieme con i costruttori, il C++ fornisce i distruttori. - // Questi sono chiamati quando un oggetto e' rimosso o esce dalla visibilita'. + // Questi sono chiamati quando un oggetto è rimosso o esce dalla visibilità. // Questo permette paradigmi potenti come il RAII // (vedi sotto) // I distruttori devono essere virtual per permettere a classi di essere derivate da questa. @@ -302,122 +302,122 @@ public: }; // Un punto e virgola deve seguire la definizione della funzione -// Class member functions are usually implemented in .cpp files. -void Dog::Dog() +// Le funzioni membro di una classe sono generalmente implementate in files .cpp . +void Cane::Cane() { - std::cout << "A dog has been constructed\n"; + std::cout << "Un cane è stato costruito\n"; } -// Objects (such as strings) should be passed by reference -// if you are modifying them or const reference if you are not. -void Dog::setName(const std::string& dogsName) +// Gli oggetti (ad esempio le stringhe) devono essere passati per riferimento +// se li stai modificando o come riferimento const altrimenti. +void Cane::impostaNome(const std::string& nomeCane) { - name = dogsName; + nome = nomeCane; } -void Dog::setWeight(int dogsWeight) +void Cane::impostaPeso(int pesoCane) { - weight = dogsWeight; + peso = pesoCane; } -// Notice that "virtual" is only needed in the declaration, not the definition. -void Dog::print() const +// Notare che "virtual" è solamente necessario nelle dichiarazioni, non nelle definizioni. +void Cane::print() const { - std::cout << "Dog is " << name << " and weighs " << weight << "kg\n"; + std::cout << "Il cane è " << nome << " e pesa " << peso << "kg\n"; } -void Dog::~Dog() +void Cane::~Cane() { - cout << "Goodbye " << name << "\n"; + cout << "Ciao ciao " << nome << "\n"; } int main() { - Dog myDog; // prints "A dog has been constructed" - myDog.setName("Barkley"); - myDog.setWeight(10); - myDog.printDog(); // prints "Dog is Barkley and weighs 10 kg" + Cane myDog; // stampa "Un cane è stato costruito" + myDog.impostaNome("Barkley"); + myDog.impostaPeso(10); + myDog.print(); // stampa "Il cane è Barkley e pesa 10 kg" return 0; -} // prints "Goodbye Barkley" +} // stampa "Ciao ciao Barkley" -// Inheritance: +// Ereditarietà: -// This class inherits everything public and protected from the Dog class -class OwnedDog : public Dog { +// Questa classe eredita tutto ciò che è public e protected dalla classe Cane +class MioCane : public Cane { - void setOwner(const std::string& dogsOwner) + void impostaProprietario(const std::string& proprietarioCane) - // Override the behavior of the print function for all OwnedDogs. See - // http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(computer_science)#Subtyping - // for a more general introduction if you are unfamiliar with - // subtype polymorphism. - // The override keyword is optional but makes sure you are actually - // overriding the method in a base class. + // Sovrascrivi il comportamento della funzione print per tutti i MioCane. Vedi + // http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polimorfismo_%28informatica%29 + // per una introduzione più generale se non sei familiare con + // il polimorfismo. + // La parola chiave override è opzionale ma fa sì che tu stia effettivamente + // sovrascrivendo il metodo nella classe base. void print() const override; private: - std::string owner; + std::string proprietario; }; -// Meanwhile, in the corresponding .cpp file: +// Nel frattempo, nel file .cpp corrispondente: -void OwnedDog::setOwner(const std::string& dogsOwner) +void MioCane::impostaProprietario(const std::string& proprietarioCane) { - owner = dogsOwner; + proprietario = proprietarioCane; } -void OwnedDog::print() const +void MioCane::print() const { - Dog::print(); // Call the print function in the base Dog class - std::cout << "Dog is owned by " << owner << "\n"; - // Prints "Dog is and weights " - // "Dog is owned by " + Cane::print(); // Chiama la funzione print nella classe base Cane + std::cout << "Il cane è di " << proprietario << "\n"; + // stampa "Il cane è e pesa " + // "Il cane è di " } -////////////////////////////////////////// -// Initialization and Operator Overloading -////////////////////////////////////////// +/////////////////////////////////////////////////// +// Inizializzazione ed Overloading degli Operatori +////////////////////////////////////////////////// -// In C++ you can overload the behavior of operators such as +, -, *, /, etc. -// This is done by defining a function which is called -// whenever the operator is used. +// In C++ puoi sovrascrivere il comportamento di operatori come +, -, *, /, ecc... +// Questo è possibile definendo una funzioneche viene chiamata +// ogniqualvolta l'operatore è usato. #include using namespace std; -class Point { +class Punto { public: - // Member variables can be given default values in this manner. + // Così si assegna alle variabili membro un valore di default. double x = 0; double y = 0; - // Define a default constructor which does nothing - // but initialize the Point to the default value (0, 0) - Point() { }; + // Definisce un costruttore di default che non fa nulla + // ma inizializza il Punto ai valori di default (0, 0) + Punto() { }; - // The following syntax is known as an initialization list - // and is the proper way to initialize class member values - Point (double a, double b) : + // La sintassi seguente è nota come lista di inizializzazione + // ed è il modo appropriato di inizializzare i valori membro della classe + Punto (double a, double b) : x(a), y(b) - { /* Do nothing except initialize the values */ } + { /* Non fa nulla eccetto inizializzare i valori */ } - // Overload the + operator. - Point operator+(const Point& rhs) const; + // Sovrascrivi l'operatore +. + Punto operator+(const Punto& rhs) const; - // Overload the += operator - Point& operator+=(const Point& rhs); + // Sovrascrivi l'operatore += + Punto& operator+=(const Punto& rhs); - // It would also make sense to add the - and -= operators, - // but we will skip those for brevity. + // Avrebbe senso aggiungere gli operatori - e -=, + // ma li saltiamo per rendere la guida più breve. }; -Point Point::operator+(const Point& rhs) const +Punto Punto::operator+(const Punto& rhs) const { - // Create a new point that is the sum of this one and rhs. - return Point(x + rhs.x, y + rhs.y); + // Crea un nuovo punto come somma di questo e di rhs. + return Punto(x + rhs.x, y + rhs.y); } -Point& Point::operator+=(const Point& rhs) +Punto& Punto::operator+=(const Punto& rhs) { x += rhs.x; y += rhs.y; @@ -425,13 +425,13 @@ Point& Point::operator+=(const Point& rhs) } int main () { - Point up (0,1); - Point right (1,0); - // This calls the Point + operator - // Point up calls the + (function) with right as its paramater - Point result = up + right; - // Prints "Result is upright (1,1)" - cout << "Result is upright (" << result.x << ',' << result.y << ")\n"; + Punto su (0,1); + Punto destro (1,0); + // Questo chiama l'operatore + di Punto + // Il Punto su chiama la funzione + con destro come argomento + Punto risultato = su + destro; + // Stampa "Risultato è spostato in (1,1)" + cout << "Risultato è spostato (" << risultato.x << ',' << risultato.y << ")\n"; return 0; } @@ -441,14 +441,14 @@ int main () { // La libreria standard fornisce un paio di tipi d'eccezioni // (vedi http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/error/exception) -// ma ogni tipo puo' essere lanciato come eccezione +// ma ogni tipo può essere lanciato come eccezione #include // Tutte le eccezioni lanciate all'interno del blocco _try_ possono essere catturate dai successivi // handlers _catch_. try { // Non allocare eccezioni nello heap usando _new_. - throw std::exception("E' avvenuto un problema"); + throw std::exception("È avvenuto un problema"); } // Cattura le eccezioni come riferimenti const se sono oggetti catch (const std::exception& ex) @@ -466,8 +466,8 @@ catch (const std::exception& ex) /////// // RAII sta per Resource Allocation Is Initialization. -// Spesso viene considerato come il piu' potente paradigma in C++. -// E' un concetto semplice: un costruttore di un oggetto +// Spesso viene considerato come il più potente paradigma in C++. +// È un concetto semplice: un costruttore di un oggetto // acquisisce le risorse di tale oggetto ed il distruttore le rilascia. // Per comprendere come questo sia vantaggioso, @@ -476,122 +476,122 @@ void faiQualcosaConUnFile(const char* nomefile) { // Per cominciare, assumiamo che niente possa fallire. - FILE* fh = fopen(nomefile, "r"); // Apri il file in modalita' lettura. + FILE* fh = fopen(nomefile, "r"); // Apri il file in modalità lettura. - faiQualcosaConUnFile(fh); + faiQualcosaConIlFile(fh); faiQualcosAltroConEsso(fh); fclose(fh); // Chiudi il gestore di file. } -// Unfortunately, things are quickly complicated by error handling. -// Suppose fopen can fail, and that doSomethingWithTheFile and -// doSomethingElseWithIt return error codes if they fail. -// (Exceptions are the preferred way of handling failure, -// but some programmers, especially those with a C background, -// disagree on the utility of exceptions). -// We now have to check each call for failure and close the file handle -// if a problem occurred. -bool doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename) +// Sfortunatamente, le cose vengono complicate dalla gestione degli errori. +// Supponiamo che fopen fallisca, e che faiQualcosaConUnFile e +// faiQualcosAltroConEsso ritornano codici d'errore se falliscono. +// (Le eccezioni sono la maniera preferita per gestire i fallimenti, +// ma alcuni programmatori, specialmente quelli con un passato in C, +// non sono d'accordo con l'utilità delle eccezioni). +// Adesso dobbiamo verificare che ogni chiamata per eventuali fallimenti e chiudere il gestore di file +// se un problema è avvenuto. +bool faiQualcosaConUnFile(const char* nomefile) { - FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r"); // Open the file in read mode - if (fh == nullptr) // The returned pointer is null on failure. - return false; // Report that failure to the caller. - - // Assume each function returns false if it failed - if (!doSomethingWithTheFile(fh)) { - fclose(fh); // Close the file handle so it doesn't leak. - return false; // Propagate the error. + FILE* fh = fopen(nomefile, "r"); // Apre il file in modalità lettura + if (fh == nullptr) // Il puntatore restituito è null in caso di fallimento. + return false; // Riporta il fallimento al chiamante. + + // Assumiamo che ogni funzione ritorni false se ha fallito + if (!faiQualcosaConIlFile(fh)) { + fclose(fh); // Chiude il gestore di file così che non sprechi memoria. + return false; // Propaga l'errore. } - if (!doSomethingElseWithIt(fh)) { - fclose(fh); // Close the file handle so it doesn't leak. - return false; // Propagate the error. + if (!faiQualcosAltroConEsso(fh)) { + fclose(fh); // Chiude il gestore di file così che non sprechi memoria. + return false; // Propaga l'errore. } - fclose(fh); // Close the file handle so it doesn't leak. - return true; // Indicate success + fclose(fh); // Chiudi il gestore di file così che non sprechi memoria. + return true; // Indica successo } -// C programmers often clean this up a little bit using goto: -bool doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename) +// I programmatori C in genere puliscono questa procedura usando goto: +bool faiQualcosaConUnFile(const char* nomefile) { - FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r"); + FILE* fh = fopen(nomefile, "r"); if (fh == nullptr) return false; - if (!doSomethingWithTheFile(fh)) - goto failure; + if (!faiQualcosaConIlFile(fh)) + goto fallimento; - if (!doSomethingElseWithIt(fh)) - goto failure; + if (!faiQualcosAltroConEsso(fh)) + goto fallimento; - fclose(fh); // Close the file - return true; // Indicate success + fclose(fh); // Chiude il file + return true; // Indica successo -failure: +fallimento: fclose(fh); - return false; // Propagate the error + return false; // Propaga l'errore } -// If the functions indicate errors using exceptions, -// things are a little cleaner, but still sub-optimal. -void doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename) +// Se le funzioni indicano errori usando le eccezioni, +// le cose sono un pò più pulite, ma sono sempre sub-ottimali. +void faiQualcosaConUnFile(const char* nomefile) { - FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r"); // Open the file in read mode + FILE* fh = fopen(nomefile, "r"); // Apre il file in modalità lettura if (fh == nullptr) - throw std::exception("Could not open the file."); + throw std::exception("Non è stato possibile aprire il file."). try { - doSomethingWithTheFile(fh); - doSomethingElseWithIt(fh); + faiQualcosaConIlFile(fh); + faiQualcosAltroConEsso(fh); } catch (...) { - fclose(fh); // Be sure to close the file if an error occurs. - throw; // Then re-throw the exception. + fclose(fh); // Fai sì che il file venga chiuso se si ha un errore. + throw; // Poi rilancia l'eccezione. } - fclose(fh); // Close the file - // Everything succeeded + fclose(fh); // Chiudi il file + // Tutto è andato bene } -// Compare this to the use of C++'s file stream class (fstream) -// fstream uses its destructor to close the file. -// Recall from above that destructors are automatically called -// whenever an object falls out of scope. -void doSomethingWithAFile(const std::string& filename) +// Confronta questo con l'utilizzo della classe C++ file stream (fstream) +// fstream usa i distruttori per chiudere il file. +// Come detto sopra, i distruttori sono automaticamente chiamati +// ogniqualvolta un oggetto esce dalla visibilità. +void faiQualcosaConUnFile(const std::string& nomefile) { - // ifstream is short for input file stream - std::ifstream fh(filename); // Open the file - - // Do things with the file - doSomethingWithTheFile(fh); - doSomethingElseWithIt(fh); - -} // The file is automatically closed here by the destructor - -// This has _massive_ advantages: -// 1. No matter what happens, -// the resource (in this case the file handle) will be cleaned up. -// Once you write the destructor correctly, -// It is _impossible_ to forget to close the handle and leak the resource. -// 2. Note that the code is much cleaner. -// The destructor handles closing the file behind the scenes -// without you having to worry about it. -// 3. The code is exception safe. -// An exception can be thrown anywhere in the function and cleanup -// will still occur. - -// All idiomatic C++ code uses RAII extensively for all resources. -// Additional examples include -// - Memory using unique_ptr and shared_ptr -// - Containers - the standard library linked list, -// vector (i.e. self-resizing array), hash maps, and so on -// all automatically destroy their contents when they fall out of scope. -// - Mutexes using lock_guard and unique_lock + // ifstream è l'abbreviazione di input file stream + std::ifstream fh(nomefile); // Apre il file + + // Fai qualcosa con il file + faiQualcosaConIlFile(fh); + faiQualcosAltroConEsso(fh); + +} // Il file viene chiuso automaticamente chiuso qui dal distruttore + +// Questo ha vantaggi _enormi_: +// 1. Può succedere di tutto ma +// la risorsa (in questo caso il file handler) verrà ripulito. +// Una volta che scrivi il distruttore correttamente, +// È _impossibile_ scordarsi di chiudere l'handler e sprecare memoria. +// 2. Nota che il codice è molto più pulito. +// Il distruttore gestisce la chiusura del file dietro le scene +// senza che tu debba preoccupartene. +// 3. Il codice è sicuro da eccezioni. +// Una eccezione può essere lanciata in qualunque punto nella funzione e la ripulitura +// avverrà lo stesso. + +// Tutto il codice C++ idiomatico usa RAII in maniera vasta su tutte le risorse. +// Esempi aggiuntivi includono +// - Utilizzo della memoria con unique_ptr e shared_ptr +// - I contenitori - la lista della libreria standard, +// vettori (i.e. array auto-aggiustati), mappe hash, e così via +// sono tutti automaticamente distrutti con i loro contenuti quando escono dalla visibilità. +// - I mutex usano lock_guard e unique_lock ``` Letture consigliate: -Un riferimento aggiornato del linguaggio puo' essere trovato qui +Un riferimento aggiornato del linguaggio può essere trovato qui Risorse addizionali possono essere trovate qui -- cgit v1.2.3 From 25bd06d77a70964acfbdbf8a7c7a50eb312eae9f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Geoff Liu Date: Wed, 6 May 2015 15:25:28 -0600 Subject: comment changes --- c++.html.markdown | 6 +++--- 1 file changed, 3 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) diff --git a/c++.html.markdown b/c++.html.markdown index 517ce367..66d4aeb1 100644 --- a/c++.html.markdown +++ b/c++.html.markdown @@ -692,7 +692,7 @@ int* pt2 = new int; *pt2 = nullptr; // Doesn't compile pt2 = nullptr; // Sets pt2 to null. -// But somehow 'bool' type is an exception. +// But somehow 'bool' type is an exception (this is to make `if (ptr)` compile). *pt = nullptr; // This still compiles, even though '*pt' is a bool! @@ -702,8 +702,8 @@ Foo f2; Foo f1 = f2; // Calls Foo::Foo(const Foo&) or variant, but only copies the 'Foo' part of -// 'fooSub'. Any extra members of 'fooSub' are discarded. This lovely behavior -// is called "object slicing." +// 'fooSub'. Any extra members of 'fooSub' are discarded. This sometimes +// horrifying behavior is called "object slicing." FooSub fooSub; Foo f1 = fooSub; -- cgit v1.2.3 From 8b7a2fff9a71b8fa8754947434b8b1f184ed2de1 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Etan Reisner Date: Wed, 29 Apr 2015 22:11:20 -0400 Subject: Don't use ALL_CAPS variable names. ALL_CAPS variable names are traditionally "reserved" for use by the shell/system. (People often try to use PATH for things locally and then wonder why their commands all stop working for example. --- bash.html.markdown | 58 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++--------------------------- 1 file changed, 29 insertions(+), 29 deletions(-) diff --git a/bash.html.markdown b/bash.html.markdown index 4c50c653..937d2c96 100644 --- a/bash.html.markdown +++ b/bash.html.markdown @@ -32,40 +32,40 @@ echo Hello world! echo 'This is the first line'; echo 'This is the second line' # Declaring a variable looks like this: -VARIABLE="Some string" +Variable="Some string" # But not like this: -VARIABLE = "Some string" -# Bash will decide that VARIABLE is a command it must execute and give an error +Variable = "Some string" +# Bash will decide that Variable is a command it must execute and give an error # because it can't be found. # Or like this: -VARIABLE= 'Some string' +Variable= 'Some string' # Bash will decide that 'Some string' is a command it must execute and give an -# error because it can't be found. (In this case the 'VARIABLE=' part is seen +# error because it can't be found. (In this case the 'Variable=' part is seen # as a variable assignment valid only for the scope of the 'Some string' # command.) # Using the variable: -echo $VARIABLE -echo "$VARIABLE" -echo '$VARIABLE' +echo $Variable +echo "$Variable" +echo '$Variable' # When you use the variable itself — assign it, export it, or else — you write # its name without $. If you want to use variable's value, you should use $. # Note that ' (single quote) won't expand the variables! # String substitution in variables -echo ${VARIABLE/Some/A} +echo ${Variable/Some/A} # This will substitute the first occurance of "Some" with "A" # Substring from a variable -LENGTH=7 -echo ${VARIABLE:0:LENGTH} +Length=7 +echo ${Variable:0:Length} # This will return only the first 7 characters of the value # Default value for variable -echo ${FOO:-"DefaultValueIfFOOIsMissingOrEmpty"} -# This works for null (FOO=) and empty string (FOO=""); zero (FOO=0) returns 0. +echo ${Foo:-"DefaultValueIfFooIsMissingOrEmpty"} +# This works for null (Foo=) and empty string (Foo=""); zero (Foo=0) returns 0. # Note that it only returns default value and doesn't change variable value. # Builtin variables: @@ -78,12 +78,12 @@ echo "Scripts arguments seperated in different variables: $1 $2..." # Reading a value from input: echo "What's your name?" -read NAME # Note that we didn't need to declare a new variable -echo Hello, $NAME! +read Name # Note that we didn't need to declare a new variable +echo Hello, $Name! # We have the usual if structure: # use 'man test' for more info about conditionals -if [ $NAME -ne $USER ] +if [ $Name -ne $USER ] then echo "Your name isn't your username" else @@ -95,14 +95,14 @@ echo "Always executed" || echo "Only executed if first command fails" echo "Always executed" && echo "Only executed if first command does NOT fail" # To use && and || with if statements, you need multiple pairs of square brackets: -if [ $NAME == "Steve" ] && [ $AGE -eq 15 ] +if [ $Name == "Steve" ] && [ $Age -eq 15 ] then - echo "This will run if $NAME is Steve AND $AGE is 15." + echo "This will run if $Name is Steve AND $Age is 15." fi -if [ $NAME == "Daniya" ] || [ $NAME == "Zach" ] +if [ $Name == "Daniya" ] || [ $Name == "Zach" ] then - echo "This will run if $NAME is Daniya OR Zach." + echo "This will run if $Name is Daniya OR Zach." fi # Expressions are denoted with the following format: @@ -171,7 +171,7 @@ echo "There are $(ls | wc -l) items here." echo "There are `ls | wc -l` items here." # Bash uses a case statement that works similarly to switch in Java and C++: -case "$VARIABLE" in +case "$Variable" in #List patterns for the conditions you want to meet 0) echo "There is a zero.";; 1) echo "There is a one.";; @@ -179,10 +179,10 @@ case "$VARIABLE" in esac # for loops iterate for as many arguments given: -# The contents of $VARIABLE is printed three times. -for VARIABLE in {1..3} +# The contents of $Variable is printed three times. +for Variable in {1..3} do - echo "$VARIABLE" + echo "$Variable" done # Or write it the "traditional for loop" way: @@ -193,16 +193,16 @@ done # They can also be used to act on files.. # This will run the command 'cat' on file1 and file2 -for VARIABLE in file1 file2 +for Variable in file1 file2 do - cat "$VARIABLE" + cat "$Variable" done # ..or the output from a command # This will cat the output from ls. -for OUTPUT in $(ls) +for Output in $(ls) do - cat "$OUTPUT" + cat "$Output" done # while loop: @@ -230,7 +230,7 @@ bar () } # Calling your function -foo "My name is" $NAME +foo "My name is" $Name # There are a lot of useful commands you should learn: # prints last 10 lines of file.txt -- cgit v1.2.3 From 483997e4340b84d96f6e14688484d5a6b96c616e Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: ven Date: Sat, 9 May 2015 23:05:58 +0200 Subject: Fix #1094 --- perl6.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/perl6.html.markdown b/perl6.html.markdown index b2d7d48c..c3626057 100644 --- a/perl6.html.markdown +++ b/perl6.html.markdown @@ -211,7 +211,7 @@ say $x; #=> 52 # - `if` # Before talking about `if`, we need to know which values are "Truthy" # (represent True), and which are "Falsey" (or "Falsy") -- represent False. -# Only these values are Falsey: (), 0, "0", "", Nil, A type (like `Str` or `Int`), +# Only these values are Falsey: (), 0, "", Nil, A type (like `Str` or `Int`), # and of course False itself. # Every other value is Truthy. if True { -- cgit v1.2.3 From e6900d270be10d1516a8ea32f208bba2d8611e4f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: robertmargelli Date: Sat, 9 May 2015 14:54:19 -0700 Subject: C++ italian is up to date --- it-it/c++-it.html.markdown | 125 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++- 1 file changed, 124 insertions(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown b/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown index 429c976f..39afced5 100644 --- a/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown +++ b/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown @@ -35,7 +35,6 @@ uno dei più utilizzati linguaggi di programmazione. // Proprio come nel C, l'inizio del programma è una funzione chiamata // main con un intero come tipo di ritorno, -// nonostante void main() sia anch'essa accettata dalla maggior parte dei compilatori(gcc, clang, ecc...) // Questo valore serve come stato d'uscita del programma. // Vedi http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valore_di_uscita per maggiori informazioni. int main(int argc, char** argv) @@ -435,6 +434,83 @@ int main () { return 0; } +///////////////// +// Templates +//////////////// + +// Generalmente i templates in C++ sono utilizzati per programmazione generica, anche se +// sono molto più potenti dei costrutti generici in altri linguaggi. Inoltre, +// supportano specializzazione esplicita e parziale, classi in stile funzionale, +// e sono anche complete per Turing. + +// Iniziamo con il tipo di programmazione generica con cui forse sei familiare. Per +// definire una classe o una funzione che prende un parametro di un dato tipo: +template +class Box { + // In questa classe, T può essere usato come qualsiasi tipo. + void inserisci(const T&) { ... } +}; + +// Durante la compilazione, il compilatore in effetti genera copie di ogni template +// con i parametri sostituiti, e così la definizione completa della classe deve essere +// presente ad ogni invocazione. Questo è il motivo per cui vedrai le classi template definite +// interamente in header files. + +// Per instanziare una classe template sullo stack: +Box intBox; + +// e puoi usarla come aspettato: +intBox.inserisci(123); + +//Puoi, ovviamente, innestare i templates: +Box > boxOfBox; +boxOfBox.inserisci(intBox); + +// Fino al C++11, devi porre uno spazio tra le due '>', altrimenti '>>' +// viene visto come l'operatore di shift destro. + +// Qualche volta vedrai +// template +// invece. La parole chiavi 'class' e 'typename' sono _generalmente_ +// intercambiabili in questo caso. Per una spiegazione completa, vedi +// http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typename +// (si, quella parola chiave ha una sua pagina di Wikipedia propria). + +// Similmente, una funzione template: +template +void abbaiaTreVolte(const T& input) +{ + input.abbaia(); + input.abbaia(); + input.abbaia(); +} + +// Nota che niente è specificato relativamente al tipo di parametri. Il compilatore +// genererà e poi verificherà il tipo di ogni invocazione del template, così che +// la funzione di cui sopra funzione con ogni tipo 'T' che ha const 'abbaia' come metodo! + +Cane fluffy; +fluffy.impostaNome("Fluffy") +abbaiaTreVolte(fluffy); // Stampa "Fluffy abbaia tre volte. + +// I parametri template non devono essere classi: +template +void stampaMessaggio() { + cout << "Impara il C++ in " << Y << " minuti!" << endl; +} + +// E poi esplicitamente specializzare i template per avere codice più efficiente. Ovviamente, +// la maggior parte delle casistiche reali non sono così triviali. +// Notare che avrai comunque bisogna di dichiarare la funzione (o classe) come un template +// anche se hai esplicitamente specificato tutti i parametri. +template<> +void stampaMessaggio<10>() { + cout << "Impara il C++ più velocemente in soli 10 minuti!" << endl; +} + +printMessage<20>(); // Stampa "impara il C++ in 20 minuti!" +printMessage<10>(); // Stampa "Impara il C++ più velocemente in soli 10 minuti!" + //////////////////////////// // Gestione delle eccezioni /////////////////////////// @@ -588,6 +664,53 @@ void faiQualcosaConUnFile(const std::string& nomefile) // vettori (i.e. array auto-aggiustati), mappe hash, e così via // sono tutti automaticamente distrutti con i loro contenuti quando escono dalla visibilità. // - I mutex usano lock_guard e unique_lock + +/////////////////////// +// Roba divertente +////////////////////// + +// Aspetti del C++ che potrebbero sbalordire i nuovi arrivati (e anche qualche veterano). +// Questa sezione è, fortunatamente, selvaggiamente incompleta; il C++ è uno dei linguaggi +// più facili con cui puoi spararti da solo nel piede. + +// Puoi sovrascrivere metodi privati! +class Foo { + virtual void bar(); +}; +class FooSub : public Foo { + virtual void bar(); // sovrascrive Foo::bar! +}; + + +// 0 == false == NULL (la maggior parte delle volte)! +bool* pt = new bool; +*pt = 0; // Setta il valore puntato da 'pt' come falso. +pt = 0; // Setta 'pt' al puntatore null. Entrambe le righe vengono compilate senza warnings. + +// nullptr dovrebbe risolvere alcune di quei problemi: +int* pt2 = new int; +*pt2 = nullptr; // Non compila +pt2 = nullptr; // Setta pt2 a null. + +// Ma in qualche modo il tipo 'bool' è una eccezione (questo è per rendere compilabile `if (ptr)`. +*pt = nullptr; // Questo compila, anche se '*pt' è un bool! + + +// '=' != '=' != '='! +// Chiama Foo::Foo(const Foo&) o qualche variante del costruttore di copia. +Foo f2; +Foo f1 = f2; + +// Chiama Foo::Foo(const Foo&) o qualche variante, ma solo copie di 'Foo' che fanno parte di +// 'fooSub'. Ogni altro membro di 'fooSub' viene scartato. Questo comportamento +// orribile viene chiamato "object slicing." +FooSub fooSub; +Foo f1 = fooSub; + +// Chiama Foo::operator=(Foo&) o una sua variante. +Foo f1; +f1 = f2; + ``` Letture consigliate: -- cgit v1.2.3 From 9311ca75afcc2338a03980b800f4f1eaa40bee8c Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: robertmargelli Date: Sat, 9 May 2015 19:18:04 -0700 Subject: fixed C++/it typos --- it-it/c++-it.html.markdown | 12 ++++++------ 1 file changed, 6 insertions(+), 6 deletions(-) diff --git a/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown b/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown index 39afced5..4f5ac8a2 100644 --- a/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown +++ b/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown @@ -42,8 +42,8 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) // Gli argomenti a linea di comando sono passati tramite argc e argv così come // avviene in C. // argc indica il numero di argomenti, - // e argv è un array in stile-C di stringhe (char*) - // che rappresenta gl iargomenti. + // e argv è un array di stringhe in stile-C (char*) + // che rappresenta gli argomenti. // Il primo argomento è il nome che è stato assegnato al programma. // argc e argv possono essere omessi se non hai bisogno di argomenti, // in questa maniera la funzione avrà int main() come firma. @@ -177,7 +177,7 @@ int main() // cin, cout, e cerr i quali rappresentano stdin, stdout, e stderr. // << è l'operatore di inserzione >> è l'operatore di estrazione. -#include // Include for I/O streams +#include // Include gli streams di I/O using namespace std; // Gli streams sono nel namespace std (libreria standard) @@ -377,7 +377,7 @@ void MioCane::print() const ////////////////////////////////////////////////// // In C++ puoi sovrascrivere il comportamento di operatori come +, -, *, /, ecc... -// Questo è possibile definendo una funzioneche viene chiamata +// Questo è possibile definendo una funzione che viene chiamata // ogniqualvolta l'operatore è usato. #include @@ -491,7 +491,7 @@ void abbaiaTreVolte(const T& input) Cane fluffy; fluffy.impostaNome("Fluffy") -abbaiaTreVolte(fluffy); // Stampa "Fluffy abbaia tre volte. +abbaiaTreVolte(fluffy); // Stampa "Fluffy abbaia" tre volte. // I parametri template non devono essere classi: template @@ -670,7 +670,7 @@ void faiQualcosaConUnFile(const std::string& nomefile) ////////////////////// // Aspetti del C++ che potrebbero sbalordire i nuovi arrivati (e anche qualche veterano). -// Questa sezione è, fortunatamente, selvaggiamente incompleta; il C++ è uno dei linguaggi +// Questa sezione è, sfortunatamente, selvaggiamente incompleta; il C++ è uno dei linguaggi // più facili con cui puoi spararti da solo nel piede. // Puoi sovrascrivere metodi privati! -- cgit v1.2.3 From e4c261567533921f35ce4e65ebfe6621a128992b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Levi Bostian Date: Mon, 11 May 2015 21:20:02 -0500 Subject: Fix issue with referring to "output.txt" but examples use "output.out" Fixes https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs/issues/1095 --- bash.html.markdown | 4 ++-- 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/bash.html.markdown b/bash.html.markdown index 937d2c96..ee783c14 100644 --- a/bash.html.markdown +++ b/bash.html.markdown @@ -144,7 +144,7 @@ python hello.py > /dev/null 2>&1 # if you want to append instead, use ">>": python hello.py >> "output.out" 2>> "error.err" -# Overwrite output.txt, append to error.err, and count lines: +# Overwrite output.out, append to error.err, and count lines: info bash 'Basic Shell Features' 'Redirections' > output.out 2>> error.err wc -l output.out error.err @@ -152,7 +152,7 @@ wc -l output.out error.err # see: man fd echo <(echo "#helloworld") -# Overwrite output.txt with "#helloworld": +# Overwrite output.out with "#helloworld": cat > output.out <(echo "#helloworld") echo "#helloworld" > output.out echo "#helloworld" | cat > output.out -- cgit v1.2.3 From cbf2f6d371faf02e6fbe9c106e81340483817df6 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: David Warring Date: Wed, 13 May 2015 12:20:54 +1200 Subject: Parrot is no longer supported. Also mention MoarVM before JVM. --- perl6.html.markdown | 3 +-- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/perl6.html.markdown b/perl6.html.markdown index c3626057..3bb87916 100644 --- a/perl6.html.markdown +++ b/perl6.html.markdown @@ -10,8 +10,7 @@ contributors: Perl 6 is a highly capable, feature-rich programming language made for the upcoming hundred years. -Perl 6 runs on [the Parrot VM](http://parrot.org/), the JVM -and [the MoarVM](http://moarvm.com). +Perl 6 runs on [the MoarVM](http://moarvm.com) and the JVM. Meta-note : the triple pound signs are here to denote headlines, double paragraphs, and single notes. -- cgit v1.2.3 From 6370487b72c9f03baeca91d41f3f7f308381bf30 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alois Date: Wed, 13 May 2015 11:00:57 +0200 Subject: Update clojure.html.markdown --- clojure.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/clojure.html.markdown b/clojure.html.markdown index 7917ab08..a125d18f 100644 --- a/clojure.html.markdown +++ b/clojure.html.markdown @@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ and often automatically. ; Clojure is written in "forms", which are just ; lists of things inside parentheses, separated by whitespace. ; -; The clojure reader assumes that the first thing is a +; The clojure reader assumes that the first thing is a ; function or macro to call, and the rest are arguments. ; The first call in a file should be ns, to set the namespace -- cgit v1.2.3 From 7458e15cd208982f12ae3a8d04261aaaf8332044 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: tleb Date: Thu, 14 May 2015 21:30:15 +0000 Subject: add ; to php/en --- php.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/php.html.markdown b/php.html.markdown index 039288a0..2d4565e0 100644 --- a/php.html.markdown +++ b/php.html.markdown @@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ $float = 1.2e3; $float = 7E-10; // Delete variable -unset($int1) +unset($int1); // Arithmetic $sum = 1 + 1; // 2 -- cgit v1.2.3 From 00a246e77b8cf8fd84812844de7bca78f220b2c5 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Antonio Ognio Date: Fri, 15 May 2015 17:12:45 -0500 Subject: Updating rust.html.markdown for Rust 1.0 --- rust.html.markdown | 23 +++++++++++++++-------- 1 file changed, 15 insertions(+), 8 deletions(-) diff --git a/rust.html.markdown b/rust.html.markdown index dcb54733..17f7dc90 100644 --- a/rust.html.markdown +++ b/rust.html.markdown @@ -6,14 +6,21 @@ filename: learnrust.rs --- Rust is an in-development programming language developed by Mozilla Research. -It is relatively unique among systems languages in that it can assert memory -safety *at compile time* without resorting to garbage collection. Rust’s first -release, 0.1, occurred in January 2012, and development moves so quickly that at -the moment the use of stable releases is discouraged, and instead one should use -nightly builds. On January 9 2015, Rust 1.0 Alpha was released, and the rate of -changes to the Rust compiler that break existing code has dropped significantly -since. However, a complete guarantee of backward compatibility will not exist -until the final 1.0 release. +Rust combines low-level control over performance with high-level convenience and +safety guarantees. + +It achieves these goals without requiring a garbage collector or runtime, making +it possible to use Rust libraries as a "drop-in replacement" for C. + +Rust’s first release, 0.1, occurred in January 2012, and for 3 years development +moved so quickly that until recently the use of stable releases was discouraged +and instead the general advise was to use nightly builds. + +On May 15th 2015, Rust 1.0 was released with a complete guarantee of backward +compatibility. Improvements to compile times and other aspects of the compiler are +currently available in the nightly builds. Rust has adopted a train-based release +model with regular releases every six weeks. Rust 1.1 beta was made available at +the same time of the release of Rust 1.0. Although Rust is a relatively low-level language, Rust has some functional concepts that are generally found in higher-level languages. This makes -- cgit v1.2.3 From a0ca5283d69be29bf7fa26ddd082ff927068883b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Chtiprog Date: Mon, 18 May 2015 00:03:52 -0300 Subject: Refactor r french translation --- fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown | 85 +++++++++++++++++++++++++----------------------- 1 file changed, 44 insertions(+), 41 deletions(-) diff --git a/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown index d6879c1f..3f225a0f 100644 --- a/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown @@ -9,9 +9,9 @@ filename: learnr-fr.r --- R est un langage de programmation statistique. Il dispose de nombreuses -librairies pour le téléchargement et le nettoyage d'ensembles de données, +bibliothèques pour le téléchargement et le nettoyage d'ensembles de données, l'exécution de procédures statistiques, et la réalisation de graphiques. -On peut également exécuter les commmandes `R` au sein d'un document LaTeX. +On peut également exécuter des commmandes `R` au sein d'un document LaTeX. ```r @@ -19,9 +19,11 @@ On peut également exécuter les commmandes `R` au sein d'un document LaTeX. # Les commentaires commencent avec des symboles numériques. # Il n'est pas possible de faire des commentaires multilignes, -# mais on peut superposer plusieurs commentaires comme ceci. +# mais on peut placer plusieurs commentaires les uns en dessous +# des autres comme ceci. -# Sur Windows ou Mac, taper COMMAND-ENTER pour exécuter une ligne +# Sur Mac, taper COMMAND-ENTER pour exécuter une ligne +# et sur Windows taper CTRL-ENTER @@ -43,7 +45,7 @@ head(rivers) # donne un aperçu des données length(rivers) # Combien de rivers ont été mesurées ? # 141 -summary(rivers) # Quels sont les principales données statistiques ? +summary(rivers) # Quelles sont les principales données statistiques ? # Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. # 135.0 310.0 425.0 591.2 680.0 3710.0 @@ -99,7 +101,7 @@ stem(log(rivers)) # Notez que les données ne sont ni normales # 80 | # 82 | 2 -# Fais un histogramme : +# Fait un histogramme : hist(rivers, col="#333333", border="white", breaks=25) # amusez-vous avec ces paramètres hist(log(rivers), col="#333333", border="white", breaks=25) # vous ferez plus de tracés plus tard @@ -110,7 +112,7 @@ plot(discoveries, col="#333333", lwd=3, xlab="Year", plot(discoveries, col="#333333", lwd=3, type = "h", xlab="Year", main="Number of important discoveries per year") -# Plutôt que de laisser l'ordre par défaut (par années) +# Plutôt que de laisser l'ordre par défaut (par année) # Nous pourrions aussi trier pour voir ce qu'il y a de typique sort(discoveries) # [1] 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 @@ -142,7 +144,7 @@ summary(discoveries) # Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. # 0.0 2.0 3.0 3.1 4.0 12.0 -# Lance un dès plusieurs fois +# Lance un dé plusieurs fois round(runif(7, min=.5, max=6.5)) # 1 4 6 1 4 6 4 # Vos numéros diffèreront des miens à moins que nous mettions @@ -164,11 +166,11 @@ rnorm(9) # les entiers, les numériques, les caractères, les logiques, et les facteurs. # LES ENTIERS -# Les entiers de mémoire longue sont écrit avec L +# Les entiers de type long sont écrits avec L 5L # 5 class(5L) # "integer" # (Essayez ?class pour plus d'informations sur la fonction class().) -# Avec R, chaque valeur seule, comme 5L, est considéré comme +# Avec R, chaque valeur seule, comme 5L, est considérée comme # un vecteur de longueur 1 length(5L) # 1 # On peut avoir un vecteur d'entiers avec une longueur > 1 : @@ -191,7 +193,7 @@ c(3,3,3,2,2,1) # 3 3 3 2 2 1 class(Inf) # "numeric" class(-Inf) # "numeric" # Vous pouvez utiliser "Inf", par exemple, dans integrate(dnorm, 3, Inf); -# Ça permet d'éviter des tableaux Z-scores. +# Ça permet d'éviter de réaliser une table de la loi normale. # ARITHMÉTIQUES DE BASE # Vous pouvez faire de l'arithmétique avec des nombres @@ -233,7 +235,7 @@ letters # [20] "t" "u" "v" "w" "x" "y" "z" month.abb # "Jan" "Feb" "Mar" "Apr" "May" "Jun" "Jul" "Aug" "Sep" "Oct" "Nov" "Dec" -# LES TYPES LOGIQUES +# LES TYPES BOOLÉENS # En R, un "logical" est un booléen class(TRUE) # "logical" class(FALSE) # "logical" @@ -256,15 +258,16 @@ c('Z', 'o', 'r', 'r', 'o') == "Zorro" # FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE c('Z', 'o', 'r', 'r', 'o') == "Z" # TRUE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE # LES FACTEURS -# La classe facteur sert pour les données catégorielles -# les facteurs peuvent être ordonnés (comme les niveaux de -# catégorie d'enfants) -# ou non ordonnés (comme le sexe) +# Les facteurs sont généralement utilisés pour y stocker des +# variables qualitatives (catégorielles). +# Les facteurs peuvent être ordonnés (comme le niveau scolaire +# des enfants) ou non ordonnés (comme le sexe) factor(c("female", "female", "male", NA, "female")) # female female male female # Les niveaux : female male -# Les "levels" sont les valeurs que les données catégorielles -# peuvent prendre +# Les facteurs possèdent un attribut appelé niveau ("level"). +# Les niveaux sont des vecteurs contenant toutes les valeurs +# que peuvent prendre les données catégorielles. # Notez que les données manquantes n'entrent pas dans le niveau levels(factor(c("male", "male", "female", NA, "female"))) # "female" "male" # Si le vecteur de facteurs a une longueur 1, ses niveaux seront @@ -288,8 +291,8 @@ parakeet # => # NULL -# LES CONTRAINTES DE TYPES -# Les contraintes de types servent à forcer une valeur à prendre +# LES CONVERSIONS DE TYPES +# Les conversions de types servent à forcer une valeur à prendre # un type différent as.character(c(6, 8)) # "6" "8" as.logical(c(1,0,1,1)) # TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE @@ -304,7 +307,7 @@ as.numeric("Bilbo") # NAs est introduit par coercition # Notez également : ce n'étaient que des types de données basiques -# Il y a beaucoup d'autres types de données, comme pour les dates, +# Il y a beaucoup d'autres types de données, comme les dates, # les séries temporelles, etc ... @@ -321,7 +324,7 @@ as.numeric("Bilbo") # LES VARIABLES # Beaucoup de façons d'assigner des choses : -x = 5 # c'est possible +x = 5 # c'est correct y <- "1" # c'est préféré TRUE -> z # ça marche mais c'est bizarre @@ -337,11 +340,11 @@ while (a > 4) { a <- a - 1 } # Gardez à l'esprit que les boucles for et while s'exécutent lentement -# en R -# Des opérations sur des vecteurs entiers (ex une ligne entière, +# en R. +# Des opérations sur la totalité d'un vecteur (ex une ligne entière, # une colonne entière), # ou les fonctions de type apply() (nous en parlerons plus tard), -# sont préférées +# sont préférées. # IF/ELSE # Encore une fois assez standard @@ -356,7 +359,7 @@ if (4 > 3) { # LES FONCTIONS # se définissent comme ceci : jiggle <- function(x) { - x = x + rnorm(1, sd=.1) #add in a bit of (controlled) noise + x = x + rnorm(1, sd=.1) # ajoute un peu de bruit (contrôlé) return(x) } # Appelées comme n'importe quelles autres fonction R : @@ -366,7 +369,7 @@ jiggle(5) # 5±ε. After set.seed(2716057), jiggle(5)==5.005043 ########################################################################## # Les structures de données : les vecteurs, les matrices, -# les data frame et les tableaux +# les data frames et les tableaux ########################################################################## # À UNE DIMENSION @@ -387,7 +390,7 @@ which(vec %% 2 == 0) # 1 3 # Récupèrer seulement les premières ou dernières entrées du vecteur, head(vec, 1) # 8 tail(vec, 2) # 10 11 -# ou trouver si un certaine valeur est dans le vecteur +# ou vérifier si un certaine valeur est dans le vecteur any(vec == 10) # TRUE # Si un index "dépasse" vous obtiendrez NA : vec[6] # NA @@ -398,7 +401,7 @@ length(vec) # 4 vec * 4 # 16 20 24 28 vec[2:3] * 5 # 25 30 any(vec[2:3] == 8) # FALSE -# Et R a beaucoup de fonctions préconstruites pour résumer les vecteurs +# Et R a beaucoup de méthodes statistiques pré-construites pour les vecteurs : mean(vec) # 9.5 var(vec) # 1.666667 sd(vec) # 1.290994 @@ -425,7 +428,7 @@ mat # Différemment du vecteur, la classe d'une matrice est "matrix", # peut importe ce qu'elle contient class(mat) # => "matrix" -# Demander la première ligne +# Récupérer la première ligne mat[1,] # 1 4 # Réaliser une opération sur la première colonne 3 * mat[,1] # 3 6 9 @@ -502,13 +505,13 @@ dim(students) # 6 3 # stringsAsFactors = FALSE quand vous créer la data.frame ?data.frame -# Il y a plusieurs façons de subdiviser les trames de données +# Il y a plusieurs façons de subdiviser les data frames, # toutes subtilement différentes students$year # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 students[,2] # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 students[,"year"] # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 -# Une version augmentée de la structure data.frame est data.table +# Une version améliorée de la structure data.frame est data.table. # Si vous travaillez avec des données volumineuses ou des panels, ou avez # besoin de fusionner quelques ensembles de données, data.table peut être # un bon choix. Ici un tour éclair : @@ -601,15 +604,15 @@ students[students$house != "G",] # MULTI-DIMENSIONNELLE (TOUS ÉLÉMENTS D'UN TYPE) -# Les arrays créent des tableaux de n dimensions -# Tous les éléments doivent être du même type +# Les arrays créent des tableaux de n dimensions. +# Tous les éléments doivent être du même type. # Vous pouvez faire un tableau à 2 dimensions (une sorte de matrice) array(c(c(1,2,4,5),c(8,9,3,6)), dim=c(2,4)) # => # [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] # [1,] 1 4 8 3 # [2,] 2 5 9 6 -# Vous pouvez utiliser array pour faire des matrices à 3 dimensions aussi +# Vous pouvez aussi utiliser array pour faire des matrices à 3 dimensions : array(c(c(c(2,300,4),c(8,9,0)),c(c(5,60,0),c(66,7,847))), dim=c(3,2,2)) # => # , , 1 @@ -629,7 +632,7 @@ array(c(c(c(2,300,4),c(8,9,0)),c(c(5,60,0),c(66,7,847))), dim=c(3,2,2)) # LES LISTES (MULTI-DIMENSIONNELLES, ÉVENTUELLEMMENT DÉCHIRÉES, # DE DIFFÉRENTS TYPES) -# Enfin R a des listes (de vecteurs) +# Enfin, R a des listes (de vecteurs) list1 <- list(time = 1:40) list1$price = c(rnorm(40,.5*list1$time,4)) # random list1 @@ -644,10 +647,10 @@ list1[[1]] # encore une façon différente list1$price[4] # Les listes ne sont pas les structures de données les plus efficaces -# à utiliser avec R; +# à utiliser avec R ; # À moins d'avoir une très bonne raison, vous devriez utiliser data.frames # Les listes sont souvent retournées par des fonctions qui effectuent -# des régressions linéaires +# des régressions linéaires. ########################################## # La famille de fonction apply() @@ -674,7 +677,7 @@ apply(mat, MAR = 2, jiggle) # Ne soyez pas trop intimidé ; tout le monde reconnaît que c'est un peu déroutant -# Le paque plyr vise à remplacer (et améliorer !) la famille *apply(). +# Le paquet plyr vise à remplacer (et améliorer !) la famille *apply(). install.packages("plyr") require(plyr) ?plyr @@ -704,7 +707,7 @@ write.csv(pets, "pets2.csv") # to make a new .csv file # Les tracés ################ -# LES FONCTIONS DE TRACÉS PRÉCONSTRUITES +# LES FONCTIONS DE TRACÉ PRÉCONSTRUITES # Les diagrammes de dispersion ! plot(list1$time, list1$price, main = "fake data") # Les régressions ! @@ -737,7 +740,7 @@ pp + geom_point() ``` -## Comment j'obtiens R ? +## Comment obtenir R ? * Obtiens R et R GUI depuis [http://www.r-project.org/](http://www.r-project.org/) * [RStudio](http://www.rstudio.com/ide/) est un autre GUI -- cgit v1.2.3 From 6df96946b43999ff8754807446d4bf4f73144480 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Baurzhan Muftakhidinov Date: Mon, 18 May 2015 14:17:45 +0500 Subject: Fix links to nim-lang website. --- nim.html.markdown | 20 ++++++++++---------- 1 file changed, 10 insertions(+), 10 deletions(-) diff --git a/nim.html.markdown b/nim.html.markdown index aa15e591..2955c7bc 100644 --- a/nim.html.markdown +++ b/nim.html.markdown @@ -155,7 +155,7 @@ var anotherArray = ["Default index", "starts at", "0"] # More data structures are available, including tables, sets, lists, queues, # and crit bit trees. -# http://nimrod-lang.org/lib.html#collections-and-algorithms +# http://http://nim-lang.org/docs/lib.html#collections-and-algorithms # # IO and Control Flow @@ -174,7 +174,7 @@ else: # `while`, `if`, `continue`, `break` -import strutils as str # http://nimrod-lang.org/strutils.html +import strutils as str # http://nim-lang.org/docs/strutils.html echo "I'm thinking of a number between 41 and 43. Guess which!" let number: int = 42 var @@ -263,11 +263,11 @@ performance, and compile-time features. ## Further Reading -* [Home Page](http://nimrod-lang.org) -* [Download](http://nimrod-lang.org/download.html) -* [Community](http://nimrod-lang.org/community.html) -* [FAQ](http://nimrod-lang.org/question.html) -* [Documentation](http://nimrod-lang.org/documentation.html) -* [Manual](http://nimrod-lang.org/manual.html) -* [Standard Library](http://nimrod-lang.org/lib.html) -* [Rosetta Code](http://rosettacode.org/wiki/Category:Nimrod) +* [Home Page](http://nim-lang.org) +* [Download](http://nim-lang.org/download.html) +* [Community](http://nim-lang.org/community.html) +* [FAQ](http://nim-lang.org/question.html) +* [Documentation](http://nim-lang.org/documentation.html) +* [Manual](http://nim-lang.org/docs/manual.html) +* [Standard Library](http://nim-lang.org/docs/lib.html) +* [Rosetta Code](http://rosettacode.org/wiki/Category:Nim) -- cgit v1.2.3 From fb903329c65a70fce2419da98842f038cd41ba82 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Baurzhan Muftakhidinov Date: Mon, 18 May 2015 14:19:46 +0500 Subject: Fix copy-paste typo. --- nim.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/nim.html.markdown b/nim.html.markdown index 2955c7bc..c9548a1c 100644 --- a/nim.html.markdown +++ b/nim.html.markdown @@ -155,7 +155,7 @@ var anotherArray = ["Default index", "starts at", "0"] # More data structures are available, including tables, sets, lists, queues, # and crit bit trees. -# http://http://nim-lang.org/docs/lib.html#collections-and-algorithms +# http://nim-lang.org/docs/lib.html#collections-and-algorithms # # IO and Control Flow -- cgit v1.2.3 From c33063fe7a2ac967d0992ae9000b048ee8fefd06 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Julien Cretel Date: Mon, 18 May 2015 11:55:43 +0100 Subject: [erlang/en] Various (mostly cosmetic) improvements * Add missing square brackets in example of pattern matching on lists * Keep lines under 80 characters * Hiphenate complex modifiers (e.g. "pattern-matching operation") * Consistently proper case the language name * Improve punctuation in comments * Properly format Markdown inline code * Tense changes (where appropriate) --- erlang.html.markdown | 85 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++------------------------- 1 file changed, 45 insertions(+), 40 deletions(-) diff --git a/erlang.html.markdown b/erlang.html.markdown index a7390c3e..322e437d 100644 --- a/erlang.html.markdown +++ b/erlang.html.markdown @@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ filename: learnerlang.erl % Periods (`.`) (followed by whitespace) separate entire functions and % expressions in the shell. % Semicolons (`;`) separate clauses. We find clauses in several contexts: -% function definitions and in `case`, `if`, `try..catch` and `receive` +% function definitions and in `case`, `if`, `try..catch`, and `receive` % expressions. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% @@ -27,20 +27,20 @@ filename: learnerlang.erl Num = 42. % All variable names must start with an uppercase letter. -% Erlang has single assignment variables, if you try to assign a different value -% to the variable `Num`, you’ll get an error. +% Erlang has single-assignment variables; if you try to assign a different +% value to the variable `Num`, you’ll get an error. Num = 43. % ** exception error: no match of right hand side value 43 % In most languages, `=` denotes an assignment statement. In Erlang, however, -% `=` denotes a pattern matching operation. `Lhs = Rhs` really means this: -% evaluate the right side (Rhs), and then match the result against the pattern -% on the left side (Lhs). +% `=` denotes a pattern-matching operation. `Lhs = Rhs` really means this: +% evaluate the right side (`Rhs`), and then match the result against the +% pattern on the left side (`Lhs`). Num = 7 * 6. -% Floating point number. +% Floating-point number. Pi = 3.14159. -% Atoms, are used to represent different non-numerical constant values. Atoms +% Atoms are used to represent different non-numerical constant values. Atoms % start with lowercase letters, followed by a sequence of alphanumeric % characters or the underscore (`_`) or at (`@`) sign. Hello = hello. @@ -53,34 +53,34 @@ AtomWithSpace = 'some atom with space'. % Tuples are similar to structs in C. Point = {point, 10, 45}. -% If we want to extract some values from a tuple, we use the pattern matching +% If we want to extract some values from a tuple, we use the pattern-matching % operator `=`. {point, X, Y} = Point. % X = 10, Y = 45 % We can use `_` as a placeholder for variables that we’re not interested in. % The symbol `_` is called an anonymous variable. Unlike regular variables, -% several occurrences of _ in the same pattern don’t have to bind to the same -% value. +% several occurrences of `_` in the same pattern don’t have to bind to the +% same value. Person = {person, {name, {first, joe}, {last, armstrong}}, {footsize, 42}}. {_, {_, {_, Who}, _}, _} = Person. % Who = joe % We create a list by enclosing the list elements in square brackets and % separating them with commas. % The individual elements of a list can be of any type. -% The first element of a list is the head of the list. If you imagine removing the -% head from the list, what’s left is called the tail of the list. +% The first element of a list is the head of the list. If you imagine removing +% the head from the list, what’s left is called the tail of the list. ThingsToBuy = [{apples, 10}, {pears, 6}, {milk, 3}]. % If `T` is a list, then `[H|T]` is also a list, with head `H` and tail `T`. % The vertical bar (`|`) separates the head of a list from its tail. % `[]` is the empty list. -% We can extract elements from a list with a pattern matching operation. If we +% We can extract elements from a list with a pattern-matching operation. If we % have a nonempty list `L`, then the expression `[X|Y] = L`, where `X` and `Y` % are unbound variables, will extract the head of the list into `X` and the tail % of the list into `Y`. [FirstThing|OtherThingsToBuy] = ThingsToBuy. % FirstThing = {apples, 10} -% OtherThingsToBuy = {pears, 6}, {milk, 3} +% OtherThingsToBuy = [{pears, 6}, {milk, 3}] % There are no strings in Erlang. Strings are really just lists of integers. % Strings are enclosed in double quotation marks (`"`). @@ -117,17 +117,19 @@ c(geometry). % {ok,geometry} geometry:area({rectangle, 10, 5}). % 50 geometry:area({circle, 1.4}). % 6.15752 -% In Erlang, two functions with the same name and different arity (number of arguments) -% in the same module represent entirely different functions. +% In Erlang, two functions with the same name and different arity (number of +% arguments) in the same module represent entirely different functions. -module(lib_misc). --export([sum/1]). % export function `sum` of arity 1 accepting one argument: list of integers. +-export([sum/1]). % export function `sum` of arity 1 + % accepting one argument: list of integers. sum(L) -> sum(L, 0). sum([], N) -> N; sum([H|T], N) -> sum(T, H+N). -% Funs are "anonymous" functions. They are called this way because they have no -% name. However they can be assigned to variables. -Double = fun(X) -> 2*X end. % `Double` points to an anonymous function with handle: #Fun +% Funs are "anonymous" functions. They are called this way because they have +% no name. However, they can be assigned to variables. +Double = fun(X) -> 2 * X end. % `Double` points to an anonymous function + % with handle: #Fun Double(2). % 4 % Functions accept funs as their arguments and can return funs. @@ -140,8 +142,9 @@ Triple(5). % 15 % The notation `[F(X) || X <- L]` means "the list of `F(X)` where `X` is taken % from the list `L`." L = [1,2,3,4,5]. -[2*X || X <- L]. % [2,4,6,8,10] -% A list comprehension can have generators and filters which select subset of the generated values. +[2 * X || X <- L]. % [2,4,6,8,10] +% A list comprehension can have generators and filters, which select subset of +% the generated values. EvenNumbers = [N || N <- [1, 2, 3, 4], N rem 2 == 0]. % [2, 4] % Guards are constructs that we can use to increase the power of pattern @@ -155,15 +158,15 @@ max(X, Y) -> Y. % A guard is a series of guard expressions, separated by commas (`,`). % The guard `GuardExpr1, GuardExpr2, ..., GuardExprN` is true if all the guard -% expressions `GuardExpr1, GuardExpr2, ...` evaluate to true. +% expressions `GuardExpr1`, `GuardExpr2`, ..., `GuardExprN` evaluate to `true`. is_cat(A) when is_atom(A), A =:= cat -> true; is_cat(A) -> false. is_dog(A) when is_atom(A), A =:= dog -> true; is_dog(A) -> false. -% A `guard sequence` is either a single guard or a series of guards, separated -%by semicolons (`;`). The guard sequence `G1; G2; ...; Gn` is true if at least -% one of the guards `G1, G2, ...` evaluates to true. +% A guard sequence is either a single guard or a series of guards, separated +% by semicolons (`;`). The guard sequence `G1; G2; ...; Gn` is true if at +% least one of the guards `G1`, `G2`, ..., `Gn` evaluates to `true`. is_pet(A) when is_dog(A); is_cat(A) -> true; is_pet(A) -> false. @@ -188,7 +191,7 @@ X = #todo{}. X1 = #todo{status = urgent, text = "Fix errata in book"}. % #todo{status = urgent, who = joe, text = "Fix errata in book"} X2 = X1#todo{status = done}. -% #todo{status = done,who = joe,text = "Fix errata in book"} +% #todo{status = done, who = joe, text = "Fix errata in book"} % `case` expressions. % `filter` returns a list of all elements `X` in a list `L` for which `P(X)` is @@ -209,8 +212,8 @@ max(X, Y) -> true -> nil end. -% Warning: at least one of the guards in the `if` expression must evaluate to true; -% otherwise, an exception will be raised. +% Warning: at least one of the guards in the `if` expression must evaluate to +% `true`; otherwise, an exception will be raised. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% @@ -218,7 +221,7 @@ max(X, Y) -> %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% % Exceptions are raised by the system when internal errors are encountered or -% explicitly in code by calling `throw(Exception)`, `exit(Exception)` or +% explicitly in code by calling `throw(Exception)`, `exit(Exception)`, or % `erlang:error(Exception)`. generate_exception(1) -> a; generate_exception(2) -> throw(a); @@ -227,7 +230,7 @@ generate_exception(4) -> {'EXIT', a}; generate_exception(5) -> erlang:error(a). % Erlang has two methods of catching an exception. One is to enclose the call to -% the function, which raised the exception within a `try...catch` expression. +% the function that raises the exception within a `try...catch` expression. catcher(N) -> try generate_exception(N) of Val -> {N, normal, Val} @@ -241,23 +244,24 @@ catcher(N) -> % exception, it is converted into a tuple that describes the error. catcher(N) -> catch generate_exception(N). -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% + +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% %% 4. Concurrency %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% % Erlang relies on the actor model for concurrency. All we need to write -% concurrent programs in erlang are three primitives: spawning processes, +% concurrent programs in Erlang are three primitives: spawning processes, % sending messages and receiving messages. -% To start a new process we use the `spawn` function, which takes a function +% To start a new process, we use the `spawn` function, which takes a function % as argument. F = fun() -> 2 + 2 end. % #Fun spawn(F). % <0.44.0> -% `spawn` returns a pid (process identifier), you can use this pid to send -% messages to the process. To do message passing we use the `!` operator. -% For all of this to be useful we need to be able to receive messages. This is +% `spawn` returns a pid (process identifier); you can use this pid to send +% messages to the process. To do message passing, we use the `!` operator. +% For all of this to be useful, we need to be able to receive messages. This is % achieved with the `receive` mechanism: -module(calculateGeometry). @@ -272,12 +276,13 @@ calculateArea() -> io:format("We can only calculate area of rectangles or circles.") end. -% Compile the module and create a process that evaluates `calculateArea` in the shell +% Compile the module and create a process that evaluates `calculateArea` in the +% shell. c(calculateGeometry). CalculateArea = spawn(calculateGeometry, calculateArea, []). CalculateArea ! {circle, 2}. % 12.56000000000000049738 -% The shell is also a process, you can use `self` to get the current pid +% The shell is also a process; you can use `self` to get the current pid. self(). % <0.41.0> ``` -- cgit v1.2.3 From 18a45cf7a37eb971383e3fcf65a565292e82224b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alwayswithme Date: Wed, 20 May 2015 00:14:10 +0800 Subject: update bash-cn --- zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown | 147 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++--- 1 file changed, 139 insertions(+), 8 deletions(-) diff --git a/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown index 6afa659a..13f85bb7 100644 --- a/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown @@ -5,7 +5,14 @@ contributors: - ["Max Yankov", "https://github.com/golergka"] - ["Darren Lin", "https://github.com/CogBear"] - ["Alexandre Medeiros", "http://alemedeiros.sdf.org"] + - ["Denis Arh", "https://github.com/darh"] + - ["akirahirose", "https://twitter.com/akirahirose"] + - ["Anton Strömkvist", "http://lutic.org/"] + - ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"] + - ["Gregrory Kielian", "https://github.com/gskielian"] + - ["Etan Reisner", "https://github.com/deryni"] translators: + - ["Jinchang Ye", "https://github.com/Alwayswithme"] - ["Chunyang Xu", "https://github.com/XuChunyang"] filename: LearnBash-cn.sh lang: zh-cn @@ -35,6 +42,10 @@ VARIABLE="Some string" VARIABLE = "Some string" # Bash 会把 VARIABLE 当做一个指令，由于找不到该指令，因此这里会报错。 +# 也不可以这样： +Variable= 'Some string' +# Bash 会认为 'Some string' 是一条指令，由于找不到该指令，这里再次报错。 +# （这个例子中 'Variable=' 这部分的赋值仅对 'Some string' 指令起作用。） # 使用变量： echo $VARIABLE @@ -49,6 +60,16 @@ echo '$VARIABLE' echo ${VARIABLE/Some/A} # 会把 VARIABLE 中首次出现的 "some" 替换成 “A”。 +# 变量的截取 +Length=7 +echo ${Variable:0:Length} +# 这样会仅返回变量值的前7个字符 + +# 变量的默认值 +echo ${Foo:-"DefaultValueIfFooIsMissingOrEmpty"} +# 对 null (Foo=) 和空串 (Foo="") 起作用； 零（Foo=0）时返回0 +# 注意这仅返回默认值而不是改变变量的值 + # 内置变量： # 下面的内置变量很有用 echo "Last program return value: $?" @@ -75,6 +96,17 @@ fi echo "Always executed" || echo "Only executed if first command fail" echo "Always executed" && echo "Only executed if first command does NOT fail" +# 在 if 语句中使用 && 和 || 需要多对方括号 +if [ $Name == "Steve" ] && [ $Age -eq 15 ] +then + echo "This will run if $Name is Steve AND $Age is 15." +fi + +if [ $Name == "Daniya" ] || [ $Name == "Zach" ] +then + echo "This will run if $Name is Daniya OR Zach." +fi + # 表达式的格式如下: echo $(( 10 + 5 )) @@ -88,16 +120,52 @@ ls -l # 列出文件和目录的详细信息 # 用下面的指令列出当前目录下所有的 txt 文件： ls -l | grep "\.txt" +# 重定向输入和输出（标准输入，标准输出，标准错误）。 +# 以 ^EOF$ 作为结束标记从标准输入读取数据并覆盖 hello.py : +cat > hello.py << EOF +#!/usr/bin/env python +from __future__ import print_function +import sys +print("#stdout", file=sys.stdout) +print("#stderr", file=sys.stderr) +for line in sys.stdin: + print(line, file=sys.stdout) +EOF + # 重定向可以到输出，输入和错误输出。 -python2 hello.py < "input.in" -python2 hello.py > "output.out" -python2 hello.py 2> "error.err" +python hello.py < "input.in" +python hello.py > "output.out" +python hello.py 2> "error.err" +python hello.py > "output-and-error.log" 2>&1 +python hello.py > /dev/null 2>&1 # > 会覆盖已存在的文件， >> 会以累加的方式输出文件中。 +python hello.py >> "output.out" 2>> "error.err" + +# 覆盖 output.out , 追加 error.err 并统计行数 +info bash 'Basic Shell Features' 'Redirections' > output.out 2>> error.err +wc -l output.out error.err + +# 运行指令并打印文件描述符 （比如 /dev/fd/123） +# 具体可查看： man fd +echo <(echo "#helloworld") + +# 以 "#helloworld" 覆盖 output.out: +cat > output.out <(echo "#helloworld") +echo "#helloworld" > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | cat > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | tee output.out >/dev/null + +# 清理临时文件并显示详情（增加 '-i' 选项启用交互模式） +rm -v output.out error.err output-and-error.log # 一个指令可用 $( ) 嵌套在另一个指令内部： # 以下的指令会打印当前目录下的目录和文件总数 echo "There are $(ls | wc -l) items here." +# 反引号 `` 起相同作用，但不允许嵌套 +# 优先使用 $( ). +echo "There are `ls | wc -l` items here." + # Bash 的 case 语句与 Java 和 C++ 中的 switch 语句类似: case "$VARIABLE" in # 列出需要匹配的字符串 @@ -114,6 +182,33 @@ do echo "$VARIABLE" done +# 或传统的 “for循环” ： +for ((a=1; a <= 3; a++)) +do + echo $a +done + +# 也可以用于文件 +# 用 cat 输出 file1 和 file2 内容 +for Variable in file1 file2 +do + cat "$Variable" +done + +# 或作用于其他命令的输出 +# 对 ls 输出的文件执行 cat 指令。 +for Output in $(ls) +do + cat "$Output" +done + +# while 循环： +while [ true ] +do + echo "loop body here..." + break +done + # 你也可以使用函数 # 定义函数： function foo () @@ -135,14 +230,50 @@ bar () foo "My name is" $NAME # 有很多有用的指令需要学习: -tail -n 10 file.txt # 打印 file.txt 的最后 10 行 -head -n 10 file.txt +tail -n 10 file.txt # 打印 file.txt 的前 10 行 -sort file.txt +head -n 10 file.txt # 将 file.txt 按行排序 -uniq -d file.txt +sort file.txt # 报告或忽略重复的行，用选项 -d 打印重复的行 -cut -d ',' -f 1 file.txt +uniq -d file.txt # 打印每行中 ',' 之前内容 +cut -d ',' -f 1 file.txt +# 将 file.txt 文件所有 'okay' 替换为 'great', （兼容正则表达式） +sed -i 's/okay/great/g' file.txt +# 将 file.txt 中匹配正则的行打印到标准输出 +# 这里打印以 "foo" 开头, "bar" 结尾的行 +grep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt +# 使用选项 "-c" 统计行数 +grep -c "^foo.*bar$" file.txt +# 如果只是要按字面形式搜索字符串而不是按正则表达式，使用 fgrep (或 grep -F) +fgrep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt + + +# 以 bash 内建的 'help' 指令阅读 Bash 自带文档： +help +help help +help for +help return +help source +help . + +# 用 mam 指令阅读相关的 Bash 手册 +apropos bash +man 1 bash +man bash + +# 用 info 指令查阅命令的 info 文档 （info 中输入 ? 显示帮助信息） +apropos info | grep '^info.*(' +man info +info info +info 5 info + +# 阅读 Bash 的 info 文档： +info bash +info bash 'Bash Features' +info bash 6 +info --apropos bash + ``` -- cgit v1.2.3 From f9032e0eca3c780870127c410edf5ec85db01560 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: sm4rk0 Date: Tue, 19 May 2015 18:17:35 +0200 Subject: Update haxe.html.markdown Correct the condition variable for "do statement always runs at least once" section --- haxe.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/haxe.html.markdown b/haxe.html.markdown index c807d2d7..9b84a435 100644 --- a/haxe.html.markdown +++ b/haxe.html.markdown @@ -323,7 +323,7 @@ class LearnHaxe3{ var l = 0; do{ trace("do statement always runs at least once"); - } while (i > 0); + } while (l > 0); // for loop /* -- cgit v1.2.3 From 8909457ae46dc8fb151ef146acb3f6b8402f3407 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Liam Edwards-Playne Date: Wed, 20 May 2015 11:23:55 +1000 Subject: fix spelling errors --- bash.html.markdown | 4 ++-- 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/bash.html.markdown b/bash.html.markdown index ee783c14..c2312d7d 100644 --- a/bash.html.markdown +++ b/bash.html.markdown @@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ echo '$Variable' # String substitution in variables echo ${Variable/Some/A} -# This will substitute the first occurance of "Some" with "A" +# This will substitute the first occurence of "Some" with "A" # Substring from a variable Length=7 @@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ echo "Last program return value: $?" echo "Script's PID: $$" echo "Number of arguments: $#" echo "Scripts arguments: $@" -echo "Scripts arguments seperated in different variables: $1 $2..." +echo "Scripts arguments separated in different variables: $1 $2..." # Reading a value from input: echo "What's your name?" -- cgit v1.2.3 From 982b98468467c7a85f790fdcea2ff8d425b173de Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: =?UTF-8?q?Marko=20Stankovi=C4=87?= Date: Wed, 20 May 2015 14:06:05 +0200 Subject: [haxe/en] Few cosmetic fixes * correct the array name in a for loop iterating on an index * add an assignment for "case _" in first switch example * fix case of variable name in trace for control statement returning as an expression * move some inline comments to a separate line above the statement to prevent text overflow --- haxe.html.markdown | 21 ++++++++++++--------- 1 file changed, 12 insertions(+), 9 deletions(-) diff --git a/haxe.html.markdown b/haxe.html.markdown index 9b84a435..bbe51c79 100644 --- a/haxe.html.markdown +++ b/haxe.html.markdown @@ -340,7 +340,7 @@ class LearnHaxe3{ // (more on ranges later as well) var n = ['foo', 'bar', 'baz']; for (val in 0...n.length){ - trace(val + " is the value for val (an index for m)"); + trace(val + " is the value for val (an index for n)"); } @@ -375,7 +375,7 @@ class LearnHaxe3{ case "rex" : favorite_thing = "shoe"; case "spot" : favorite_thing = "tennis ball"; default : favorite_thing = "some unknown treat"; - // case _ : "some unknown treat"; // same as default + // case _ : favorite_thing = "some unknown treat"; // same as default } // The "_" case above is a "wildcard" value // that will match anything. @@ -397,7 +397,7 @@ class LearnHaxe3{ // if statements var k = if (true) 10 else 20; - trace("K equals ", k); // outputs 10 + trace("k equals ", k); // outputs 10 var other_favorite_thing = switch(my_dog_name) { case "fido" : "teddy"; @@ -495,8 +495,10 @@ class LearnHaxe3{ // foo_instance.public_read = 4; // this will throw an error if uncommented: // trace(foo_instance.public_write); // as will this. - trace(foo_instance + " is the value for foo_instance"); // calls the toString method - trace(foo_instance.toString() + " is the value for foo_instance.toString()"); // same thing + // calls the toString method + trace(foo_instance + " is the value for foo_instance"); + // same thing + trace(foo_instance.toString() + " is the value for foo_instance.toString()"); /* @@ -524,8 +526,8 @@ class LearnHaxe3{ */ class FooClass extends BarClass implements BarInterface{ public var public_any:Int; // public variables are accessible anywhere - public var public_read (default,null): Int; // use this style to only enable public read - public var public_write (null, default): Int; // or public write + public var public_read (default, null): Int; // enable only public read + public var public_write (null, default): Int; // or only public write public var property (get, set): Int; // use this style to enable getters/setters // private variables are not available outside the class. @@ -534,9 +536,10 @@ class FooClass extends BarClass implements BarInterface{ // a public constructor public function new(arg:Int){ - super(); // call the constructor of the parent object, since we extended BarClass + // call the constructor of the parent object, since we extended BarClass + super(); - this.public_any= 0; + this.public_any = 0; this._private = arg; } -- cgit v1.2.3 From 5816b59be65d47e6377cdad4c72b89f683bd0632 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: =?UTF-8?q?Marko=20Stankovi=C4=87?= Date: Wed, 20 May 2015 14:29:05 +0200 Subject: [haxe/en] Adding colon after comments ...as per @vendethiel's advice --- haxe.html.markdown | 6 +++--- 1 file changed, 3 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) diff --git a/haxe.html.markdown b/haxe.html.markdown index bbe51c79..ee214540 100644 --- a/haxe.html.markdown +++ b/haxe.html.markdown @@ -495,9 +495,9 @@ class LearnHaxe3{ // foo_instance.public_read = 4; // this will throw an error if uncommented: // trace(foo_instance.public_write); // as will this. - // calls the toString method + // calls the toString method: trace(foo_instance + " is the value for foo_instance"); - // same thing + // same thing: trace(foo_instance.toString() + " is the value for foo_instance.toString()"); @@ -536,7 +536,7 @@ class FooClass extends BarClass implements BarInterface{ // a public constructor public function new(arg:Int){ - // call the constructor of the parent object, since we extended BarClass + // call the constructor of the parent object, since we extended BarClass: super(); this.public_any = 0; -- cgit v1.2.3 From bad283ee14dadd02f9b21d5fbcff226bfb5c954f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Hans Ole Hatzel Date: Wed, 20 May 2015 19:38:11 +0200 Subject: [c++/en] Fixed typos. --- c++.html.markdown | 6 +++--- 1 file changed, 3 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) diff --git a/c++.html.markdown b/c++.html.markdown index 66d4aeb1..9f8f5f32 100644 --- a/c++.html.markdown +++ b/c++.html.markdown @@ -425,7 +425,7 @@ int main () { Point up (0,1); Point right (1,0); // This calls the Point + operator - // Point up calls the + (function) with right as its paramater + // Point up calls the + (function) with right as its parameter Point result = up + right; // Prints "Result is upright (1,1)" cout << "Result is upright (" << result.x << ',' << result.y << ")\n"; @@ -464,7 +464,7 @@ intBox.insert(123); Box > boxOfBox; boxOfBox.insert(intBox); -// Up until C++11, you muse place a space between the two '>'s, otherwise '>>' +// Up until C++11, you must place a space between the two '>'s, otherwise '>>' // will be parsed as the right shift operator. // You will sometimes see @@ -712,7 +712,7 @@ Foo f1; f1 = f2; ``` -Futher Reading: +Further Reading: An up-to-date language reference can be found at -- cgit v1.2.3 From c7c3e973612c3730615f0d7fee0cafae48d1ade9 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: tomnor Date: Fri, 22 May 2015 23:05:37 +0200 Subject: editorial revert of a change, remove trailing whitespace Now the regular expression is back to what it was and align with how it is in other languages. Also it aligns with the commented description of the regular expression. --- elisp.html.markdown | 12 ++++++------ 1 file changed, 6 insertions(+), 6 deletions(-) diff --git a/elisp.html.markdown b/elisp.html.markdown index 3208ffb8..3bed5d1c 100644 --- a/elisp.html.markdown +++ b/elisp.html.markdown @@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ filename: learn-emacs-lisp.el ;; I hereby decline any responsability. Have fun! ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; -;; +;; ;; Fire up Emacs. ;; ;; Hit the `q' key to dismiss the welcome message. @@ -42,9 +42,9 @@ filename: learn-emacs-lisp.el ;; The scratch buffer is the default buffer when opening Emacs. ;; You are never editing files: you are editing buffers that you ;; can save to a file. -;; +;; ;; "Lisp interaction" refers to a set of commands available here. -;; +;; ;; Emacs has a built-in set of commands available in every buffer, ;; and several subsets of commands available when you activate a ;; specific mode. Here we use the `lisp-interaction-mode', which @@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ filename: learn-emacs-lisp.el ;; The empty parentheses in the function's definition means that ;; it does not accept arguments. But always using `my-name' is ;; boring, let's tell the function to accept one argument (here -;; the argument is called "name"): +;; the argument is called "name"): (defun hello (name) (insert "Hello " name)) ;; `C-xC-e' => hello @@ -305,7 +305,7 @@ filename: learn-emacs-lisp.el (defun boldify-names () (switch-to-buffer-other-window "*test*") (goto-char (point-min)) - (while (re-search-forward "Bonjour \\([^!]+\\)!" nil 't) + (while (re-search-forward "Bonjour \\(.+\\)!" nil 't) (add-text-properties (match-beginning 1) (match-end 1) (list 'face 'bold))) @@ -318,7 +318,7 @@ filename: learn-emacs-lisp.el ;; The regular expression is "Bonjour \\(.+\\)!" and it reads: ;; the string "Bonjour ", and ;; a group of | this is the \\( ... \\) construct -;; any character not ! | this is the [^!] +;; any character | this is the . ;; possibly repeated | this is the + ;; and the "!" string. -- cgit v1.2.3 From 933f0a461d0cd6bcb70c8864778f7ae7e912c00c Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Simon Morgan Date: Sat, 23 May 2015 12:13:07 +0100 Subject: A bunch of small changes to aid clarity, brevity and/or consistency, none of which should alter the semantics. --- java.html.markdown | 171 +++++++++++++++++++++++++---------------------------- 1 file changed, 80 insertions(+), 91 deletions(-) diff --git a/java.html.markdown b/java.html.markdown index 10dd498c..363a16f6 100644 --- a/java.html.markdown +++ b/java.html.markdown @@ -1,16 +1,16 @@ --- - language: java contributors: - ["Jake Prather", "http://github.com/JakeHP"] - - ["Madison Dickson", "http://github.com/mix3d"] - ["Jakukyo Friel", "http://weakish.github.io"] + - ["Madison Dickson", "http://github.com/mix3d"] + - ["Simon Morgan", "http://sjm.io/"] filename: LearnJava.java - --- -Java is a general-purpose, concurrent, class-based, object-oriented computer programming language. -[Read more here.](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/index.html) +Java is a general-purpose, concurrent, class-based, object-oriented computer +programming language. +[Read more here.](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/) ```java // Single-line comments start with // @@ -101,10 +101,10 @@ public class LearnJava { System.out.println(bazString); // Arrays - //The array size must be decided upon instantiation - //The following formats work for declaring an array - //[] = new []; - // [] = new []; + // The array size must be decided upon instantiation + // The following formats work for declaring an array + // [] = new []; + // [] = new []; int[] intArray = new int[10]; String[] stringArray = new String[1]; boolean boolArray[] = new boolean[100]; @@ -122,17 +122,17 @@ public class LearnJava { System.out.println("intArray @ 1: " + intArray[1]); // => 1 // Others to check out - // ArrayLists - Like arrays except more functionality is offered, - // and the size is mutable + // ArrayLists - Like arrays except more functionality is offered, and + // the size is mutable // LinkedLists - Implementation of doubly-linked list. All of the - // operations perform as could be expected for - // a doubly-linked list. - // Maps - A set of objects that maps keys to values. A map cannot contain - // duplicate keys; each key can map to at most one value. - // HashMaps - This class uses a hashtable to implement the Map interface. - // This allows the execution time of basic operations, - // such as get and insert element, to remain constant even - // for large sets. + // operations perform as could be expected for a + // doubly-linked list. + // Maps - A set of objects that maps keys to values. A map cannot + // contain duplicate keys; each key can map to at most one value. + // HashMaps - This class uses a hashtable to implement the Map + // interface. This allows the execution time of basic + // operations, such as get and insert element, to remain + // constant even for large sets. /////////////////////////////////////// // Operators @@ -175,10 +175,10 @@ public class LearnJava { // The ++ and -- operators increment and decrement by 1 respectively. // If they are placed before the variable, they increment then return; // after the variable they return then increment. - System.out.println(i++); //i = 1, prints 0 (post-increment) - System.out.println(++i); //i = 2, prints 2 (pre-increment) - System.out.println(i--); //i = 1, prints 2 (post-decrement) - System.out.println(--i); //i = 0, prints 0 (pre-decrement) + System.out.println(i++); // i = 1, prints 0 (post-increment) + System.out.println(++i); // i = 2, prints 2 (pre-increment) + System.out.println(i--); // i = 1, prints 2 (post-decrement) + System.out.println(--i); // i = 0, prints 0 (pre-decrement) /////////////////////////////////////// // Control Structures @@ -197,73 +197,68 @@ public class LearnJava { // While loop int fooWhile = 0; - while(fooWhile < 100) - { - //System.out.println(fooWhile); - //Increment the counter - //Iterated 100 times, fooWhile 0,1,2...99 + while(fooWhile < 100) { + System.out.println(fooWhile); + // Increment the counter + // Iterated 100 times, fooWhile 0,1,2...99 fooWhile++; } System.out.println("fooWhile Value: " + fooWhile); // Do While Loop int fooDoWhile = 0; - do - { - //System.out.println(fooDoWhile); - //Increment the counter - //Iterated 99 times, fooDoWhile 0->99 + do { + System.out.println(fooDoWhile); + // Increment the counter + // Iterated 99 times, fooDoWhile 0->99 fooDoWhile++; - }while(fooDoWhile < 100); + } while(fooDoWhile < 100); System.out.println("fooDoWhile Value: " + fooDoWhile); // For Loop int fooFor; - //for loop structure => for(; ; ) - for(fooFor=0; fooFor<10; fooFor++){ - //System.out.println(fooFor); - //Iterated 10 times, fooFor 0->9 + // for loop structure => for(; ; ) + for(fooFor = 0; fooFor < 10; fooFor++){ + System.out.println(fooFor); + // Iterated 10 times, fooFor 0->9 } System.out.println("fooFor Value: " + fooFor); // For Each Loop // An automatic iteration through an array or list of objects. int[] fooList = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}; - //for each loop structure => for( : ) - //reads as: for each object in the array - //note: the object type must match the array. + // for each loop structure => for( : ) + // reads as: for each object in the array + // note: the object type must match the array. - for( int bar : fooList ){ - //System.out.println(bar); + for (int bar : fooList){ + System.out.println(bar); //Iterates 9 times and prints 1-9 on new lines } // Switch Case // A switch works with the byte, short, char, and int data types. - // It also works with enumerated types (discussed in Enum Types), - // the String class, and a few special classes that wrap - // primitive types: Character, Byte, Short, and Integer. + // It also works with enumerated types (discussed in Enum Types), the + // String class, and a few special classes that wrap primitive types: + // Character, Byte, Short, and Integer. int month = 3; String monthString; - switch (month){ - case 1: - monthString = "January"; - break; - case 2: - monthString = "February"; + switch (month) { + case 1: monthString = "January"; break; - case 3: - monthString = "March"; + case 2: monthString = "February"; break; - default: - monthString = "Some other month"; + case 3: monthString = "March"; break; + default: monthString = "Some other month"; + break; } System.out.println("Switch Case Result: " + monthString); // Conditional Shorthand // You can use the '?' operator for quick assignments or logic forks. - // Reads as "If (statement) is true, use , otherwise, use " + // Reads as "If (statement) is true, use , otherwise, use + // " int foo = 5; String bar = (foo < 10) ? "A" : "B"; System.out.println(bar); // Prints A, because the statement is true @@ -287,9 +282,8 @@ public class LearnJava { // String // Typecasting - // You can also cast java objects, there's a lot of details and - // deals with some more intermediate concepts. - // Feel free to check it out here: + // You can also cast Java objects, there's a lot of details and deals + // with some more intermediate concepts. Feel free to check it out here: // http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/subclasses.html @@ -319,9 +313,9 @@ public class LearnJava { // Class Declaration Syntax: -// class { -// //data fields, constructors, functions all inside. -// //functions are called as methods in Java. +// class { +// // data fields, constructors, functions all inside. +// // functions are called as methods in Java. // } class Bicycle { @@ -342,7 +336,8 @@ class Bicycle { } // This is a constructor that takes arguments - public Bicycle(int startCadence, int startSpeed, int startGear, String name) { + public Bicycle(int startCadence, int startSpeed, int startGear, + String name) { this.gear = startGear; this.cadence = startCadence; this.speed = startSpeed; @@ -388,10 +383,8 @@ class Bicycle { //Method to display the attribute values of this Object. @Override public String toString() { - return "gear: " + gear + - " cadence: " + cadence + - " speed: " + speed + - " name: " + name; + return "gear: " + gear + " cadence: " + cadence + " speed: " + speed + + " name: " + name; } } // end class Bicycle @@ -405,26 +398,26 @@ class PennyFarthing extends Bicycle { super(startCadence, startSpeed, 0, "PennyFarthing"); } - // You should mark a method you're overriding with an @annotation - // To learn more about what annotations are and their purpose - // check this out: http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/annotations/ + // You should mark a method you're overriding with an @annotation. + // To learn more about what annotations are and their purpose check this + // out: http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/annotations/ @Override public void setGear(int gear) { gear = 0; } - } -//Interfaces -//Interface declaration syntax -// interface extends { -// //Constants -// //Method declarations -//} +// Interfaces +// Interface declaration syntax +// interface extends { +// // Constants +// // Method declarations +// } -//Example - Food: +// Example - Food: public interface Edible { - public void eat(); //Any class that implements this interface, must implement this method + public void eat(); // Any class that implements this interface, must + // implement this method. } public interface Digestible { @@ -432,33 +425,31 @@ public interface Digestible { } -//We can now create a class that implements both of these interfaces +// We can now create a class that implements both of these interfaces. public class Fruit implements Edible, Digestible { @Override public void eat() { - //... + // ... } @Override public void digest() { - //... + // ... } } -//In java, you can extend only one class, but you can implement many interfaces. -//For example: -public class ExampleClass extends ExampleClassParent implements InterfaceOne, InterfaceTwo { +// In Java, you can extend only one class, but you can implement many +// interfaces. For example: +public class ExampleClass extends ExampleClassParent implements InterfaceOne, + InterfaceTwo { @Override public void InterfaceOneMethod() { - } @Override public void InterfaceTwoMethod() { - } } - ``` ## Further Reading @@ -500,5 +491,3 @@ The links provided here below are just to get an understanding of the topic, fee * [Objects First with Java](http://www.amazon.com/Objects-First-Java-Practical-Introduction/dp/0132492660) * [Java The Complete Reference](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0071606300) - - -- cgit v1.2.3 From b72c575c0442006c4eed1da46e1f6a0129f55d99 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Simon Morgan Date: Sat, 23 May 2015 12:37:04 +0100 Subject: Some more small changes that don't affect semantics. --- java.html.markdown | 34 +++++++++++++++++----------------- 1 file changed, 17 insertions(+), 17 deletions(-) diff --git a/java.html.markdown b/java.html.markdown index 363a16f6..f6bc82c6 100644 --- a/java.html.markdown +++ b/java.html.markdown @@ -31,17 +31,17 @@ import java.security.*; // the file. public class LearnJava { - // A program must have a main method as an entry point + // A program must have a main method as an entry point. public static void main (String[] args) { - // Use System.out.println to print lines + // Use System.out.println() to print lines. System.out.println("Hello World!"); System.out.println( "Integer: " + 10 + " Double: " + 3.14 + " Boolean: " + true); - // To print without a newline, use System.out.print + // To print without a newline, use System.out.print(). System.out.print("Hello "); System.out.print("World"); @@ -69,7 +69,7 @@ public class LearnJava { // L is used to denote that this variable value is of type Long; // anything without is treated as integer by default. - // Note: Java has no unsigned types + // Note: Java has no unsigned types. // Float - Single-precision 32-bit IEEE 754 Floating Point float fooFloat = 234.5f; @@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ public class LearnJava { // Char - A single 16-bit Unicode character char fooChar = 'A'; - // final variables can't be reassigned to another object + // final variables can't be reassigned to another object. final int HOURS_I_WORK_PER_WEEK = 9001; // Strings @@ -123,7 +123,7 @@ public class LearnJava { // Others to check out // ArrayLists - Like arrays except more functionality is offered, and - // the size is mutable + // the size is mutable. // LinkedLists - Implementation of doubly-linked list. All of the // operations perform as could be expected for a // doubly-linked list. @@ -160,13 +160,13 @@ public class LearnJava { // Bitwise operators! /* - ~ Unary bitwise complement - << Signed left shift - >> Signed right shift - >>> Unsigned right shift - & Bitwise AND - ^ Bitwise exclusive OR - | Bitwise inclusive OR + ~ Unary bitwise complement + << Signed left shift + >> Signed right shift + >>> Unsigned right shift + & Bitwise AND + ^ Bitwise exclusive OR + | Bitwise inclusive OR */ // Incrementations @@ -218,7 +218,7 @@ public class LearnJava { // For Loop int fooFor; // for loop structure => for(; ; ) - for(fooFor = 0; fooFor < 10; fooFor++){ + for (fooFor = 0; fooFor < 10; fooFor++) { System.out.println(fooFor); // Iterated 10 times, fooFor 0->9 } @@ -226,12 +226,12 @@ public class LearnJava { // For Each Loop // An automatic iteration through an array or list of objects. - int[] fooList = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}; - // for each loop structure => for( : ) + int[] fooList = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}; + // for each loop structure => for ( : ) // reads as: for each object in the array // note: the object type must match the array. - for (int bar : fooList){ + for (int bar : fooList) { System.out.println(bar); //Iterates 9 times and prints 1-9 on new lines } -- cgit v1.2.3 From 7560b334dbc528784580d810d5857ac6a859f6e1 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Simon Morgan Date: Sat, 23 May 2015 12:51:20 +0100 Subject: Improve description of the for loop. --- java.html.markdown | 9 +++++---- 1 file changed, 5 insertions(+), 4 deletions(-) diff --git a/java.html.markdown b/java.html.markdown index f6bc82c6..7ab22823 100644 --- a/java.html.markdown +++ b/java.html.markdown @@ -225,11 +225,12 @@ public class LearnJava { System.out.println("fooFor Value: " + fooFor); // For Each Loop - // An automatic iteration through an array or list of objects. + // The for loop is also able to iterate over arrays as well as objects + // that implement the Iterable interface. int[] fooList = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}; - // for each loop structure => for ( : ) - // reads as: for each object in the array - // note: the object type must match the array. + // for each loop structure => for ( : ) + // reads as: for each element in the collection + // note: the object type must match the element type of the collection. for (int bar : fooList) { System.out.println(bar); -- cgit v1.2.3 From 9319e442b1004d7b3ebec334b67e63810a8a90e2 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Andrey Samsonov Date: Sun, 24 May 2015 16:03:32 +0400 Subject: Update header, fix typos and mistakes in Bash/ru translations --- ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown | 7 +++++-- 1 file changed, 5 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown index f8b28294..556c60f3 100644 --- a/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown @@ -11,10 +11,13 @@ contributors: - ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"] - ["Gregrory Kielian", "https://github.com/gskielian"] - ["Etan Reisner", "https://github.com/deryni"] -filename: LearnBash.sh +translators: + - ["Andrey Samsonov", "https://github.com/kryzhovnik"] +filename: LearnBash-ru.sh +lang: ru-ru --- -Bash это командная оболочка unix (unix shell), которая распространяется как оболочка для операционной системы GNU и используется в качестве оболочки по умолчанию для Linux и Mac OS X. +Bash - это командная оболочка unix (unix shell), которая распространяется как оболочка для операционной системы GNU и используется в качестве оболочки по умолчанию для Linux и Mac OS X. Почти все нижеприведенные примеры могут могут быть частью shell-скриптов или быть исполнены напрямую в shell. [Подробнее.](http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/bashref.html) -- cgit v1.2.3 From bdf4636d2302bb7ff84e105cdfeb25e7e3e6fa92 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Andrey Samsonov Date: Sun, 24 May 2015 16:06:35 +0400 Subject: Fix typos and mistakes in Bash/ru translations --- ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown | 12 ++++++------ 1 file changed, 6 insertions(+), 6 deletions(-) diff --git a/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown index 556c60f3..f5b8c109 100644 --- a/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown @@ -17,16 +17,16 @@ filename: LearnBash-ru.sh lang: ru-ru --- -Bash - это командная оболочка unix (unix shell), которая распространяется как оболочка для операционной системы GNU и используется в качестве оболочки по умолчанию для Linux и Mac OS X. -Почти все нижеприведенные примеры могут могут быть частью shell-скриптов или быть исполнены напрямую в shell. +Bash - это командная оболочка unix (unix shell), которая распространялась как оболочка для операционной системы GNU и используется в качестве оболочки по умолчанию для Linux и Mac OS X. +Почти все нижеприведенные примеры могут быть частью shell-скриптов или исполнены напрямую в shell. [Подробнее.](http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/bashref.html) ```bash #!/bin/bash -# Первая строка скрипта - это shebang, который сообщает системе как исполнять +# Первая строка скрипта - это shebang, который сообщает системе, как исполнять # этот скрипт: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shebang_(Unix) -# Как вы уже поняли, комментарии начинаются с #. Shebang — тоже коммантарий. +# Как вы уже поняли, комментарии начинаются с #. Shebang - тоже комментарий. # Простой пример hello world: echo Hello world! @@ -34,12 +34,12 @@ echo Hello world! # Отдельные команды начинаются с новой строки или разделяются точкой с запятой: echo 'Это первая строка'; echo 'Это вторая строка' -# Вот так объявляется пемеренная: +# Вот так объявляется переменная: VARIABLE="Просто строка" # но не так: VARIABLE = "Просто строка" -# Bash решит что VARIABLE - это команда, которую он должен исполнить, +# Bash решит, что VARIABLE - это команда, которую он должен исполнить, # и выдаст ошибку, потому что не сможет найти ее. # и не так: -- cgit v1.2.3 From de676b62b83fcaaa9977cca9adb9c38383b64f35 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Liam Edwards-Playne Date: Tue, 26 May 2015 11:25:07 +1000 Subject: fixed spelling error --- bash.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/bash.html.markdown b/bash.html.markdown index c2312d7d..08182c2c 100644 --- a/bash.html.markdown +++ b/bash.html.markdown @@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ echo '$Variable' # String substitution in variables echo ${Variable/Some/A} -# This will substitute the first occurence of "Some" with "A" +# This will substitute the first occurrence of "Some" with "A" # Substring from a variable Length=7 -- cgit v1.2.3 From 22f1081ff2e940300cee0f0adcbbaf41abfb1c5f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Andrey Samsonov Date: Tue, 26 May 2015 13:13:55 +0400 Subject: Fix typos and mistakes in Bash/ru translation --- ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown | 45 ++++++++++++++++++++++----------------------- 1 file changed, 22 insertions(+), 23 deletions(-) diff --git a/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown index f5b8c109..e6741b1b 100644 --- a/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown @@ -53,15 +53,15 @@ VARIABLE= 'Просто строка' echo $VARIABLE echo "$VARIABLE" echo '$VARIABLE' -# Когда вы используете переменную - присвоение, экспорт и т.д - пишите её -# имя без $. А для получения значения переменной, используйте $. -# Заметте что ' (одинарные кавычки) не раскрывают переменные в них. +# Когда вы используете переменную - присваиваете, экспортируете и т.д. - +# пишите её имя без $. А для получения значения переменной используйте $. +# Заметьте, что ' (одинарные кавычки) не раскрывают переменные в них. # Подстановка строк в переменные echo ${VARIABLE/Просто/A} # Это выражение заменит первую встреченную подстроку "Просто" на "A" -# Подстановка из переменной +# Взять подстроку из переменной LENGTH=7 echo ${VARIABLE:0:LENGTH} # Это выражение вернет только первые 7 символов переменной VARIABLE @@ -70,23 +70,23 @@ echo ${VARIABLE:0:LENGTH} echo ${FOO:-"DefaultValueIfFOOIsMissingOrEmpty"} # Это сработает при отсутствующем значении (FOO=) и пустой строке (FOO=""); # ноль (FOO=0) вернет 0. -# Заметте, что в любом случае значение самой переменной FOO не изменится. +# Заметьте, что в любом случае значение самой переменной FOO не изменится. # Встроенные переменные: # В bash есть полезные встроенные переменные, например -echo "Последее возвращенное значение: $?" +echo "Последнее возвращенное значение: $?" echo "PID скрипта: $$" echo "Количество аргументов: $#" echo "Аргументы скрипта: $@" -echo "Аргументы скрипта рапределенные по отдельным переменным: $1 $2..." +echo "Аргументы скрипта, распределённые по отдельным переменным: $1 $2..." -# Чтение аргументов из входа: +# Чтение аргументов из устройста ввода: echo "Как Вас зовут?" -read NAME # Заметте, что нам не нужно определять новую переменную +read NAME # Обратите внимание, что нам не нужно определять новую переменную echo Привет, $NAME! # У нас есть обычная структура if: -# наберите 'man test' для подробностях о форматах условия +# наберите 'man test' для получения подробной информации о форматах условия if [ $NAME -ne $USER ] then echo "Имя не совпадает с именем пользователя" @@ -95,7 +95,7 @@ else fi # Также есть условное исполнение -echo "Исполнится всегда" || echo "Исполнится, если первая команда провалится" +echo "Исполнится всегда" || echo "Исполнится, если первая команда завершится ошибкой" echo "Исполнится всегда" && echo "Исполнится, если первая команда выполнится удачно" # Можно использовать && и || в выражениях if, когда нужно несколько пар скобок: @@ -112,8 +112,8 @@ fi # Выражения обозначаются таким форматом: echo $(( 10 + 5 )) -# В отличае от других языков программирования, bash это командная оболочка - -# значит он работает в контексте текущей директории. +# В отличие от других языков программирования, Bash - это командная оболочка, +# а значит, работает в контексте текущей директории. # Вы можете просматривать файлы и директории в текущей директории командой ls: ls @@ -126,7 +126,7 @@ ls -l # Показать каждый файл и директорию на от ls -l | grep "\.txt" # Вы можете перенаправить ввод и вывод команды (stdin, stdout и stderr). -# Следующая команда означает: читать из stdin пока не встретится ^EOF$ и +# Следующая команда означает: читать из stdin, пока не встретится ^EOF$, и # перезаписать hello.py следующим строками (до строки "EOF"): cat > hello.py << EOF #!/usr/bin/env python @@ -146,7 +146,7 @@ python hello.py 2> "error.err" python hello.py > "output-and-error.log" 2>&1 python hello.py > /dev/null 2>&1 # Поток ошибок перезапишет файл, если этот файл существует, -# поэтому если вы хотите дописывать файл используйте ">>": +# поэтому, если вы хотите дописывать файл, используйте ">>": python hello.py >> "output.out" 2>> "error.err" # Переписать output.txt, дописать error.err и сосчитать строки: @@ -165,12 +165,12 @@ echo "#helloworld" | tee output.out >/dev/null # Подчистить временные файлы с подробным выводом ('-i' - интерактивый режим) rm -v output.out error.err output-and-error.log -# Команды могут быть подставлены в строку используя $( ): +# Команды могут быть подставлены в строку с помощью $( ): # следующие команды выводят число файлов и директорий в текущей директории. echo "Здесь $(ls | wc -l) элементов." -# То же самое можно сделать использую обратные кавычки, но они не могут быть -# вложенными - предпочтительно использовать $( ). +# То же самое можно сделать с использованием обратных кавычек, +# но они не могут быть вложенными, поэтому предпочтительно использовать $( ). echo "Здесь `ls | wc -l` элементов." # В Bash есть структура case, которая похожа на switch в Java и C++: @@ -188,7 +188,7 @@ do echo "$VARIABLE" done -# Или перепишем "традиционным" синтаксисом цикла for: +# Или с использованием "традиционного" синтаксиса цикла for: for ((a=1; a <= 3; a++)) do echo $a @@ -201,7 +201,7 @@ do cat "$VARIABLE" done -# ..или выводом из команд +# ... или выводом из команд # Запустим cat для вывода из ls. for OUTPUT in $(ls) do @@ -219,7 +219,7 @@ done # Определение: function foo () { - echo "Аргументы работают также как аругменты скрипта: $@" + echo "Аргументы работают также, как аргументы скрипта: $@" echo "и: $1 $2..." echo "Это функция" return 0 @@ -253,10 +253,9 @@ sed -i 's/okay/great/g' file.txt grep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt # передайте опцию -c чтобы вывести число строк, в которых совпал шаблон grep -c "^foo.*bar$" file.txt -# чтобы искать прямо строку, а не шаблон regex, используйте fgrep (или grep -F) +# чтобы искать по строке, а не шаблону regex, используйте fgrep (или grep -F) fgrep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt - # Читайте встроенную документацию оболочки Bash командой 'help': help help help -- cgit v1.2.3 From 8c3a0be856770aab3484e48cd1d1c11162b72db4 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Simon Morgan Date: Tue, 26 May 2015 20:21:43 +0100 Subject: Further improve for loop description. --- java.html.markdown | 6 +++--- 1 file changed, 3 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) diff --git a/java.html.markdown b/java.html.markdown index 7ab22823..928eb39f 100644 --- a/java.html.markdown +++ b/java.html.markdown @@ -228,9 +228,9 @@ public class LearnJava { // The for loop is also able to iterate over arrays as well as objects // that implement the Iterable interface. int[] fooList = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}; - // for each loop structure => for ( : ) - // reads as: for each element in the collection - // note: the object type must match the element type of the collection. + // for each loop structure => for ( : ) + // reads as: for each element in the iterable + // note: the object type must match the element type of the iterable. for (int bar : fooList) { System.out.println(bar); -- cgit v1.2.3 From 7a4538374c4b86a355573039cc5426a32e936d11 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: ryan ouyang Date: Thu, 28 May 2015 13:07:01 +0800 Subject: Update type error of chinese translation MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit Line 344: From "行数" to "函数" --- zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown index 64b0aadc..b450ab84 100644 --- a/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/javascript-cn.html.markdown @@ -341,7 +341,7 @@ var myFunc = myObj.myFunc; myFunc(); // = undefined // 相应的，一个函数也可以被指定为一个对象的方法，并且可以通过`this`访问 -// 这个对象的成员，即使在行数被定义时并没有依附在对象上。 +// 这个对象的成员，即使在函数被定义时并没有依附在对象上。 var myOtherFunc = function(){ return this.myString.toUpperCase(); } -- cgit v1.2.3 From fbfd64b3675fb0e0d9981378b0b6861c61945fcb Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Julien Cretel Date: Wed, 20 May 2015 08:45:15 +0100 Subject: [erlang/en] Fix #970 --- erlang.html.markdown | 8 ++++++-- 1 file changed, 6 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/erlang.html.markdown b/erlang.html.markdown index 322e437d..a897755e 100644 --- a/erlang.html.markdown +++ b/erlang.html.markdown @@ -167,8 +167,12 @@ is_dog(A) -> false. % A guard sequence is either a single guard or a series of guards, separated % by semicolons (`;`). The guard sequence `G1; G2; ...; Gn` is true if at % least one of the guards `G1`, `G2`, ..., `Gn` evaluates to `true`. -is_pet(A) when is_dog(A); is_cat(A) -> true; -is_pet(A) -> false. +is_pet(A) when is_atom(A), (A =:= dog) or (A =:= cat) -> true; +is_pet(A) -> false. + +% Warning: not all valid Erlang expressions can be used as guard expressions; +% in particular, our `is_cat` and `is_dog` functions cannot be used within the +% guard sequence in `is_pet`'s definition. % Records provide a method for associating a name with a particular element in a % tuple. -- cgit v1.2.3 From e4c0629c38223db43e91414b2d44a540da47565e Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Julien Cretel Date: Wed, 20 May 2015 10:35:04 +0100 Subject: [erlang/en] Add link to Erlang reference manual --- erlang.html.markdown | 5 ++++- 1 file changed, 4 insertions(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/erlang.html.markdown b/erlang.html.markdown index a897755e..e5db6423 100644 --- a/erlang.html.markdown +++ b/erlang.html.markdown @@ -172,7 +172,10 @@ is_pet(A) -> false. % Warning: not all valid Erlang expressions can be used as guard expressions; % in particular, our `is_cat` and `is_dog` functions cannot be used within the -% guard sequence in `is_pet`'s definition. +% guard sequence in `is_pet`'s definition. For a list of the built-in +% functions (BIFs) allowed in guard sequences, refer to this +% [section](http://erlang.org/doc/reference_manual/expressions.html#id81912) +% of the Erlang reference manual. % Records provide a method for associating a name with a particular element in a % tuple. -- cgit v1.2.3 From f9649ac5529eed31a6b954b160c4e461a6bc25dd Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Julien Cretel Date: Thu, 28 May 2015 09:21:27 +0200 Subject: [erlang/en] Clarify bit about guard sequences --- erlang.html.markdown | 4 ++-- 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/erlang.html.markdown b/erlang.html.markdown index e5db6423..a3b571d1 100644 --- a/erlang.html.markdown +++ b/erlang.html.markdown @@ -172,8 +172,8 @@ is_pet(A) -> false. % Warning: not all valid Erlang expressions can be used as guard expressions; % in particular, our `is_cat` and `is_dog` functions cannot be used within the -% guard sequence in `is_pet`'s definition. For a list of the built-in -% functions (BIFs) allowed in guard sequences, refer to this +% guard sequence in `is_pet`'s definition. For a description of the +% expressions allowed in guard sequences, refer to this % [section](http://erlang.org/doc/reference_manual/expressions.html#id81912) % of the Erlang reference manual. -- cgit v1.2.3 From 1aa91a6420b17d6d982fb3361ba938511355fc7c Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Julien Cretel Date: Thu, 28 May 2015 20:40:39 +0200 Subject: [erlang/fr] Add french translation --- fr-fr/erlang-fr.html.markdown | 325 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 325 insertions(+) create mode 100644 fr-fr/erlang-fr.html.markdown diff --git a/fr-fr/erlang-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/erlang-fr.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..564e176f --- /dev/null +++ b/fr-fr/erlang-fr.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,325 @@ +--- +language: erlang +contributors: + - ["Giovanni Cappellotto", "http://www.focustheweb.com/"] +translators: + - ["Julien Cretel", "https://github.com/Jubobs"] +filename: learnerlang-fr.erl +lang: fr-fr +--- + +```erlang +% Un signe pour cent marque le début d'un commentaire de fin de ligne. + +%% Deux signes pour cent sont utilisés pour commenter les fonctions. + +%%% Trois signes pour cent sont utilisés pour commenter les modules. + +% Trois types de ponctuation sont utilisés en Erlang. +% Les virgules (`,`) servent à séparer les paramètres dans les appels de +% fonctions, les contructeurs, et les motifs. +% Les points (`.`) (suivis par des caractères blancs) servent à séparer +% les fonctions et les expressions dans l'interpréteur. +% Les points-virgules (`;`) servent à séparer les clauses. Ces dernières +% apparaissent dans différent cas de figure : définitions de fonctions et +% expressions `case`, `if`, `try..catch`, et `receive`. + +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% +%% 1. Variables et filtrage par motif. +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% + +Nb = 42. % Chaque nom de variable doit commencer par une lettre majuscule. + +% Les variables Erlang ne peuvent être affectées qu'une seule fois ; si vous +% essayez d'affecter une autre valeur à la variable `Nb`, vous obtiendrez +% une erreur. +Nb = 43. % ** exception error: no match of right hand side value 43 + +% Dans la plupart des languages, `=` indique une affectation. En Erlang, +% cependant, `=` indique un filtrage par motif. En fait, `Gauche = Droit` +% signifie ce qui suit : évalue le côté droit (`Droit`), et ensuite filtre le +% résultat à l'aide du motif du côté gauche (`Gauche`). +Nb = 7 * 6. + +% Nombre en virgule flottante. +Pi = 3.14159. + +% Les atomes représentent des valeurs constantes non-numériques. Un atome +% commence par une lettre minuscule, suivie d'une séquence composée de +% caractères alphanumériques, de tirets bas (`_`), ou d'arobases (`@`). +Bonjour = bonjour. +AutreNoeud = exemple@noeud. + +% Les atomes de valeur autre qu'alphanumérique peuvent être délimités par +% des guillemets droits simples. +AtomeAvecEspace = 'un atome contenant des espaces'. + +% Les tuples sont similaires aux enregistrements du language C. +Point = {point, 10, 45}. + +% Pour extraire des valeurs d'un tuple, on filtre par motif avec +% l'opérateur `=`. +{point, X, Y} = Point. % X = 10, Y = 45 + +% On peut utiliser `_` comme caractère joker pour les variables qui ne nous +% intéressent pas. Le symbol `_` est appelé variable muette. Contrairement +% aux variables normales, de multiples apparitions de `_` dans un même motif +% ne lient pas nécessairement à la même valeur. +Personne = {personne, {nom, {prenom, joe}, {famille, armstrong}}, + {pointure, 42}}. +{_, {_, {_, Qui}, _}, _} = Personne. % Qui = joe + +% Pour créer une liste, on écrit les éléments de la liste entre crochets, en +% les séparant par des virgules. +% Les éléments d'une liste peuvent avoir n'importe quel type. +% Le premier élément d'une liste est appelé la tête de la liste. Si on retire +% la tête d'une liste, ce qui reste est appelée la queue de la liste. +Articles = [{pommes, 10}, {poires, 6}, {lait, 3}]. + +% Si `Q` est une liste, alors `[T|Q]` est aussi une liste dont la tête est `T` +% et dont la queue est `Q`. La barre verticale (`|`) sépare la tête d'une +% liste de sa queue. +% `[]` est la liste vide. +% On peut extraire des éléments d'une liste par filtrage de motif. Si `L` est +% une liste non vide, alors l'expression `[X|Y] = L`, où `X` et `Y` sont des +% variables non affectées, va extraire la tête de la liste dans `X` et la +% queue de la liste dans `Y`. +[PremierArticle|AutresArticles] = Articles. +% PremierArticle = {pommmes, 10} +% AutresArticles = [{poires, 6}, {lait, 3}] + +% Il n'y a pas de chaînes de caractères en Erlang. Les chaînes de caractères +% ne sont rien de plus que des listes d'entiers. +% Les chaînes de caractères sont délimitées par des guillemets droits doubles +% (`"`). +Nom = "Bonjour". +[66, 111, 110, 106, 111, 117, 114] = "Bonjour". + + +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% +%% 2. Programmation séquentielle. +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% + +% Les modules constituent l'unité de base d'un programme Erlang. Toutes les +% fonctions que l'on écrit sont sauvées dans des modules. Les modules sont +% enregistrés dans des fichiers avec une extension `.erl`. +% Les modules doivent être compilés afin d'éxecuter le programme. +% Un module compilé a une extension `.beam`. +-module(geometrie). +-export([aire/1]). % la liste des fonctions exportées par le module. + +% La fonction `aire` est composée de deux clauses. Les clauses sont séparées +% par un point-virgule, et la dernière clause est suivie d'un point et un +% espace blanc. Chaque clause a une en-tête et un corps ; l'en-tête consiste +% en un nom de fonction suivi d'un motif (entre parenthèses), et le corps +% consiste en une séquence d'expressions, qui sont évaluées si le motif de +% l'en-tête est cohérent par rapport à la valeur des paramètres d'appel. +% L'expression est filtrée séquentiellement par les différents motifs, dans +% l'ordre dans lequel ils apparaissent dans la définition de la fonction. +aire({rectangle, Largeur, Hauteur}) -> Largeur * Hauteur; +aire({cercle, R}) -> 3.14159 * R * R. + +% Compilation du code du fichier geometrie.erl. +c(geometrie). % {ok,geometrie} + +% Le nom du module doit être inclus avec le nom de la fonction afin +% d'identifier précisément quelle fonction on souhaite appeler. +geometrie:aire({rectangle, 10, 5}). % 50 +geometrie:area({cercle, 1.4}). % 6.15752 + +% En Erlang, deux fonctions portant le même nom mais ayant des arités +% différentes (c'est à dire ne prenant pas le même nombre de paramètres) +% au sein d'un même module représentent des fonctions complètement +% différentes. +-module(lib_divers). +-export([somme/1]). % exporte la fonction `somme` d'arité 1 + % acceptant un paramètre : une liste d'entiers. +somme(L) -> somme(L, 0). +somme([], N) -> N; +somme([T|Q], N) -> somme(Q, T+N). + +% Les funs sont des fonctions "anonymes" ; elles sont appelées ainsi parce +% qu'elles n'ont pas de noms. Cependant, elles peuvent être affectées à des +% variables. +Doubler = fun(X) -> 2 * X end. % `Doubler` pointe vers une fonction anonyme + % dont le handle est : #Fun +Doubler(2). % 4 + +% Les fonctions peuvent prendre des funs comme paramètres et peuvent renvoyer +% des funs. +Mult = fun(Fois) -> ( fun(X) -> X * Fois end ) end. +Tripler = Mult(3). +Tripler(5). % 15 + +% Les listes en compréhension sont des expressions qui créent des listes sans +% requérir ni funs, ni maps, ni filters. +% La notation `[F(X) || X <- L]` signifie "la liste des `F(X)` où `X` est +% extrait de la liste `L`." +L = [1,2,3,4,5]. +[2 * X || X <- L]. % [2,4,6,8,10] +% Une liste en compréhension peut avoir des générateurs, ainsi que des gardes, +% qui sélectionnent un sous-ensemble des valeurs générées. +NombresPairs = [N || N <- [1, 2, 3, 4], N rem 2 == 0]. % [2, 4] + +% La garde est un élément syntaxique qui rend le filtrage par motif encore +% plus puissant. Les gardes permettent de d'effectuer de simple tests et +% comparaisons sur les variables d'un motif. Les gardes peuvent être +% utilisées dans les en-têtes de fonctions, au sein desquelles elles sont +% introduites par le mot-clé `when`, ou encore à n'importe quel endroit où +% une expression est autorisée. +max(X, Y) when X > Y -> X; +max(X, Y) -> Y. + +% Une garde est une série d'expressions gardes, séparées par des virgules (`,`). +% La garde `ExprGarde1, ExprGarde2, ..., ExprGardeN` est vraie si toutes les +% expressions gardes `ExprGarde1`, `ExprGarde2, ..., `ExprGardeN` ont pour +% valeur `true`. +est_chat(A) when is_atom(A), A =:= chat -> true; +est_chat(A) -> false. +est_chien(A) when is_atom(A), A =:= chien -> true; +est_chien(A) -> false. + +% Une séquence de gardes est composée soit d'une seule garde ou bien d'une +% série de gardes, séparées par des points-virgules (`;`). La séquence de +% gardes `G1; G2; ...; Gn` est vraie si au moins l'une des gardes `G1`, `G2`, +% ..., `Gn` a pour valeur `true`. +est_animal(A) when is_atom(A), (A =:= chien) or (A =:= chat) -> true; +est_animal(A) -> false. + +% Attention : les expressions Erlang valides ne peuvent pas toutes être +% utilisées comme expressions gardes ; en particulier, nos fonctions +% `est_chat` et `est_chien` ne sont pas autorisées au sein de la séquence de +% gardes dans la définition de `est_animal`. Pour plus de détails sur les +% expressions autorisées ands les séquences de gardes, voir cette +% [section](http://erlang.org/doc/reference_manual/expressions.html#id81912) +% du manuel Erlang. + +% Les enregistrements permettent d'associer un nom à un certain élément dans +% un tuple. +% Les enregistrements peuvent être définis dans des fichiers sources Erlang +% ou bien dans des fichiers avec une extension `.hrl`, qui sont ensuite inclus +% dans des fichiers sources Erlang. +-record(afaire, { + statut = rappel, % Valeur par défaut + qui = joe, + texte +}). + +% Les définitions d'enregistrements doivent être lues dans l'interpreteur +% pour qu'on puisse définir un enregistrement. On utilise la fonction `rr` +% (abbréviation de *read records* en anglais, ou *lire enregistrements* en +% français) pour ça. +rr("enregistrements.hrl"). % [afaire] + +% Création et mise à jour d'enregistrements : +X = #afaire{}. +% #afaire{statut = rappel, qui = joe, texte = undefined} +X1 = #afaire{statut = urgent, texte = "Corriger erreurs dans livre"}. +% #afaire{statut = urgent, qui = joe, texte = "Corriger erreurs dans livre"} +X2 = X1#afaire{statut = fini}. +% #afaire{statut = fini, qui = joe, texte = "Corriger erreurs dans livre"} + +% Expressions `case`. +% `filter` renvoie une liste de tous les éléments `X` d'une liste `L` pour +% lesquels `P(X)` est vrai. +filter(P, [H|T]) -> + case P(H) of + true -> [H|filter(P, T)]; + false -> filter(P, T) + end; +filter(P, []) -> []. +filter(fun(X) -> X rem 2 == 0 end, [1, 2, 3, 4]). % [2, 4] + +% Expressions `if`. +max(X, Y) -> + if + X > Y -> X; + X < Y -> Y; + true -> nil + end. + +% Attention : au moins l'une des gardes dans l'expression `if` doit avoir pour +% valeur `true` ; autrement, une exception sera lancée. + + +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% +%% 3. Exceptions. +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% + +% Des exceptions sont lancées par le système quand des erreurs internes +% surviennent, ou de manière explicite dans le programme en appelant +% `throw(Exception)`, `exit(Exception)`, ou `erlang:error(Exception)`. +generer_exception(1) -> a; +generer_exception(2) -> throw(a); +generer_exception(3) -> exit(a); +generer_exception(4) -> {'EXIT', a}; +generer_exception(5) -> erlang:error(a). + +% Erlang dispose de deux méthodes pour capturer une exception. La première +% consiste à inclure l'appel de de la fonction qui lance l'exception dans une +% expression `try...catch`. +catcher(N) -> + try generer_exception(N) of + Val -> {N, normal, Val} + catch + throw:X -> {N, caught, thrown, X}; + exit:X -> {N, caught, exited, X}; + error:X -> {N, caught, error, X} + end. + +% L'autre méthode consiste à inclure l'appel dans une expression `catch`. +% Quand une exception est capturée, elle est convertie en un tuple qui décrit +% l'erreur. +catcher(N) -> catch generer_exception(N). + + +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% +%% 4. Concurrence +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% + +% Erlang est basé sur le modèle d'acteur pour la concurrence. Seulement trois +% opérations sont requises pour écrire des programmes concurrents en Erlang : +% la création de processus, l'envoi de messages, et la réception de messages. + +% Pour démarrer un nouveau processus, on utilise la fonction `spawn`, qui +% prend une fonction comme paramètre. + +F = fun() -> 2 + 2 end. % #Fun +spawn(F). % <0.44.0> + +% `spawn` renvoie un pid (*process identifier* en anglais, ou *identifiant de +% processus* en français), qui peut être utilisé pour envoyer des messages au +% processus en question. Pour passer des messages, on utilise l'opérateur `!`. +% Pour que cela soit utile, on doit aussi être en mesure de recevoir des +% messages, ce qui est accompli grâce à une clause `receive` : + +-module(calculerGeometrie). +-compile(export_all). +calculerAire() -> + receive + {rectangle, W, H} -> + W * H; + {cercle, R} -> + 3.14 * R * R; + _ -> + io:format("Seule l'aire d'un rectangle / cercle peut etre calculee.") + end. + +% Compilation du module and création d'un processus qui évalue `calculerAire` +% dans l'interpréteur. +c(calculerGeometrie). +CalculerAire = spawn(calculerGeometrie, calculerAire, []). +CalculerAire ! {cercle, 2}. % 12.56000000000000049738 + +% L'interpréteur est lui-même un processus ; on peut utiliser `self` pour +% obtenir le pid actuel. +self(). % <0.41.0> + +``` + +## Références + +* ["Learn You Some Erlang for great good!"](http://learnyousomeerlang.com/) +* ["Programming Erlang: Software for a Concurrent World" by Joe Armstrong](http://pragprog.com/book/jaerlang/programming-erlang) +* [Erlang/OTP Reference Documentation](http://www.erlang.org/doc/) +* [Erlang - Programming Rules and Conventions](http://www.erlang.se/doc/programming_rules.shtml) -- cgit v1.2.3 From 5d3e938574b74704801dcb61043a8603ac087f73 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Bobby Wilson Date: Sat, 30 May 2015 11:43:37 -0600 Subject: Use keywords in POST/PUT examples Using strings doesn't work for the POST/PUT examples here, changing them to keywords fixes this --- compojure.html.markdown | 8 ++++---- 1 file changed, 4 insertions(+), 4 deletions(-) diff --git a/compojure.html.markdown b/compojure.html.markdown index 36a8d123..32181e26 100644 --- a/compojure.html.markdown +++ b/compojure.html.markdown @@ -155,8 +155,8 @@ Now, your handlers may utilize query parameters: ```clojure (defroutes myapp (GET "/posts" req - (let [title (get (:params req) "title") - author (get (:params req) "author")] + (let [title (get (:params req) :title) + author (get (:params req) :author)] (str "Title: " title ", Author: " author)))) ``` @@ -165,8 +165,8 @@ Or, for POST and PUT requests, form parameters as well ```clojure (defroutes myapp (POST "/posts" req - (let [title (get (:params req) "title") - author (get (:params req) "author")] + (let [title (get (:params req) :title) + author (get (:params req) :author)] (str "Title: " title ", Author: " author)))) ``` -- cgit v1.2.3 From 462ac892179d64437b1124263402378a6054e50b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Adam Date: Sun, 31 May 2015 21:38:03 -0400 Subject: Remove return type from Dog class constructor and destructor, change nonexistant printDog function to print. --- c++.html.markdown | 6 +++--- 1 file changed, 3 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) diff --git a/c++.html.markdown b/c++.html.markdown index 9f8f5f32..2c6d51a9 100644 --- a/c++.html.markdown +++ b/c++.html.markdown @@ -300,7 +300,7 @@ public: }; // A semicolon must follow the class definition. // Class member functions are usually implemented in .cpp files. -void Dog::Dog() +Dog::Dog() { std::cout << "A dog has been constructed\n"; } @@ -323,7 +323,7 @@ void Dog::print() const std::cout << "Dog is " << name << " and weighs " << weight << "kg\n"; } -void Dog::~Dog() +Dog::~Dog() { cout << "Goodbye " << name << "\n"; } @@ -332,7 +332,7 @@ int main() { Dog myDog; // prints "A dog has been constructed" myDog.setName("Barkley"); myDog.setWeight(10); - myDog.printDog(); // prints "Dog is Barkley and weighs 10 kg" + myDog.print(); // prints "Dog is Barkley and weighs 10 kg" return 0; } // prints "Goodbye Barkley" -- cgit v1.2.3 From 3db1042157204ad05484d6b42140261f849040cc Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Adam Date: Sun, 31 May 2015 21:42:03 -0400 Subject: Add missing semicolons. --- c++.html.markdown | 4 ++-- 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/c++.html.markdown b/c++.html.markdown index 2c6d51a9..5cd491b9 100644 --- a/c++.html.markdown +++ b/c++.html.markdown @@ -288,7 +288,7 @@ public: // Functions can also be defined inside the class body. // Functions defined as such are automatically inlined. - void bark() const { std::cout << name << " barks!\n" } + void bark() const { std::cout << name << " barks!\n"; } // Along with constructors, C++ provides destructors. // These are called when an object is deleted or falls out of scope. @@ -341,7 +341,7 @@ int main() { // This class inherits everything public and protected from the Dog class class OwnedDog : public Dog { - void setOwner(const std::string& dogsOwner) + void setOwner(const std::string& dogsOwner); // Override the behavior of the print function for all OwnedDogs. See // http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(computer_science)#Subtyping -- cgit v1.2.3 From bdedf51a72156d925b1814776e272572a9c8e581 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Avjinder Singh Sekhon Date: Mon, 1 Jun 2015 23:46:04 +0530 Subject: Added 'Stages of Git', link to Pro Git, and other forms of git help --- git.html.markdown | 17 +++++++++++++++-- 1 file changed, 15 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/git.html.markdown b/git.html.markdown index af65afb0..dd93dd88 100644 --- a/git.html.markdown +++ b/git.html.markdown @@ -79,6 +79,11 @@ this pointer will automatically update and point to the latest commit. HEAD is a pointer that points to the current branch. A repository only has 1 *active* HEAD. head is a pointer that points to any commit. A repository can have any number of heads. +###Stages of Git +* Committed - Files have been committed to the Git Database +* Modified - Changes have been made to a file but file has not been committed to Git Database yet +* Staged - Marks a modified file to go into your next commit snapshot + ### Conceptual Resources * [Git For Computer Scientists](http://eagain.net/articles/git-for-computer-scientists/) @@ -131,6 +136,10 @@ $ git help -a $ git help add $ git help commit $ git help init +# or git --help +$ git add --help +$ git commit --help +$ git init --help ``` ### status @@ -149,8 +158,8 @@ $ git help status ### add -To add files to the current working tree/directory/repo. If you do not `git add` new files to the -working tree/directory, they will not be included in commits! +To add files to the staging area/index. If you do not `git add` new files to the +staging area/index, they will not be included in commits! ```bash # add a file in your current working directory @@ -163,6 +172,8 @@ $ git add /path/to/file/HelloWorld.c $ git add ./*.java ``` +This only addds a file to the staging area/index, it doesn't commit it to the working directory/repo. + ### branch Manage your branches. You can view, edit, create, delete branches using this command. @@ -462,3 +473,5 @@ $ git rm /pather/to/the/file/HelloWorld.c * [GitGuys](http://www.gitguys.com/) * [Git - the simple guide](http://rogerdudler.github.io/git-guide/index.html) + +* [Pro Git](http://www.git-scm.com/book/en/v2) -- cgit v1.2.3 From 470da394f6641dd0a56f48da5bb5f451ea0cbcdc Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Avjinder Singh Sekhon Date: Mon, 1 Jun 2015 23:49:05 +0530 Subject: Fixed some typos --- git.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/git.html.markdown b/git.html.markdown index dd93dd88..1b83e3a3 100644 --- a/git.html.markdown +++ b/git.html.markdown @@ -172,7 +172,7 @@ $ git add /path/to/file/HelloWorld.c $ git add ./*.java ``` -This only addds a file to the staging area/index, it doesn't commit it to the working directory/repo. +This only adds a file to the staging area/index, it doesn't commit it to the working directory/repo. ### branch -- cgit v1.2.3 From cea52ca43490b74316781c23779654fd46aaeab4 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Adam Date: Mon, 1 Jun 2015 21:57:18 -0400 Subject: Exceptions do not take a string argument in their constructor. --- c++.html.markdown | 4 ++-- 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/c++.html.markdown b/c++.html.markdown index 5cd491b9..b214de7a 100644 --- a/c++.html.markdown +++ b/c++.html.markdown @@ -523,7 +523,7 @@ printMessage<10>(); // Prints "Learn C++ faster in only 10 minutes!" // _catch_ handlers. try { // Do not allocate exceptions on the heap using _new_. - throw std::exception("A problem occurred"); + throw std::exception(); } // Catch exceptions by const reference if they are objects catch (const std::exception& ex) @@ -614,7 +614,7 @@ void doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename) { FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r"); // Open the file in read mode if (fh == nullptr) - throw std::exception("Could not open the file."); + throw std::exception(); try { doSomethingWithTheFile(fh); -- cgit v1.2.3 From 47d3cea47e8c5203efa857070a00dcfbff67b019 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Adam Date: Mon, 1 Jun 2015 22:00:52 -0400 Subject: Template example class should have public method so it can get called externally. --- c++.html.markdown | 1 + 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+) diff --git a/c++.html.markdown b/c++.html.markdown index b214de7a..d049408a 100644 --- a/c++.html.markdown +++ b/c++.html.markdown @@ -445,6 +445,7 @@ int main () { // define a class or function that takes a type parameter: template class Box { +public: // In this class, T can be used as any other type. void insert(const T&) { ... } }; -- cgit v1.2.3 From 59b719015a5fadf6a1d12854a19b0196c8481ec8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alwayswithme Date: Tue, 2 Jun 2015 15:55:12 +0800 Subject: minor revision --- zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown | 4 ++-- 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown index 13f85bb7..63bec888 100644 --- a/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown @@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ VARIABLE = "Some string" # 也不可以这样： Variable= 'Some string' # Bash 会认为 'Some string' 是一条指令，由于找不到该指令，这里再次报错。 -# （这个例子中 'Variable=' 这部分的赋值仅对 'Some string' 指令起作用。） +# （这个例子中 'Variable=' 这部分会被当作仅对 'Some string' 起作用的赋值。） # 使用变量： echo $VARIABLE @@ -264,7 +264,7 @@ apropos bash man 1 bash man bash -# 用 info 指令查阅命令的 info 文档 （info 中输入 ? 显示帮助信息） +# 用 info 指令查阅命令的 info 文档 （info 中按 ? 显示帮助信息） apropos info | grep '^info.*(' man info info info -- cgit v1.2.3 From da0d1819f85489990418713f565013f51811bdb9 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alwayswithme Date: Tue, 2 Jun 2015 16:38:11 +0800 Subject: only capitalize first character of the variable --- zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown | 32 ++++++++++++++++---------------- 1 file changed, 16 insertions(+), 16 deletions(-) diff --git a/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown index 63bec888..1b79f326 100644 --- a/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown @@ -36,11 +36,11 @@ echo Hello, world! echo 'This is the first line'; echo 'This is the second line' # 声明一个变量： -VARIABLE="Some string" +Variable="Some string" # 下面是错误的做法： -VARIABLE = "Some string" -# Bash 会把 VARIABLE 当做一个指令，由于找不到该指令，因此这里会报错。 +Variable = "Some string" +# Bash 会把 Variable 当做一个指令，由于找不到该指令，因此这里会报错。 # 也不可以这样： Variable= 'Some string' @@ -48,17 +48,17 @@ Variable= 'Some string' # （这个例子中 'Variable=' 这部分会被当作仅对 'Some string' 起作用的赋值。） # 使用变量： -echo $VARIABLE -echo "$VARIABLE" -echo '$VARIABLE' +echo $Variable +echo "$Variable" +echo '$Variable' # 当你赋值 (assign) 、导出 (export)，或者以其他方式使用变量时，变量名前不加 $。 # 如果要使用变量的值， 则要加 $。 # 注意： ' (单引号) 不会展开变量（即会屏蔽掉变量）。 # 在变量内部进行字符串代换 -echo ${VARIABLE/Some/A} -# 会把 VARIABLE 中首次出现的 "some" 替换成 “A”。 +echo ${Variable/Some/A} +# 会把 Variable 中首次出现的 "some" 替换成 “A”。 # 变量的截取 Length=7 @@ -80,12 +80,12 @@ echo "Scripts arguments separeted in different variables: $1 $2..." # 读取输入： echo "What's your name?" -read NAME # 这里不需要声明新变量 -echo Hello, $NAME! +read Name # 这里不需要声明新变量 +echo Hello, $Name! # 通常的 if 结构看起来像这样： # 'man test' 可查看更多的信息 -if [ $NAME -ne $USER ] +if [ $Name -ne $USER ] then echo "Your name is you username" else @@ -167,7 +167,7 @@ echo "There are $(ls | wc -l) items here." echo "There are `ls | wc -l` items here." # Bash 的 case 语句与 Java 和 C++ 中的 switch 语句类似: -case "$VARIABLE" in +case "$Variable" in # 列出需要匹配的字符串 0) echo "There is a zero.";; 1) echo "There is a one.";; @@ -175,11 +175,11 @@ case "$VARIABLE" in esac # 循环遍历给定的参数序列: -# 变量$VARIABLE 的值会被打印 3 次。 +# 变量$Variable 的值会被打印 3 次。 # 注意 ` ` 和 $( ) 等价。seq 返回长度为 3 的数组。 -for VARIABLE in `seq 3` +for Variable in `seq 3` do - echo "$VARIABLE" + echo "$Variable" done # 或传统的 “for循环” ： @@ -227,7 +227,7 @@ bar () } # 调用函数 -foo "My name is" $NAME +foo "My name is" $Name # 有很多有用的指令需要学习: # 打印 file.txt 的最后 10 行 -- cgit v1.2.3 From ee7f99fc461afad7d4aba4ac4226bdf7102abee4 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alwayswithme Date: Tue, 2 Jun 2015 17:02:23 +0800 Subject: command sync with english version --- zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown | 14 ++++++-------- 1 file changed, 6 insertions(+), 8 deletions(-) diff --git a/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown index 1b79f326..558d9110 100644 --- a/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/bash-cn.html.markdown @@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ Bash 是一个为 GNU 计划编写的 Unix shell，是 Linux 和 Mac OS X 下的 # 如你所见，注释以 # 开头，shebang 也是注释。 # 显示 “Hello world!” -echo Hello, world! +echo Hello world! # 每一句指令以换行或分号隔开： echo 'This is the first line'; echo 'This is the second line' @@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ echo "Last program return value: $?" echo "Script's PID: $$" echo "Number of arguments: $#" echo "Scripts arguments: $@" -echo "Scripts arguments separeted in different variables: $1 $2..." +echo "Scripts arguments separated in different variables: $1 $2..." # 读取输入： echo "What's your name?" @@ -87,13 +87,13 @@ echo Hello, $Name! # 'man test' 可查看更多的信息 if [ $Name -ne $USER ] then - echo "Your name is you username" + echo "Your name isn't your username" else - echo "Your name isn't you username" + echo "Your name is your username" fi # 根据上一个指令执行结果决定是否执行下一个指令 -echo "Always executed" || echo "Only executed if first command fail" +echo "Always executed" || echo "Only executed if first command fails" echo "Always executed" && echo "Only executed if first command does NOT fail" # 在 if 语句中使用 && 和 || 需要多对方括号 @@ -176,8 +176,7 @@ esac # 循环遍历给定的参数序列: # 变量$Variable 的值会被打印 3 次。 -# 注意 ` ` 和 $( ) 等价。seq 返回长度为 3 的数组。 -for Variable in `seq 3` +for Variable in {1..3} do echo "$Variable" done @@ -275,5 +274,4 @@ info bash info bash 'Bash Features' info bash 6 info --apropos bash - ``` -- cgit v1.2.3 From 894792e1e17173823a5d50de24439427c69d63f4 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Adam Date: Tue, 2 Jun 2015 16:30:35 -0400 Subject: Using std::runtime_error instead of std::exception. --- c++.html.markdown | 3 ++- 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/c++.html.markdown b/c++.html.markdown index d049408a..6f4d2959 100644 --- a/c++.html.markdown +++ b/c++.html.markdown @@ -519,12 +519,13 @@ printMessage<10>(); // Prints "Learn C++ faster in only 10 minutes!" // (see http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/error/exception) // but any type can be thrown an as exception #include +#include // All exceptions thrown inside the _try_ block can be caught by subsequent // _catch_ handlers. try { // Do not allocate exceptions on the heap using _new_. - throw std::exception(); + throw std::runtime_error("A problem occurred"); } // Catch exceptions by const reference if they are objects catch (const std::exception& ex) -- cgit v1.2.3 From 628a4ccfc2d55de69a55622c9cd8a0d9d7819013 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Avjinder Singh Sekhon Date: Wed, 3 Jun 2015 03:02:38 +0530 Subject: Changed the order of the Stages of Git --- git.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/git.html.markdown b/git.html.markdown index 1b83e3a3..4bbc58e7 100644 --- a/git.html.markdown +++ b/git.html.markdown @@ -80,9 +80,9 @@ HEAD is a pointer that points to the current branch. A repository only has 1 *ac head is a pointer that points to any commit. A repository can have any number of heads. ###Stages of Git -* Committed - Files have been committed to the Git Database * Modified - Changes have been made to a file but file has not been committed to Git Database yet * Staged - Marks a modified file to go into your next commit snapshot +* Committed - Files have been committed to the Git Database ### Conceptual Resources -- cgit v1.2.3 From 06889be239622266d9c36c750f7ee755ccdae05d Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Adam Date: Tue, 2 Jun 2015 19:14:52 -0400 Subject: Updated other exception to also be runtime_error type instead. --- c++.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/c++.html.markdown b/c++.html.markdown index 6f4d2959..ff2a98fd 100644 --- a/c++.html.markdown +++ b/c++.html.markdown @@ -616,7 +616,7 @@ void doSomethingWithAFile(const char* filename) { FILE* fh = fopen(filename, "r"); // Open the file in read mode if (fh == nullptr) - throw std::exception(); + throw std::runtime_error("Could not open the file."); try { doSomethingWithTheFile(fh); -- cgit v1.2.3 From 152c03ddf9072ed80efef0528968ca132385a2aa Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: inaimathi Date: Sat, 6 Jun 2015 12:51:45 -0400 Subject: Add notes about records to Standard ML page. --- standard-ml.html.markdown | 42 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++------ 1 file changed, 36 insertions(+), 6 deletions(-) diff --git a/standard-ml.html.markdown b/standard-ml.html.markdown index 07896beb..125183c0 100644 --- a/standard-ml.html.markdown +++ b/standard-ml.html.markdown @@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ contributors: - ["Simon Shine", "http://shine.eu.org/"] - ["David Pedersen", "http://lonelyproton.com/"] - ["James Baker", "http://www.jbaker.io/"] + - ["Leo Zovic", "http://langnostic.inaimathi.ca/"] --- Standard ML is a functional programming language with type inference and some @@ -136,9 +137,29 @@ val mixup = [ ("Alice", 39), val good_bad_stuff = (["ice cream", "hot dogs", "chocolate"], - ["liver", "paying the rent" ]) (* string list * string list *) + ["liver", "paying the rent" ]) (* : string list * string list *) +(* Records are tuples with named slots *) + +val rgb = { r=0.23, g=0.56, b=0.91 } (* : {b:real, g:real, r:real} *) + +(* You don't need to declare their slots ahead of time. Records with + different slot names are considered different types, even if their + slot value types match up. For instance... *) + +val Hsl = { H=310.3, s=0.51, l=0.23 } (* : {H:real, l:real, s:real} *) +val Hsv = { H=310.3, s=0.51, v=0.23 } (* : {H:real, s:real, v:real} *) + +(* ...trying to evaluate `Hsv = Hsl` or `rgb = Hsl` would give a type + error. While they're all three-slot records composed only of `real`s, + they each have different names for at least some slots. *) + +(* You can use hash notation to get values out of tuples. *) + +val H = #H Hsv (* : real *) +val s = #s Hsl (* : real *) + (* Functions! *) fun add_them (a, b) = a + b (* A simple function that adds two numbers *) val test_it = add_them (3, 4) (* gives 7 *) @@ -225,17 +246,26 @@ fun fibonacci 0 = 0 (* Base case *) | fibonacci 1 = 1 (* Base case *) | fibonacci n = fibonacci (n - 1) + fibonacci (n - 2) (* Recursive case *) -(* Pattern matching is also possible on composite types like tuples and lists. - Writing "fun solve2 (a, b, c) = ..." is in fact a pattern match on the one - three-tuple solve2 takes as argument. Similarly, but less intuitively, you - can match on a list consisting of elements in it (from the beginning of the - list only). *) +(* Pattern matching is also possible on composite types like tuples, lists and + records. Writing "fun solve2 (a, b, c) = ..." is in fact a pattern match on + the one three-tuple solve2 takes as argument. Similarly, but less intuitively, + you can match on a list consisting of elements in it (from the beginning of + the list only). *) fun first_elem (x::xs) = x fun second_elem (x::y::xs) = y fun evenly_positioned_elems (odd::even::xs) = even::evenly_positioned_elems xs | evenly_positioned_elems [odd] = [] (* Base case: throw away *) | evenly_positioned_elems [] = [] (* Base case *) +(* When matching on records, you must use their slot names, and you must bind + every slot in a record. The order of the slots doesn't matter though. *) + +fun rgbToTup {r, g, b} = (r, g, b) (* fn : {b:'a, g:'b, r:'c} -> 'c * 'b * 'a *) +fun mixRgbToTup {g, b, r} = (r, g, b) (* fn : {b:'a, g:'b, r:'c} -> 'c * 'b * 'a *) + +(* If called with {r=0.1, g=0.2, b=0.3}, either of the above functions + would return (0.1, 0.2, 0.3). But it would be a type error to call them + with {r=0.1, g=0.2, b=0.3, a=0.4} *) (* Higher order functions: Functions can take other functions as arguments. Functions are just other kinds of values, and functions don't need names -- cgit v1.2.3 From 21c3187f11cbb9926959af23d76743718e96d77b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: inaimathi Date: Sat, 6 Jun 2015 12:53:33 -0400 Subject: Fix indentation --- standard-ml.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/standard-ml.html.markdown b/standard-ml.html.markdown index 125183c0..143980e7 100644 --- a/standard-ml.html.markdown +++ b/standard-ml.html.markdown @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ contributors: - ["Simon Shine", "http://shine.eu.org/"] - ["David Pedersen", "http://lonelyproton.com/"] - ["James Baker", "http://www.jbaker.io/"] - - ["Leo Zovic", "http://langnostic.inaimathi.ca/"] + - ["Leo Zovic", "http://langnostic.inaimathi.ca/"] --- Standard ML is a functional programming language with type inference and some -- cgit v1.2.3 From fff6f8c57ac57999c5efe70650fcd5592a2348f7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Erik Reinecke Date: Sun, 7 Jun 2015 12:06:05 -0500 Subject: Corrected link to Groovy documentatin --- groovy.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/groovy.html.markdown b/groovy.html.markdown index 8fb1b346..629b6d18 100644 --- a/groovy.html.markdown +++ b/groovy.html.markdown @@ -405,7 +405,7 @@ assert sum(2,5) == 7 ## Further resources -[Groovy documentation](http://groovy.codehaus.org/Documentation) +[Groovy documentation](http://www.groovy-lang.org/documentation.html) [Groovy web console](http://groovyconsole.appspot.com/) -- cgit v1.2.3 From d6bf5fe3def6b4b032c4eccebfd7be8e82b72488 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Sam Kvale Date: Tue, 9 Jun 2015 10:42:26 -0500 Subject: Update visualbasic.html.markdown Copy - Paste error --- visualbasic.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/visualbasic.html.markdown b/visualbasic.html.markdown index fbfa500d..123ec56c 100644 --- a/visualbasic.html.markdown +++ b/visualbasic.html.markdown @@ -159,7 +159,7 @@ Module Module1 Console.Write(a.ToString() + " - " + b.ToString()) Console.WriteLine(" = " + e.ToString.PadLeft(3)) Console.Write(a.ToString() + " / " + b.ToString()) - Console.WriteLine(" = " + e.ToString.PadLeft(3)) + Console.WriteLine(" = " + f.ToString.PadLeft(3)) Console.ReadLine() End Sub -- cgit v1.2.3 From b4a6669d44e57c6b5c7338fea42d0e55182258f8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Sam Kvale Date: Tue, 9 Jun 2015 10:43:26 -0500 Subject: Update visualbasic.html.markdown --- visualbasic.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/visualbasic.html.markdown b/visualbasic.html.markdown index 123ec56c..00d61843 100644 --- a/visualbasic.html.markdown +++ b/visualbasic.html.markdown @@ -189,7 +189,7 @@ Module Module1 Console.Write(a.ToString() + " - " + b.ToString()) Console.WriteLine(" = " + e.ToString.PadLeft(3)) Console.Write(a.ToString() + " / " + b.ToString()) - Console.WriteLine(" = " + e.ToString.PadLeft(3)) + Console.WriteLine(" = " + f.ToString.PadLeft(3)) Console.ReadLine() 'Ask the question, does the user wish to continue? Unfortunately it 'is case sensitive. -- cgit v1.2.3 From 75ecb5aa8133325f14d97d00675c3b039da06530 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Mark Canlas Date: Wed, 10 Jun 2015 00:00:12 +0200 Subject: tamed indentation/whitespace --- perl.html.markdown | 44 +++++++++++++++++++++++--------------------- 1 file changed, 23 insertions(+), 21 deletions(-) diff --git a/perl.html.markdown b/perl.html.markdown index aac95939..ab8c7a32 100644 --- a/perl.html.markdown +++ b/perl.html.markdown @@ -47,9 +47,9 @@ my %fruit_color = ("apple", "red", "banana", "yellow"); # You can use whitespace and the "=>" operator to lay them out more nicely: my %fruit_color = ( - apple => "red", - banana => "yellow", - ); + apple => "red", + banana => "yellow", +); # Scalars, arrays and hashes are documented more fully in perldata. # (perldoc perldata). @@ -60,17 +60,17 @@ my %fruit_color = ( # Perl has most of the usual conditional and looping constructs. -if ( $var ) { - ... -} elsif ( $var eq 'bar' ) { - ... +if ($var) { + ... +} elsif ($var eq 'bar') { + ... } else { - ... + ... } -unless ( condition ) { - ... - } +unless (condition) { + ... +} # This is provided as a more readable version of "if (!condition)" # the Perlish post-condition way @@ -78,19 +78,19 @@ print "Yow!" if $zippy; print "We have no bananas" unless $bananas; # while - while ( condition ) { - ... - } +while (condition) { + ... +} # for and foreach for ($i = 0; $i <= $max; $i++) { - ... - } + ... +} foreach (@array) { - print "This element is $_\n"; - } + print "This element is $_\n"; +} #### Regular expressions @@ -129,9 +129,11 @@ my @lines = <$in>; # Writing subroutines is easy: sub logger { - my $logmessage = shift; - open my $logfile, ">>", "my.log" or die "Could not open my.log: $!"; - print $logfile $logmessage; + my $logmessage = shift; + + open my $logfile, ">>", "my.log" or die "Could not open my.log: $!"; + + print $logfile $logmessage; } # Now we can use the subroutine just as any other built-in function: -- cgit v1.2.3 From 66379e80cdc805612327e71a6cfa79d4699a8186 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Mark Canlas Date: Wed, 10 Jun 2015 00:05:36 +0200 Subject: revamped for loops --- perl.html.markdown | 20 +++++++++++++++----- 1 file changed, 15 insertions(+), 5 deletions(-) diff --git a/perl.html.markdown b/perl.html.markdown index ab8c7a32..3c0699ad 100644 --- a/perl.html.markdown +++ b/perl.html.markdown @@ -83,13 +83,23 @@ while (condition) { } -# for and foreach -for ($i = 0; $i <= $max; $i++) { - ... +# for loops and iteration +for (my $i = 0; $i < $max; $i++) { + print "index is $i"; +} + +for (my $i = 0; $i < @elements; $i++) { + print "Current element is " . $elements[$i]; } -foreach (@array) { - print "This element is $_\n"; +for my $element (@elements) { + print $element; +} + +# implicitly + +for (@elements) { + print; } -- cgit v1.2.3 From 839e2e4b272816a811f25eb46baca743c2b542c1 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Andrey Samsonov Date: Wed, 10 Jun 2015 12:08:45 +0400 Subject: Add Andre Polykanine to bash/ru transtators list --- ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown | 1 + 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+) diff --git a/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown index e6741b1b..21377b6c 100644 --- a/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown @@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ contributors: - ["Etan Reisner", "https://github.com/deryni"] translators: - ["Andrey Samsonov", "https://github.com/kryzhovnik"] + - ["Andre Polykanine", "https://github.com/Oire"] filename: LearnBash-ru.sh lang: ru-ru --- -- cgit v1.2.3 From e191446b333856afff0456349edb71da9634f6aa Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Geoff Liu Date: Thu, 11 Jun 2015 17:35:20 -0600 Subject: Add language marking for R --- fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown | 1 + 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+) diff --git a/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown index 3f225a0f..7d30a48d 100644 --- a/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/r-fr.html.markdown @@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ contributors: translators: - ["Anne-Catherine Dehier", "https://github.com/spellart"] filename: learnr-fr.r +lang: fr-fr --- R est un langage de programmation statistique. Il dispose de nombreuses -- cgit v1.2.3 From 9c6aec3ceb41a207e77a36b3b22b8bcab99fa86d Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Julien Cretel Date: Sun, 14 Jun 2015 13:24:24 +0100 Subject: [erlang/fr] Integrate feedback on PR --- fr-fr/erlang-fr.html.markdown | 32 +++++++++++++++++--------------- 1 file changed, 17 insertions(+), 15 deletions(-) diff --git a/fr-fr/erlang-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/erlang-fr.html.markdown index 564e176f..55453c56 100644 --- a/fr-fr/erlang-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/erlang-fr.html.markdown @@ -15,19 +15,21 @@ lang: fr-fr %%% Trois signes pour cent sont utilisés pour commenter les modules. -% Trois types de ponctuation sont utilisés en Erlang. +% Trois symboles de ponctuation sont utilisés en Erlang. % Les virgules (`,`) servent à séparer les paramètres dans les appels de % fonctions, les contructeurs, et les motifs. -% Les points (`.`) (suivis par des caractères blancs) servent à séparer -% les fonctions et les expressions dans l'interpréteur. +% Les points (`.`) (suivis par des blancs) servent à séparer les fonctions et +% les expressions dans l'interpréteur. % Les points-virgules (`;`) servent à séparer les clauses. Ces dernières % apparaissent dans différent cas de figure : définitions de fonctions et -% expressions `case`, `if`, `try..catch`, et `receive`. +% expressions `case`, `if`, `try..catch`, `receive`. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -%% 1. Variables et filtrage par motif. +%% 1. Variables et filtrage par motif %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% +(L'équivalent anglais de *filtrage par motif* est *pattern patching*.) + Nb = 42. % Chaque nom de variable doit commencer par une lettre majuscule. % Les variables Erlang ne peuvent être affectées qu'une seule fois ; si vous @@ -101,7 +103,7 @@ Nom = "Bonjour". %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% % Les modules constituent l'unité de base d'un programme Erlang. Toutes les -% fonctions que l'on écrit sont sauvées dans des modules. Les modules sont +% fonctions que l'on écrit sont enregistrées dans des modules. Les modules sont % enregistrés dans des fichiers avec une extension `.erl`. % Les modules doivent être compilés afin d'éxecuter le programme. % Un module compilé a une extension `.beam`. @@ -138,27 +140,27 @@ somme(L) -> somme(L, 0). somme([], N) -> N; somme([T|Q], N) -> somme(Q, T+N). -% Les funs sont des fonctions "anonymes" ; elles sont appelées ainsi parce -% qu'elles n'ont pas de noms. Cependant, elles peuvent être affectées à des +% Les `fun`s sont des fonctions "anonymes" ; elles sont appelées ainsi parce +% qu'elles n'ont pas de nom. Cependant, elles peuvent être affectées à des % variables. Doubler = fun(X) -> 2 * X end. % `Doubler` pointe vers une fonction anonyme % dont le handle est : #Fun Doubler(2). % 4 -% Les fonctions peuvent prendre des funs comme paramètres et peuvent renvoyer -% des funs. +% Les fonctions peuvent prendre des `fun`s comme paramètres et peuvent renvoyer +% des `fun`s. Mult = fun(Fois) -> ( fun(X) -> X * Fois end ) end. Tripler = Mult(3). Tripler(5). % 15 % Les listes en compréhension sont des expressions qui créent des listes sans -% requérir ni funs, ni maps, ni filters. +% requérir ni `fun`s, ni maps, ni filters. % La notation `[F(X) || X <- L]` signifie "la liste des `F(X)` où `X` est % extrait de la liste `L`." L = [1,2,3,4,5]. [2 * X || X <- L]. % [2,4,6,8,10] -% Une liste en compréhension peut avoir des générateurs, ainsi que des gardes, -% qui sélectionnent un sous-ensemble des valeurs générées. +% Une liste en compréhension peut être constituée de générateurs, ainsi que de +% gardes, qui sélectionnent un sous-ensemble des valeurs générées. NombresPairs = [N || N <- [1, 2, 3, 4], N rem 2 == 0]. % [2, 4] % La garde est un élément syntaxique qui rend le filtrage par motif encore @@ -186,7 +188,7 @@ est_chien(A) -> false. est_animal(A) when is_atom(A), (A =:= chien) or (A =:= chat) -> true; est_animal(A) -> false. -% Attention : les expressions Erlang valides ne peuvent pas toutes être +% Attention : toutes les expressions Erlang valides ne peuvent pas être % utilisées comme expressions gardes ; en particulier, nos fonctions % `est_chat` et `est_chien` ne sont pas autorisées au sein de la séquence de % gardes dans la définition de `est_animal`. Pour plus de détails sur les @@ -317,7 +319,7 @@ self(). % <0.41.0> ``` -## Références +## Ressources (en anglais) * ["Learn You Some Erlang for great good!"](http://learnyousomeerlang.com/) * ["Programming Erlang: Software for a Concurrent World" by Joe Armstrong](http://pragprog.com/book/jaerlang/programming-erlang) -- cgit v1.2.3 From 302723b2c5c964d805cfafefdc40924df31dd9d0 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Todd Gao Date: Tue, 16 Jun 2015 22:42:55 +0800 Subject: update the groovy web site link in some docs --- groovy.html.markdown | 8 ++++---- pt-br/groovy-pt.html.markdown | 10 +++++----- 2 files changed, 9 insertions(+), 9 deletions(-) diff --git a/groovy.html.markdown b/groovy.html.markdown index 629b6d18..519f36ce 100644 --- a/groovy.html.markdown +++ b/groovy.html.markdown @@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ contributors: filename: learngroovy.groovy --- -Groovy - A dynamic language for the Java platform [Read more here.](http://groovy.codehaus.org) +Groovy - A dynamic language for the Java platform [Read more here.](http://www.groovy-lang.org/) ```groovy @@ -231,7 +231,7 @@ for ( e in map ) { Operators Operator Overloading for a list of the common operators that Groovy supports: - http://groovy.codehaus.org/Operator+Overloading + http://www.groovy-lang.org/operators.html#Operator-Overloading Helpful groovy operators */ @@ -249,7 +249,7 @@ def username = user?.username A Groovy Closure is like a "code block" or a method pointer. It is a piece of code that is defined and then executed at a later point. - More info at: http://groovy.codehaus.org/Closures+-+Formal+Definition + More info at: http://www.groovy-lang.org/closures.html */ //Example: def clos = { println "Hello World!" } @@ -409,7 +409,7 @@ assert sum(2,5) == 7 [Groovy web console](http://groovyconsole.appspot.com/) -Join a [Groovy user group](http://groovy.codehaus.org/User+Groups) +Join a [Groovy user group](http://www.groovy-lang.org/usergroups.html) ## Books diff --git a/pt-br/groovy-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/groovy-pt.html.markdown index 885d5b27..2ec7d967 100644 --- a/pt-br/groovy-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/groovy-pt.html.markdown @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ translators: lang: pt-br --- -Groovy - Uma linguagem dinâmica para a plataforma Java. [Leia mais aqui.](http://groovy.codehaus.org) +Groovy - Uma linguagem dinâmica para a plataforma Java. [Leia mais aqui.](http://www.groovy-lang.org/) ```groovy @@ -236,7 +236,7 @@ for ( e in map ) { Sobrecarregamento de Operadores para uma lsita dos operadores comuns que Grooby suporta: - http://groovy.codehaus.org/Operator+Overloading + http://www.groovy-lang.org/operators.html#Operator-Overloading Operadores Groovy úteis */ @@ -255,7 +255,7 @@ def nomeUsuario = usuario?.nomeUsuario Um closure, em Grooby, é como um "bloco de código" ou um ponteiro para método. É um pedação de código que é definido e executado em um momento posterior. - Mais informação em: http://groovy.codehaus.org/Closures+-+Formal+Definition + Mais informação em: http://www.groovy-lang.org/closures.html */ //Exemplo: def clos = { println "Hello World!" } @@ -413,11 +413,11 @@ assert soma(2,5) == 7 ## Referências -[Groovy documentation](http://groovy.codehaus.org/Documentation) +[Groovy documentation](http://www.groovy-lang.org/documentation.html) [Groovy web console](http://groovyconsole.appspot.com/) -Junte-se a um [grupo de usuários Groovy](http://groovy.codehaus.org/User+Groups) +Junte-se a um [grupo de usuários Groovy](http://www.groovy-lang.org/usergroups.html) ## Livro -- cgit v1.2.3 From 5f8c78bc9983ea23b624a3b82aed17c1cc4d4ebe Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Julien Cretel Date: Tue, 16 Jun 2015 18:14:36 +0100 Subject: [erlang/en] Fix #1142 --- erlang.html.markdown | 7 +++++++ 1 file changed, 7 insertions(+) diff --git a/erlang.html.markdown b/erlang.html.markdown index a3b571d1..8b67a76a 100644 --- a/erlang.html.markdown +++ b/erlang.html.markdown @@ -164,6 +164,13 @@ is_cat(A) -> false. is_dog(A) when is_atom(A), A =:= dog -> true; is_dog(A) -> false. +% We won't dwell on the `=:=` operator here; just be aware that it is used to +% check whether two Erlang expressions have the same value *and* the same type. +% Contrast this behaviour to that of the `==` operator: +1 + 2 =:= 3. % true +1 + 2 =:= 3.0. % false +1 + 2 == 3.0. % true + % A guard sequence is either a single guard or a series of guards, separated % by semicolons (`;`). The guard sequence `G1; G2; ...; Gn` is true if at % least one of the guards `G1`, `G2`, ..., `Gn` evaluates to `true`. -- cgit v1.2.3 From 7070304d60715405bb5f2432f4c84868a6418376 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Geoff Liu Date: Tue, 16 Jun 2015 12:54:54 -0600 Subject: Fix explanation of "and" and "or" in ruby. --- ruby.html.markdown | 12 ++++++++---- 1 file changed, 8 insertions(+), 4 deletions(-) diff --git a/ruby.html.markdown b/ruby.html.markdown index 792c9c95..66a0774d 100644 --- a/ruby.html.markdown +++ b/ruby.html.markdown @@ -79,10 +79,14 @@ true && false #=> false true || false #=> true !true #=> false -# Alternate spellings of logical operators -true and false #=> false -true or false #=> true -not true #=> false +# There are alternate versions of the logical operators with much lower +# precedence. These are meant to be used as flow-control constructs to chain +# statements together until one of them returns true or false. + +# `do_something_else` only called if `do_something` succeeds. +do_something() and do_something_else() +# `log_error` only called if `do_something` fails. +do_something() or log_error() # Strings are objects -- cgit v1.2.3 From 68b05bcc518064dab26c5098ea369a71bb9b5d8e Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: ven Date: Wed, 17 Jun 2015 23:25:16 +0200 Subject: Fix adambard/learnxinyminutes-site#12 --- it-it/c++-it.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown b/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown index 4f5ac8a2..e7e1d89e 100644 --- a/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown +++ b/it-it/c++-it.html.markdown @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ --- language: c++ -filename: learncpp.cpp +filename: learncpp-it.cpp contributors: - ["Steven Basart", "http://github.com/xksteven"] - ["Matt Kline", "https://github.com/mrkline"] -- cgit v1.2.3 From ad344ac7c68ecbfa55f5d7d50bc8b3e7c162f14b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Esption Date: Wed, 17 Jun 2015 18:35:32 -0500 Subject: Rust: Change '&*' to '&' --- rust.html.markdown | 4 ++-- 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-) diff --git a/rust.html.markdown b/rust.html.markdown index 17f7dc90..fbfa4cdf 100644 --- a/rust.html.markdown +++ b/rust.html.markdown @@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ fn main() { // This is basically an immutable pointer to a string – it doesn’t // actually contain the contents of a string, just a pointer to // something that does (in this case, `s`) - let s_slice: &str = &*s; + let s_slice: &str = &s; println!("{} {}", s, s_slice); // hello world hello world @@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ fn main() { // A slice – an immutable view into a vector or array // This is much like a string slice, but for vectors - let slice: &[i32] = &*vector; + let slice: &[i32] = &vector; // Use `{:?}` to print something debug-style println!("{:?} {:?}", vector, slice); // [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] -- cgit v1.2.3 From 6b109e1460e11cb1030f4832ee67e89283cc6808 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Todd Gao Date: Thu, 18 Jun 2015 22:20:30 +0800 Subject: cp original file to zh-cn/ --- zh-cn/groovy-cn.html.markdown | 427 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 427 insertions(+) create mode 100644 zh-cn/groovy-cn.html.markdown diff --git a/zh-cn/groovy-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/groovy-cn.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..519f36ce --- /dev/null +++ b/zh-cn/groovy-cn.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,427 @@ +--- +language: Groovy +filename: learngroovy.groovy +contributors: + - ["Roberto Pérez Alcolea", "http://github.com/rpalcolea"] +filename: learngroovy.groovy +--- + +Groovy - A dynamic language for the Java platform [Read more here.](http://www.groovy-lang.org/) + +```groovy + +/* + Set yourself up: + + 1) Install GVM - http://gvmtool.net/ + 2) Install Groovy: gvm install groovy + 3) Start the groovy console by typing: groovyConsole + +*/ + +// Single line comments start with two forward slashes +/* +Multi line comments look like this. +*/ + +// Hello World +println "Hello world!" + +/* + Variables: + + You can assign values to variables for later use +*/ + +def x = 1 +println x + +x = new java.util.Date() +println x + +x = -3.1499392 +println x + +x = false +println x + +x = "Groovy!" +println x + +/* + Collections and maps +*/ + +//Creating an empty list +def technologies = [] + +/*** Adding a elements to the list ***/ + +// As with Java +technologies.add("Grails") + +// Left shift adds, and returns the list +technologies << "Groovy" + +// Add multiple elements +technologies.addAll(["Gradle","Griffon"]) + +/*** Removing elements from the list ***/ + +// As with Java +technologies.remove("Griffon") + +// Subtraction works also +technologies = technologies - 'Grails' + +/*** Iterating Lists ***/ + +// Iterate over elements of a list +technologies.each { println "Technology: $it"} +technologies.eachWithIndex { it, i -> println "$i: $it"} + +/*** Checking List contents ***/ + +//Evaluate if a list contains element(s) (boolean) +contained = technologies.contains( 'Groovy' ) + +// Or +contained = 'Groovy' in technologies + +// Check for multiple contents +technologies.containsAll(['Groovy','Grails']) + +/*** Sorting Lists ***/ + +// Sort a list (mutates original list) +technologies.sort() + +// To sort without mutating original, you can do: +sortedTechnologies = technologies.sort( false ) + +/*** Manipulating Lists ***/ + +//Replace all elements in the list +Collections.replaceAll(technologies, 'Gradle', 'gradle') + +//Shuffle a list +Collections.shuffle(technologies, new Random()) + +//Clear a list +technologies.clear() + +//Creating an empty map +def devMap = [:] + +//Add values +devMap = ['name':'Roberto', 'framework':'Grails', 'language':'Groovy'] +devMap.put('lastName','Perez') + +//Iterate over elements of a map +devMap.each { println "$it.key: $it.value" } +devMap.eachWithIndex { it, i -> println "$i: $it"} + +//Evaluate if a map contains a key +assert devMap.containsKey('name') + +//Evaluate if a map contains a value +assert devMap.containsValue('Roberto') + +//Get the keys of a map +println devMap.keySet() + +//Get the values of a map +println devMap.values() + +/* + Groovy Beans + + GroovyBeans are JavaBeans but using a much simpler syntax + + When Groovy is compiled to bytecode, the following rules are used. + + * If the name is declared with an access modifier (public, private or + protected) then a field is generated. + + * A name declared with no access modifier generates a private field with + public getter and setter (i.e. a property). + + * If a property is declared final the private field is created final and no + setter is generated. + + * You can declare a property and also declare your own getter or setter. + + * You can declare a property and a field of the same name, the property will + use that field then. + + * If you want a private or protected property you have to provide your own + getter and setter which must be declared private or protected. + + * If you access a property from within the class the property is defined in + at compile time with implicit or explicit this (for example this.foo, or + simply foo), Groovy will access the field directly instead of going though + the getter and setter. + + * If you access a property that does not exist using the explicit or + implicit foo, then Groovy will access the property through the meta class, + which may fail at runtime. + +*/ + +class Foo { + // read only property + final String name = "Roberto" + + // read only property with public getter and protected setter + String language + protected void setLanguage(String language) { this.language = language } + + // dynamically typed property + def lastName +} + +/* + Logical Branching and Looping +*/ + +//Groovy supports the usual if - else syntax +def x = 3 + +if(x==1) { + println "One" +} else if(x==2) { + println "Two" +} else { + println "X greater than Two" +} + +//Groovy also supports the ternary operator: +def y = 10 +def x = (y > 1) ? "worked" : "failed" +assert x == "worked" + +//For loop +//Iterate over a range +def x = 0 +for (i in 0 .. 30) { + x += i +} + +//Iterate over a list +x = 0 +for( i in [5,3,2,1] ) { + x += i +} + +//Iterate over an array +array = (0..20).toArray() +x = 0 +for (i in array) { + x += i +} + +//Iterate over a map +def map = ['name':'Roberto', 'framework':'Grails', 'language':'Groovy'] +x = 0 +for ( e in map ) { + x += e.value +} + +/* + Operators + + Operator Overloading for a list of the common operators that Groovy supports: + http://www.groovy-lang.org/operators.html#Operator-Overloading + + Helpful groovy operators +*/ +//Spread operator: invoke an action on all items of an aggregate object. +def technologies = ['Groovy','Grails','Gradle'] +technologies*.toUpperCase() // = to technologies.collect { it?.toUpperCase() } + +//Safe navigation operator: used to avoid a NullPointerException. +def user = User.get(1) +def username = user?.username + + +/* + Closures + A Groovy Closure is like a "code block" or a method pointer. It is a piece of + code that is defined and then executed at a later point. + + More info at: http://www.groovy-lang.org/closures.html +*/ +//Example: +def clos = { println "Hello World!" } + +println "Executing the Closure:" +clos() + +//Passing parameters to a closure +def sum = { a, b -> println a+b } +sum(2,4) + +//Closures may refer to variables not listed in their parameter list. +def x = 5 +def multiplyBy = { num -> num * x } +println multiplyBy(10) + +// If you have a Closure that takes a single argument, you may omit the +// parameter definition of the Closure +def clos = { print it } +clos( "hi" ) + +/* + Groovy can memorize closure results [1][2][3] +*/ +def cl = {a, b -> + sleep(3000) // simulate some time consuming processing + a + b +} + +mem = cl.memoize() + +def callClosure(a, b) { + def start = System.currentTimeMillis() + mem(a, b) + println "Inputs(a = $a, b = $b) - took ${System.currentTimeMillis() - start} msecs." +} + +callClosure(1, 2) +callClosure(1, 2) +callClosure(2, 3) +callClosure(2, 3) +callClosure(3, 4) +callClosure(3, 4) +callClosure(1, 2) +callClosure(2, 3) +callClosure(3, 4) + +/* + Expando + + The Expando class is a dynamic bean so we can add properties and we can add + closures as methods to an instance of this class + + http://mrhaki.blogspot.mx/2009/10/groovy-goodness-expando-as-dynamic-bean.html +*/ + def user = new Expando(name:"Roberto") + assert 'Roberto' == user.name + + user.lastName = 'Pérez' + assert 'Pérez' == user.lastName + + user.showInfo = { out -> + out << "Name: $name" + out << ", Last name: $lastName" + } + + def sw = new StringWriter() + println user.showInfo(sw) + + +/* + Metaprogramming (MOP) +*/ + +//Using ExpandoMetaClass to add behaviour +String.metaClass.testAdd = { + println "we added this" +} + +String x = "test" +x?.testAdd() + +//Intercepting method calls +class Test implements GroovyInterceptable { + def sum(Integer x, Integer y) { x + y } + + def invokeMethod(String name, args) { + System.out.println "Invoke method $name with args: $args" + } +} + +def test = new Test() +test?.sum(2,3) +test?.multiply(2,3) + +//Groovy supports propertyMissing for dealing with property resolution attempts. +class Foo { + def propertyMissing(String name) { name } +} +def f = new Foo() + +assertEquals "boo", f.boo + +/* + TypeChecked and CompileStatic + Groovy, by nature, is and will always be a dynamic language but it supports + typechecked and compilestatic + + More info: http://www.infoq.com/articles/new-groovy-20 +*/ +//TypeChecked +import groovy.transform.TypeChecked + +void testMethod() {} + +@TypeChecked +void test() { + testMeethod() + + def name = "Roberto" + + println naameee + +} + +//Another example: +import groovy.transform.TypeChecked + +@TypeChecked +Integer test() { + Integer num = "1" + + Integer[] numbers = [1,2,3,4] + + Date date = numbers[1] + + return "Test" + +} + +//CompileStatic example: +import groovy.transform.CompileStatic + +@CompileStatic +int sum(int x, int y) { + x + y +} + +assert sum(2,5) == 7 + + +``` + +## Further resources + +[Groovy documentation](http://www.groovy-lang.org/documentation.html) + +[Groovy web console](http://groovyconsole.appspot.com/) + +Join a [Groovy user group](http://www.groovy-lang.org/usergroups.html) + +## Books + +* [Groovy Goodness] (https://leanpub.com/groovy-goodness-notebook) + +* [Groovy in Action] (http://manning.com/koenig2/) + +* [Programming Groovy 2: Dynamic Productivity for the Java Developer] (http://shop.oreilly.com/product/9781937785307.do) + +[1] http://roshandawrani.wordpress.com/2010/10/18/groovy-new-feature-closures-can-now-memorize-their-results/ +[2] http://www.solutionsiq.com/resources/agileiq-blog/bid/72880/Programming-with-Groovy-Trampoline-and-Memoize +[3] http://mrhaki.blogspot.mx/2011/05/groovy-goodness-cache-closure-results.html + + + -- cgit v1.2.3 From 021c80723e3b28d81c852b6fd58b6ec9e34670ff Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Todd Gao Date: Fri, 19 Jun 2015 10:58:39 +0800 Subject: zh-cn translation for groovy --- zh-cn/groovy-cn.html.markdown | 203 ++++++++++++++++++++---------------------- 1 file changed, 98 insertions(+), 105 deletions(-) diff --git a/zh-cn/groovy-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/groovy-cn.html.markdown index 519f36ce..ccd48a4c 100644 --- a/zh-cn/groovy-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/groovy-cn.html.markdown @@ -1,36 +1,38 @@ --- language: Groovy -filename: learngroovy.groovy +filename: learngroovy-cn.groovy contributors: - ["Roberto Pérez Alcolea", "http://github.com/rpalcolea"] -filename: learngroovy.groovy +translators: + - ["Todd Gao", "http://github.com/7c00"] +lang: zh-cn --- -Groovy - A dynamic language for the Java platform [Read more here.](http://www.groovy-lang.org/) +Groovy - Java平台的动态语言。[了解更多。](http://www.groovy-lang.org/) ```groovy /* - Set yourself up: + 安装： - 1) Install GVM - http://gvmtool.net/ - 2) Install Groovy: gvm install groovy - 3) Start the groovy console by typing: groovyConsole + 1) 安装 GVM - http://gvmtool.net/ + 2) 安装 Groovy： gvm install groovy + 3) 启动 groovy 控制台，键入： groovyConsole */ -// Single line comments start with two forward slashes +// 双斜线开始的是单行注释 /* -Multi line comments look like this. +像这样的是多行注释 */ // Hello World println "Hello world!" /* - Variables: + 变量： - You can assign values to variables for later use + 可以给变量赋值，稍后再用 */ def x = 1 @@ -49,142 +51,137 @@ x = "Groovy!" println x /* - Collections and maps + 集合和map */ -//Creating an empty list +//创建一个空的列表 def technologies = [] -/*** Adding a elements to the list ***/ +/*** 往列表中增加一个元素 ***/ -// As with Java +// 和Java一样 technologies.add("Grails") -// Left shift adds, and returns the list +// 左移添加，返回该列表 technologies << "Groovy" -// Add multiple elements +// 增加多个元素 technologies.addAll(["Gradle","Griffon"]) -/*** Removing elements from the list ***/ +/*** 从列表中删除元素 ***/ -// As with Java +// 和Java一样 technologies.remove("Griffon") -// Subtraction works also +// 减法也行 technologies = technologies - 'Grails' -/*** Iterating Lists ***/ +/*** 遍历列表 ***/ -// Iterate over elements of a list +// 遍历列表中的元素 technologies.each { println "Technology: $it"} technologies.eachWithIndex { it, i -> println "$i: $it"} -/*** Checking List contents ***/ +/*** 检查列表内容 ***/ -//Evaluate if a list contains element(s) (boolean) +//判断列表是否包含某元素，返回boolean contained = technologies.contains( 'Groovy' ) -// Or +// 或 contained = 'Groovy' in technologies -// Check for multiple contents +// 检查多个元素 technologies.containsAll(['Groovy','Grails']) -/*** Sorting Lists ***/ +/*** 排序列表 ***/ -// Sort a list (mutates original list) +// 排序列表（修改原列表） technologies.sort() -// To sort without mutating original, you can do: +// 要想不修改原列表，可以这样： sortedTechnologies = technologies.sort( false ) -/*** Manipulating Lists ***/ +/*** 操作列表 ***/ -//Replace all elements in the list +//替换列表元素 Collections.replaceAll(technologies, 'Gradle', 'gradle') -//Shuffle a list +//打乱列表 Collections.shuffle(technologies, new Random()) -//Clear a list +//清空列表 technologies.clear() -//Creating an empty map +//创建空的map def devMap = [:] -//Add values +//增加值 devMap = ['name':'Roberto', 'framework':'Grails', 'language':'Groovy'] devMap.put('lastName','Perez') -//Iterate over elements of a map +//遍历map元素 devMap.each { println "$it.key: $it.value" } devMap.eachWithIndex { it, i -> println "$i: $it"} -//Evaluate if a map contains a key +//判断map是否包含某键 assert devMap.containsKey('name') -//Evaluate if a map contains a value +//判断map是否包含某值 assert devMap.containsValue('Roberto') -//Get the keys of a map +//取得map所有的键 println devMap.keySet() -//Get the values of a map +//取得map所有的值 println devMap.values() /* Groovy Beans - GroovyBeans are JavaBeans but using a much simpler syntax + GroovyBeans 是 JavaBeans，但使用了更简单的语法 - When Groovy is compiled to bytecode, the following rules are used. + Groovy 被编译为字节码时，遵循下列规则。 - * If the name is declared with an access modifier (public, private or - protected) then a field is generated. + * 如果一个名字声明时带有访问修饰符（public, private, 或者 protected）， + 则会生成一个字段（field）。 - * A name declared with no access modifier generates a private field with - public getter and setter (i.e. a property). + * 名字声明时没有访问修饰符，则会生成一个带有public getter和setter的 + private字段，即属性（property）。 - * If a property is declared final the private field is created final and no - setter is generated. + * 如果一个属性声明为final，则会创建一个final的private字段，但不会生成setter。 - * You can declare a property and also declare your own getter or setter. + * 可以声明一个属性的同时定义自己的getter和setter。 - * You can declare a property and a field of the same name, the property will - use that field then. + * 可以声明具有相同名字的属性和字段，该属性会使用该字段。 - * If you want a private or protected property you have to provide your own - getter and setter which must be declared private or protected. + * 如果要定义private或protected属性，必须提供声明为private或protected的getter + 和setter。 - * If you access a property from within the class the property is defined in - at compile time with implicit or explicit this (for example this.foo, or - simply foo), Groovy will access the field directly instead of going though - the getter and setter. + * 如果使用显式或隐式的 this（例如 this.foo, 或者 foo）访问类的在编译时定义的属性， + Groovy会直接访问对应字段，而不是使用getter或者setter - * If you access a property that does not exist using the explicit or - implicit foo, then Groovy will access the property through the meta class, - which may fail at runtime. + * 如果使用显式或隐式的 foo 访问一个不存在的属性，Groovy会通过元类（meta class） + 访问它，这可能导致运行时错误。 */ class Foo { - // read only property + // 只读属性 final String name = "Roberto" - // read only property with public getter and protected setter + // 只读属性，有public getter和protected setter String language protected void setLanguage(String language) { this.language = language } - // dynamically typed property + // 动态类型属性 def lastName } /* - Logical Branching and Looping + 逻辑分支和循环 */ -//Groovy supports the usual if - else syntax +//Groovy支持常见的if - else语法 def x = 3 if(x==1) { @@ -195,32 +192,32 @@ if(x==1) { println "X greater than Two" } -//Groovy also supports the ternary operator: +//Groovy也支持三元运算符 def y = 10 def x = (y > 1) ? "worked" : "failed" assert x == "worked" -//For loop -//Iterate over a range +//for循环 +//使用区间（range）遍历 def x = 0 for (i in 0 .. 30) { x += i } -//Iterate over a list +//遍历列表 x = 0 for( i in [5,3,2,1] ) { x += i } -//Iterate over an array +//遍历数组 array = (0..20).toArray() x = 0 for (i in array) { x += i } -//Iterate over a map +//遍历map def map = ['name':'Roberto', 'framework':'Grails', 'language':'Groovy'] x = 0 for ( e in map ) { @@ -228,54 +225,52 @@ for ( e in map ) { } /* - Operators + 运算符 - Operator Overloading for a list of the common operators that Groovy supports: + Groovy中下列运算符支持重载： http://www.groovy-lang.org/operators.html#Operator-Overloading - Helpful groovy operators + 实用的groovy运算符 */ -//Spread operator: invoke an action on all items of an aggregate object. +//展开（spread）运算符：对聚合对象的所有元素施加操作 def technologies = ['Groovy','Grails','Gradle'] -technologies*.toUpperCase() // = to technologies.collect { it?.toUpperCase() } +technologies*.toUpperCase() // 相当于 technologies.collect { it?.toUpperCase() } -//Safe navigation operator: used to avoid a NullPointerException. +//安全导航（safe navigation）运算符：用来避免NullPointerException def user = User.get(1) def username = user?.username /* - Closures - A Groovy Closure is like a "code block" or a method pointer. It is a piece of - code that is defined and then executed at a later point. + 闭包 + Groovy闭包好比代码块或者方法指针，它是一段定义稍后执行的代码。 - More info at: http://www.groovy-lang.org/closures.html + 更多信息见：http://www.groovy-lang.org/closures.html */ -//Example: +//例子： def clos = { println "Hello World!" } println "Executing the Closure:" clos() -//Passing parameters to a closure +//传参数给闭包 def sum = { a, b -> println a+b } sum(2,4) -//Closures may refer to variables not listed in their parameter list. +//闭包可以引用参数列表以外的变量 def x = 5 def multiplyBy = { num -> num * x } println multiplyBy(10) -// If you have a Closure that takes a single argument, you may omit the -// parameter definition of the Closure +// 只有一个参数的闭包可以省略参数的定义 def clos = { print it } clos( "hi" ) /* - Groovy can memorize closure results [1][2][3] + Groovy可以记忆闭包结果 [1][2][3] */ def cl = {a, b -> - sleep(3000) // simulate some time consuming processing + sleep(3000) // 模拟费时操作 a + b } @@ -300,8 +295,7 @@ callClosure(3, 4) /* Expando - The Expando class is a dynamic bean so we can add properties and we can add - closures as methods to an instance of this class + Expando类是一种动态bean类，可以给它的实例添加属性和添加闭包作为方法 http://mrhaki.blogspot.mx/2009/10/groovy-goodness-expando-as-dynamic-bean.html */ @@ -321,10 +315,10 @@ callClosure(3, 4) /* - Metaprogramming (MOP) + 元编程(MOP) */ -//Using ExpandoMetaClass to add behaviour +//使用ExpandoMetaClass增加行为 String.metaClass.testAdd = { println "we added this" } @@ -332,7 +326,7 @@ String.metaClass.testAdd = { String x = "test" x?.testAdd() -//Intercepting method calls +//方法调用注入 class Test implements GroovyInterceptable { def sum(Integer x, Integer y) { x + y } @@ -345,7 +339,7 @@ def test = new Test() test?.sum(2,3) test?.multiply(2,3) -//Groovy supports propertyMissing for dealing with property resolution attempts. +//Groovy支持propertyMissing，来处理属性解析尝试 class Foo { def propertyMissing(String name) { name } } @@ -354,13 +348,12 @@ def f = new Foo() assertEquals "boo", f.boo /* - TypeChecked and CompileStatic - Groovy, by nature, is and will always be a dynamic language but it supports - typechecked and compilestatic + 类型检查和静态编译 + Groovy天生是并将永远是一门静态语言，但也支持类型检查和静态编译 - More info: http://www.infoq.com/articles/new-groovy-20 + 更多： http://www.infoq.com/articles/new-groovy-20 */ -//TypeChecked +//类型检查 import groovy.transform.TypeChecked void testMethod() {} @@ -375,7 +368,7 @@ void test() { } -//Another example: +//另一例子 import groovy.transform.TypeChecked @TypeChecked @@ -390,7 +383,7 @@ Integer test() { } -//CompileStatic example: +//静态编译例子 import groovy.transform.CompileStatic @CompileStatic @@ -403,15 +396,15 @@ assert sum(2,5) == 7 ``` -## Further resources +## 进阶资源 -[Groovy documentation](http://www.groovy-lang.org/documentation.html) +[Groovy文档](http://www.groovy-lang.org/documentation.html) [Groovy web console](http://groovyconsole.appspot.com/) -Join a [Groovy user group](http://www.groovy-lang.org/usergroups.html) +加入[Groovy用户组](http://www.groovy-lang.org/usergroups.html) -## Books +## 图书 * [Groovy Goodness] (https://leanpub.com/groovy-goodness-notebook) -- cgit v1.2.3 From a6a498efab8b3ed2e8062a97e0fd47fb181b98f4 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Todd Gao Date: Fri, 19 Jun 2015 12:16:41 +0800 Subject: update Chinese translation --- zh-cn/groovy-cn.html.markdown | 32 ++++++++++++++++---------------- 1 file changed, 16 insertions(+), 16 deletions(-) diff --git a/zh-cn/groovy-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/groovy-cn.html.markdown index ccd48a4c..562a0284 100644 --- a/zh-cn/groovy-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/groovy-cn.html.markdown @@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ println "Hello world!" /* 变量： - 可以给变量赋值，稍后再用 + 可以给变量赋值，以便稍后使用 */ def x = 1 @@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ x = "Groovy!" println x /* - 集合和map + 集合和映射 */ //创建一个空的列表 @@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ technologies.addAll(["Gradle","Griffon"]) // 和Java一样 technologies.remove("Griffon") -// 减法也行 +// 减号也行 technologies = technologies - 'Grails' /*** 遍历列表 ***/ @@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ contained = 'Groovy' in technologies // 检查多个元素 technologies.containsAll(['Groovy','Grails']) -/*** 排序列表 ***/ +/*** 列表排序 ***/ // 排序列表（修改原列表） technologies.sort() @@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ technologies.sort() // 要想不修改原列表，可以这样： sortedTechnologies = technologies.sort( false ) -/*** 操作列表 ***/ +/*** 列表操作 ***/ //替换列表元素 Collections.replaceAll(technologies, 'Gradle', 'gradle') @@ -112,27 +112,27 @@ Collections.shuffle(technologies, new Random()) //清空列表 technologies.clear() -//创建空的map +//创建空的映射 def devMap = [:] //增加值 devMap = ['name':'Roberto', 'framework':'Grails', 'language':'Groovy'] devMap.put('lastName','Perez') -//遍历map元素 +//遍历映射元素 devMap.each { println "$it.key: $it.value" } devMap.eachWithIndex { it, i -> println "$i: $it"} -//判断map是否包含某键 +//判断映射是否包含某键 assert devMap.containsKey('name') -//判断map是否包含某值 +//判断映射是否包含某值 assert devMap.containsValue('Roberto') -//取得map所有的键 +//取得映射所有的键 println devMap.keySet() -//取得map所有的值 +//取得映射所有的值 println devMap.values() /* @@ -217,7 +217,7 @@ for (i in array) { x += i } -//遍历map +//遍历映射 def map = ['name':'Roberto', 'framework':'Grails', 'language':'Groovy'] x = 0 for ( e in map ) { @@ -227,7 +227,7 @@ for ( e in map ) { /* 运算符 - Groovy中下列运算符支持重载： + 在Groovy中以下常用运算符支持重载： http://www.groovy-lang.org/operators.html#Operator-Overloading 实用的groovy运算符 @@ -243,7 +243,7 @@ def username = user?.username /* 闭包 - Groovy闭包好比代码块或者方法指针，它是一段定义稍后执行的代码。 + Groovy闭包好比代码块或者方法指针，它是一段代码定义，可以以后执行。 更多信息见：http://www.groovy-lang.org/closures.html */ @@ -326,7 +326,7 @@ String.metaClass.testAdd = { String x = "test" x?.testAdd() -//方法调用注入 +//拦截方法调用 class Test implements GroovyInterceptable { def sum(Integer x, Integer y) { x + y } @@ -349,7 +349,7 @@ assertEquals "boo", f.boo /* 类型检查和静态编译 - Groovy天生是并将永远是一门静态语言，但也支持类型检查和静态编译 + Groovy天生是并将永远是一门动态语言，但也支持类型检查和静态编译 更多： http://www.infoq.com/articles/new-groovy-20 */ -- cgit v1.2.3 From 8d22be8f85339a73f4dcf09be4feefe1be9156b9 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Michael Simpson Date: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 16:03:24 -0400 Subject: Remove in-development from Rust's description Now that Rust is stable at 1.0 saying "in-development" might not be appropriate any more. --- rust.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/rust.html.markdown b/rust.html.markdown index fbfa4cdf..dd03acdd 100644 --- a/rust.html.markdown +++ b/rust.html.markdown @@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ contributors: filename: learnrust.rs --- -Rust is an in-development programming language developed by Mozilla Research. +Rust is a programming language developed by Mozilla Research. Rust combines low-level control over performance with high-level convenience and safety guarantees. -- cgit v1.2.3 From 5e2eed46b23130353122c5bf80be2f3aa2f656bb Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Christian Schlensker Date: Wed, 24 Jun 2015 10:50:39 -0700 Subject: Fix typo in elixer --- elixir.html.markdown | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) diff --git a/elixir.html.markdown b/elixir.html.markdown index fb5f183a..c8599838 100644 --- a/elixir.html.markdown +++ b/elixir.html.markdown @@ -195,7 +195,7 @@ cond do "But I will" end -# It is common to see the last condition equal to `true`, which will always match. +# It is common to set the last condition equal to `true`, which will always match. cond do 1 + 1 == 3 -> "I will never be seen" -- cgit v1.2.3