---
language: javascript
author: Adam Brenecki
author_url: http://adam.brenecki.id.au
---

Javascript was created by Netscape's Brendan Eich in 1995. It was originally
intended as a simpler scripting language for websites, complimenting the use of
Java for more complex web applications, but its tight integration with Web pages
and built-in support in browsers has caused it to become far more common than
Java in web frontends.

JavaScript isn't just limited to web browsers, though: Node.js, a project that
provides a standalone runtime for Google Chrome's V8 JavaScript engine, is
becoming more and more popular.

Feedback would be highly appreciated! You can reach me at
[@adambrenecki](https://twitter.com/adambrenecki), or
[adam@brenecki.id.au](mailto:adam@brenecki.id.au).

```js
// Comments are like C. Single-line comments start with two slashes,
/* and multiline comments start with slash-star
   and end with star-slash */

// Statements can be terminated by ;
doStuff();

// ... but they don't have to be, as semicolons are automatically inserted
// wherever there's a newline, except in certain cases.
doStuff()

// We'll leave semicolons off here; whether you do or not will depend on your
// personal preference or your project's style guide.

///////////////////////////////////
// 1. Numbers, Strings and Operators

// Javascript has one number type (which is a 64-bit IEEE 754 double).
3 // = 3
1.5 // = 1.5

// All the basic arithmetic works as you'd expect.
1 + 1 // = 2
8 - 1 // = 7
10 * 2 // = 20
35 / 5 // = 7

// Including uneven division.
5 / 2 // = 2.5

// Bitwise operations also work; when you perform a bitwise operation your float
// is converted to a signed int *up to* 32 bits.
1 << 2 // = 4

// Precedence is enforced with parentheses.
(1 + 3) * 2 // = 8

// There are three special not-a-real-number values:
Infinity // result of e.g. 1/0
-Infinity // result of e.g. -1/0
NaN // result of e.g. 0/0

// There's also a boolean type.
true
false

// Strings are created with ' or ".
'abc'
"Hello, world"

// Negation uses the ! symbol
!true // = false
!false // = true

// Equality is ==
1 == 1 // = true
2 == 1 // = false

// Inequality is !=
1 != 1 // = false
2 != 1 // = true

// More comparisons
1 < 10 // = true
1 > 10 // = false
2 <= 2 // = true
2 >= 2 // = true

// Strings are concatenated with +
"Hello " + "world!" // = "Hello world!"

// and are compared with < and >
"a" < "b" // = true

// Type coercion is performed for comparisons...
"5" == 5 // = true

// ...unless you use ===
"5" === 5 // = false

// You can access characters in a string with charAt
"This is a string".charAt(0)

// There's also null and undefined
null // used to indicate a deliberate non-value
undefined // used to indicate a value is not currently present (although undefined
          // is actually a value itself)

// false, null, undefined, NaN, 0 and "" are falsy, and everything else is truthy.
// Note that 0 is falsy and "0" is truthy, even though 0 == "0".

///////////////////////////////////
// 2. Variables, Arrays and Objects

// Variables are declared with the var keyword. Javascript is dynamically typed,
// so you don't need to specify type. Assignment uses a single = character.
var someVar = 5

// if you leave the var keyword off, you won't get an error...
someOtherVar = 10

// ...but your variable will be created in the global scope, not in the scope
// you defined it in.

// Variables declared without being assigned to are set to undefined.
var someThirdVar // = undefined

// There's shorthand for performing math operations on variables:
someVar += 5 // equivalent to someVar = someVar + 5; someVar is 10 now
someVar *= 10 // now someVar is 100

// and an even-shorter-hand for adding or subtracting 1
someVar++ // now someVar is 101
someVar-- // back to 100

// Arrays are ordered lists of values, of any type.
var myArray = ["Hello", 45, true]

// Their members can be accessed using the square-brackets subscript syntax.
// Array indices start at zero.
myArray[1] // = 45

// JavaScript's objects are equivalent to 'dictionaries' or 'maps' in other
// languages: an unordered collection of key-value pairs.
var myObj = {key1: "Hello", key2: "World"}

// Keys are strings, but quotes aren't required if they're a valid
// JavaScript identifier. Values can be any type.
var myObj = {myKey: "myValue", "my other key": 4}

// Object attributes can also be accessed using the subscript syntax,
myObj["my other key"] // = 4

// ... or using the dot syntax, provided the key is a valid identifier.
myObj.myKey // = "myValue"

// Objects are mutable; values can be changed and new keys added.
myObj.myThirdKey = true

// If you try to access a value that's not yet set, you'll get undefined.
myObj.myFourthKey // = undefined

///////////////////////////////////
// 3. Logic and Control Structures

// The if structure works as you'd expect.
var count = 1
if (count == 3){
    // evaluated if count is 3
} else if (count == 4) {
    // evaluated if count is 4
} else {
    // evaluated if it's not either 3 or 4
}

// As does while.
while (true) {
    // An infinite loop!
}

// Do-while loops are like while loops, except they always run at least once.
var input
do {
    input = getInput()
} while (!isValid(input))

// the for loop is the same as C and Java: 
// initialisation; continue condition; iteration.
for (var i = 0; i < 5; i++){
    // will run 5 times
}

// && is logical and, || is logical or
if (house.size == "big" && house.colour == "blue"){
    house.contains = "bear"
}
if (colour == "red" || colour == "blue"){
    // colour is either red or blue
}

// && and || "short circuit", which is useful for setting default values.
var name = otherName || "default"

///////////////////////////////////
// 4. Functions, Scope and Closures

// JavaScript functions are declared with the function keyword.
function myFunction(thing){
    return thing.toUpperCase()
}
myFunction("foo") // = "FOO"

// JavaScript functions are first class objects, so they can be reassigned to
// different variable names and passed to other functions as arguments - for
// example, when supplying an event handler:
function myFunction(){
    // this code will be called in 5 seconds' time
}
setTimeout(myFunction, 5000)

// Functions can also be defined "anonymously" - without a name:
var lowerFunction = function(thing){
    return thing.toLowerCase()
}
lowerFunction("Foo") // = "foo"
// (note: we've assigned our anonymous function to a variable - if we didn't, we
// wouldn't be able to access it)

// You can even write the function statement directly in the call to the other
// function.
setTimeout(function myFunction(){
    // this code will be called in 5 seconds' time
}, 5000)

// JavaScript has function scope; functions get their own scope but other blocks
// do not.
if (true){
    var i = 5
}
i // = 5 - not undefined as you'd expect in a block-scoped language

// This has led to a common pattern of "immediately-executing anonymous
// functions", which prevent temporary variables from leaking into the global
// scope.
(function(){
    var temporary = 5
    // We can access the global scope by assiging to the 'global object', which
    // in a web browser is always 'window'. The global object may have a
    // different name in non-browser environments such as Node.js.
    window.permanent = 10
})()
temporary // raises ReferenceError
permanent // = 10

// One of JavaScript's most powerful features is closures. If a function is
// defined inside another function, the inner function has access to all the
// outer function's variables.
function sayHelloInFiveSeconds(name){
    var prompt = "Hello, " + name + "!"
    function inner(){
        alert(prompt)
    }
    setTimeout(inner, 5000)
    // setTimeout is asynchronous, so this function will finish without waiting
    // 5 seconds. However, once the 5 seconds is up, inner will still have
    // access to the value of prompt.
}
sayHelloInFiveSeconds("Adam") // will open a popup with "Hello, Adam!" in 5s
// inner() has access to the variable "prompt" strictly because of lexical scope.
// A closure is being demonstrated because the inner() function is being executed
// at a later time, and in fact being executed "outside" the scope where it was
// declared (inside of the implementation of setTimeout()), but yet inner() STILL
// has access to the variable "prompt". It is said that inner() has a "closure"
// over the variables of sayHelloInFiveSeconds().

///////////////////////////////////
// 5. More about Objects; Constructors and Prototypes

// Objects can contain functions.
var myObj = {
    myFunc: function(){
        return "Hello world!"
    }
}
myObj.myFunc() // = "Hello world!"

// When functions attached to an object are called, they can access the object
// they're attached to using the this keyword.
myObj = {
    myString: "Hello world!",
    myFunc: function(){
        return this.myString
    }
}
myObj.myFunc() // = "Hello world!"

// What this is set to has to do with how the function is called, not where
// it's defined. So, our function doesn't work if it isn't called in the
// context of the object.
var myFunc = myObj.myFunc
myFunc() // = undefined

// Inversely, a function can be assigned to the object and gain access to it
// through this, even if it wasn't attached when it was defined.
var myOtherFunc = function(){
    return this.myString.toUpperCase()
}
myObj.myOtherFunc = myOtherFunc
myObj.myOtherFunc() // = "HELLO WORLD!"

// When you call a function with the new keyword, a new object is created, and
// made available to the function via this. Functions designed to be called
// like this are called constructors.

var MyConstructor = function(){
    this.myNumber = 5
}
myNewObj = new MyConstructor() // = {myNumber: 5}
myNewObj.myNumber // = 5

// Every JavaScript object has a 'prototype'. When you go to access a property
// on an object that doesn't exist on the actual object, the interpreter will
// look at its prototype.

// Some JS implementations let you access an object's prototype on the magic
// property __proto__. While this is useful for explaining prototypes it's not
// part of the standard; we'll get to standard ways of using prototypes later.
var myObj = {
    myString: "Hello world!",
}
var myPrototype = {
    meaningOfLife: 42,
    myFunc: function(){
        return this.myString.toLowerCase()
    }
}
myObj.__proto__ = myPrototype
myObj.meaningOfLife // = 42

// This works for functions, too.
myObj.myFunc() // = "hello world!"

// Of course, if your property isn't on your prototype, the prototype's
// prototype is searched, and so on.
myPrototype.__proto__ = {
    myBoolean: true
}
myObj.myBoolean // = true

// There's no copying involved here; each object stores a reference to its
// prototype. This means we can alter the prototype and our changes will be
// reflected everywhere.
myPrototype.meaningOfLife = 43
myObj.meaningOfLife // = 43

// We mentioned that __proto__ was non-standard, and there's no standard way to
// change the prototype of an existing object. However, there's two ways to
// create a new object with a given prototype.

// The first is Object.create, which is a recent addition to JS, and therefore
// not available in all implementations yet.
var myObj = Object.create(myPrototype)
myObj.meaningOfLife // = 43

// The second way, which works anywhere, has to do with constructors.
// Constructors have a property called prototype. This is *not* the prototype of
// the constructor function itself; instead, it's the prototype that new objects
// are given when they're created with that constructor and the new keyword.
myConstructor.prototype = {
    getMyNumber: function(){
        return this.myNumber
    }
}
var myNewObj2 = new myConstructor()
myNewObj2.getMyNumber() // = 5

// Built-in types like strings and numbers also have constructors that create
// equivalent wrapper objects.
var myNumber = 12
var myNumberObj = new Number(12)
myNumber == myNumberObj // = true

// Except, they aren't exactly equivalent.
typeof(myNumber) // = 'number'
typeof(myNumberObj) // = 'object'
myNumber === myNumberObj // = false
if (0){
    // This code won't execute, because 0 is falsy.
}
if (Number(0)){
    // This code *will* execute, because Number(0) is truthy.
}

// However, the wrapper objects and the regular builtins share a prototype, so
// you can actually add functionality to a string, for instance.
String.prototype.firstCharacter = function(){
    return this.charAt(0)
}
"abc".firstCharacter() // = "a"

// This fact is often used in "polyfilling", which is implementing newer
// features of JavaScript in an older subset of JavaScript, so that they can be
// used in older environments such as outdated browsers.

// For instance, we mentioned that Object.create isn't yet available in all
// implementations, but we can still use it with this polyfill:
if (Object.create === undefined){ // don't overwrite it if it exists
    Object.create = function(proto){
        // make a temporary constructor with the right prototype
        var Constructor = function(){}
        Constructor.prototype = proto
        // then use it to create a new, appropriately-prototyped object
        return new Constructor()
    }
}
```

## Further Reading

The [Mozilla Developer
Network](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript) provides
excellent documentation for JavaScript as it's used in browsers. Plus, it's a
wiki, so as you learn more you can help others out by sharing your own
knowledge.

MDN's [A re-introduction to
JavaScript](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript)
covers much of the concepts covered here in more detail. This guide has quite
deliberately only covered the JavaScript language itself; if you want to learn
more about how to use JavaScript in web pages, start by learning about the
[Document Object
Model](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Using_the_W3C_DOM_Level_1_Core)

[Javascript Garden](http://bonsaiden.github.io/JavaScript-Garden/) is an in-depth
guide of all the counter-intuitive parts of the language.

In addition to direct contributors to this article, some content is adapted
from Louie Dinh's Python tutorial on this site, and the [JS
Tutorial](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript)
on the Mozilla Developer Network.