path: root/perl6.html.markdown

---
category: language
language: perl6
filename: learnperl6.p6
contributors:
    - ["vendethiel", "http://github.com/vendethiel"]
    - ["Samantha McVey", "https://cry.nu"]
---

Perl 6 is a highly capable, feature-rich programming language made for at
least the next hundred years.

The primary Perl 6 compiler is called [Rakudo](http://rakudo.org), which runs on
the JVM and [the MoarVM](http://moarvm.com).

Meta-note : double pound signs (##) are used to indicate paragraphs, while 
single pound signs (#) indicate notes.

`#=>` represents the output of a command.

```perl6
# Single line comment start with a pound

#`(
  Multiline comments use #` and a quoting construct.
  (), [], {}, 「」, etc, will work.
)
```

## Variables

```perl6
## In Perl 6, you declare a lexical variable using `my`
my $variable;
## Perl 6 has 3 basic types of variables: scalars, arrays, and hashes.
```

### Scalars

```perl6
# Scalars represent a single value. They start with a `$`

my $str = 'String';
# double quotes allow for interpolation (which we'll see later):
my $str2 = "String";

## Variable names can contain but not end with simple quotes and dashes,
## and can contain (and end with) underscores :
my $weird'variable-name_ = 5; # works !

my $bool = True; # `True` and `False` are Perl 6's boolean values.
my $inverse = !$bool; # You can invert a bool with the prefix `!` operator
my $forced-bool = so $str; # And you can use the prefix `so` operator
                           # which turns its operand into a Bool
```

### Arrays and Lists

```perl6
## Arrays represent multiple values. Their name start with `@`.
## Lists are similar but are an immutable type.

my @array = 'a', 'b', 'c';
# equivalent to :
my @letters = <a b c>; # array of words, delimited by space.
                       # Similar to perl5's qw, or Ruby's %w.
my @array = 1, 2, 3;

say @array[2]; # Array indices start at 0 -- This is the third element

say "Interpolate all elements of an array using [] : @array[]";
#=> Interpolate all elements of an array using [] : 1 2 3

@array[0] = -1; # Assign a new value to an array index
@array[0, 1] = 5, 6; # Assign multiple values

my @keys = 0, 2;
@array[@keys] = @letters; # Assignment using an array containing index values
say @array; #=> a 6 b
```

### Hashes, or key-value Pairs.

```perl6
## Hashes are pairs of keys and values.
## You can construct a Pair object using the syntax `Key => Value`.
## Hash tables are very fast for lookup, and are stored unordered.
## Keep in mind that keys get "flattened" in hash context, and any duplicated
## keys are deduplicated.
my %hash = 1 => 2,
           3 => 4;
my %hash = foo => "bar", # keys get auto-quoted
            "some other" => "value", # trailing commas are okay
            ;

## Even though hashes are internally stored differently than arrays,
## Perl 6 allows you to easily create a hash from an even numbered array:
my %hash = <key1 value1 key2 value2>;

my %hash = key1 => 'value1', key2 => 'value2'; # same result as above

## You can also use the "colon pair" syntax:
## (especially handy for named parameters that you'll see later)
my %hash = :w(1),    # equivalent to `w => 1`
                     # this is useful for the `True` shortcut:
           :truey,   # equivalent to `:truey(True)`, or `truey => True`
                     # and for the `False` one:
           :!falsey, # equivalent to `:falsey(False)`, or `falsey => False`
           ;

say %hash{'key1'}; # You can use {} to get the value from a key
say %hash<key2>;   # If it's a string, you can actually use <>
                   # (`{key1}` doesn't work, as Perl6 doesn't have barewords)
```

## Subs

```perl6
## Subroutines, or functions as most other languages call them, are
## created with the `sub` keyword.
sub say-hello { say "Hello, world" }

## You can provide (typed) arguments.
## If specified, the type will be checked at compile-time if possible,
## otherwise at runtime.
sub say-hello-to(Str $name) {
    say "Hello, $name !";
}

## A sub returns the last value of the block.
sub return-value {
    5;
}
say return-value; # prints 5
sub return-empty {
}
say return-empty; # prints Nil

## Some control flow structures produce a value, like if:
sub return-if {
	if True {
		"Truthy";
	}
}
say return-if; # prints Truthy

## Some don't, like for:
sub return-for {
    for 1, 2, 3 { }
}
say return-for; # prints Nil

## A sub can have optional arguments:
sub with-optional($arg?) { # the "?" marks the argument optional
  say "I might return `(Any)` (Perl's 'null'-like value) if I don't have
        an argument passed, or I'll return my argument";
  $arg;
}
with-optional; # returns Any
with-optional(); # returns Any
with-optional(1); # returns 1

## You can also give them a default value when they're not passed:
sub hello-to($name = "World") {
  say "Hello, $name !";
}
hello-to; #=> Hello, World !
hello-to(); #=> Hello, World !
hello-to('You'); #=> Hello, You !

## You can also, by using a syntax akin to the one of hashes
## (yay unified syntax !), pass *named* arguments to a `sub`.
## They're optional, and will default to "Any".
sub with-named($normal-arg, :$named) {
  say $normal-arg + $named;
}
with-named(1, named => 6); #=> 7
## There's one gotcha to be aware of, here:
## If you quote your key, Perl 6 won't be able to see it at compile time,
##  and you'll have a single Pair object as a positional parameter,
##  which means this fails:
with-named(1, 'named' => 6);

with-named(2, :named(5)); #=> 7

## To make a named argument mandatory, you can use `?`'s inverse, `!`
sub with-mandatory-named(:$str!)  {
  say "$str !";
}
with-mandatory-named(str => "My String"); #=> My String !
with-mandatory-named;   # run time error: "Required named parameter not passed"
with-mandatory-named(3);# run time error:"Too many positional parameters passed"

## If a sub takes a named boolean argument ...
sub takes-a-bool($name, :$bool) {
  say "$name takes $bool";
}
## ... you can use the same "short boolean" hash syntax:
takes-a-bool('config', :bool); # config takes True
takes-a-bool('config', :!bool); # config takes False

## You can also provide your named arguments with defaults:
sub named-def(:$def = 5) {
  say $def;
}
named-def; #=> 5
named-def(def => 15); #=> 15

## Since you can omit parenthesis to call a function with no arguments,
## you need "&" in the name to store `say-hello` in a variable.
my &s = &say-hello;
my &other-s = sub { say "Anonymous function !" }

## A sub can have a "slurpy" parameter, or "doesn't-matter-how-many"
sub as-many($head, *@rest) {  #`*@` (slurpy) will "take everything else"
## Note: you can have parameters *before* a slurpy one (like here),
## but not *after*.
  say @rest.join(' / ') ~ " !";
}
say as-many('Happy', 'Happy', 'Birthday'); #=> Happy / Birthday !
                                           # Note that the splat (the *) did not
                                           # consume the parameter before.

## You can call a function with an array using the
## "argument list flattening" operator `|`
## (it's not actually the only role of this operator, but it's one of them)
sub concat3($a, $b, $c) {
  say "$a, $b, $c";
}
concat3(|@array); #=> a, b, c
                  # `@array` got "flattened" as a part of the argument list
```

## Containers

```perl6
## In Perl 6, values are actually stored in "containers".
## The assignment operator asks the container on the left to store the value on
## its right. When passed around, containers are marked as immutable.
## Which means that, in a function, you'll get an error if you try to
## mutate one of your arguments.
## If you really need to, you can ask for a mutable container using `is rw`:
sub mutate($n is rw) {
  $n++;
  say "\$n is now $n !";
}

my $m = 42;
mutate $m; # $m is now 43 !

## This works because we are passing the container $m to mutate.  If we try
## to just pass a number instead of passing a variable it won't work because
## there is no container being passed and integers are immutable by themselves:

mutate 42; # Parameter '$n' expected a writable container, but got Int value

## If what you want a copy instead, use `is copy`.

## A sub itself returns a container, which means it can be marked as rw:
my $x = 42;
sub x-store() is rw { $x }
x-store() = 52; # in this case, the parentheses are mandatory
                # (else Perl 6 thinks `x-store` is an identifier)
say $x; #=> 52
```

## Control Flow Structures
### Conditionals

```perl6
## - `if`
## Before talking about `if`, we need to know which values are "Truthy"
## (represent True), and which are "Falsey" (or "Falsy") -- represent False.
## Only these values are Falsey: 0, (), {}, "", Nil, A type (like `Str` or
## `Int`) and of course False itself.
## Every other value is Truthy.
if True {
  say "It's true !";
}

unless False {
  say "It's not false !";
}

## As you can see, you don't need parentheses around conditions.
## However, you do need the brackets around the "body" block:
# if (true) say; # This doesn't work !

## You can also use their postfix versions, with the keyword after:
say "Quite truthy" if True;

## - Ternary conditional, "?? !!" (like `x ? y : z` in some other languages)
##   returns $value-if-true if the condition is true and $value-if-false
##   if it is false.
##   my $result = $value condition ?? $value-if-true !! $value-if-false;

my $age = 30;
say $age > 18 ?? "You are an adult" !! "You are under 18";
```

### given/when, or switch

```perl6
## - `given`-`when` looks like other languages' `switch`, but is much more
## powerful thanks to smart matching and Perl 6's "topic variable", $_.
##
## This variable contains the default argument of a block,
##  a loop's current iteration (unless explicitly named), etc.
##
## `given` simply puts its argument into `$_` (like a block would do),
##  and `when` compares it using the "smart matching" (`~~`) operator.
##
## Since other Perl 6 constructs use this variable (as said before, like `for`,
## blocks, etc), this means the powerful `when` is not only applicable along 
## with a `given`, but instead anywhere a `$_` exists.

given "foo bar" {
  say $_; #=> foo bar
  when /foo/ { # Don't worry about smart matching yet – just know `when` uses it
               # This is equivalent to `if $_ ~~ /foo/`.
    say "Yay !";
  }
  when $_.chars > 50 { # smart matching anything with True is True,
                       # i.e. (`$a ~~ True`) 
                       # so you can also put "normal" conditionals.
                       # This `when` is equivalent to this `if`:
                       #  if $_ ~~ ($_.chars > 50) {...}
                       # Which means:
                       #  if $_.chars > 50 {...}
    say "Quite a long string !";
  }
  default { # same as `when *` (using the Whatever Star)
    say "Something else"
  }
}
```

### Looping constructs

```perl6
## - `loop` is an infinite loop if you don't pass it arguments,
## but can also be a C-style `for` loop:
loop {
  say "This is an infinite loop !";
  last; # last breaks out of the loop, like the `break` keyword in other
        # languages
}

loop (my $i = 0; $i < 5; $i++) {
  next if $i == 3; # `next` skips to the next iteration, like `continue`
                   # in other languages. Note that you can also use postfix
                   # conditionals, loops, etc.
  say "This is a C-style for loop !";
}

## - `for` - Passes through an array
for @array -> $variable {
  say "I've got $variable !";
}

## As we saw with given, for's default "current iteration" variable is `$_`.
## That means you can use `when` in a `for` just like you were in a `given`.
for @array {
  say "I've got $_";

  .say; # This is also allowed.
        # A dot call with no "topic" (receiver) is sent to `$_` by default
  $_.say; # the above and this are equivalent.
}

for @array {
  # You can...
  next if $_ == 3; # Skip to the next iteration (`continue` in C-like languages)
  redo if $_ == 4; # Re-do the iteration, keeping the same topic variable (`$_`)
  last if $_ == 5; # Or break out of a loop (like `break` in C-like languages)
}

## The "pointy block" syntax isn't specific to for.
## It's just a way to express a block in Perl6.
if long-computation() -> $result {
  say "The result is $result";
}
```

## Operators

```perl6
## Since Perl languages are very much operator-based languages,
## Perl 6 operators are actually just funny-looking subroutines, in syntactic
## categories, like infix:<+> (addition) or prefix:<!> (bool not).

## The categories are:
## - "prefix": before (like `!` in `!True`).
## - "postfix": after (like `++` in `$a++`).
## - "infix": in between (like `*` in `4 * 3`).
## - "circumfix": around (like `[`-`]` in `[1, 2]`).
## - "post-circumfix": around, after another term (like `{`-`}` in 
##                     `%hash{'key'}`)

## The associativity and precedence list are explained below.

## Alright, you're set to go !

## * Equality Checking

## - `==` is numeric comparison
3 == 4; # False
3 != 4; # True

## - `eq` is string comparison
'a' eq 'b';
'a' ne 'b'; # not equal
'a' !eq 'b'; # same as above

## - `eqv` is canonical equivalence (or "deep equality")
(1, 2) eqv (1, 3);

## - Smart Match Operator: `~~`
## Aliases the left hand side to $_ and then evaluates the right hand side.
## Here are some common comparison semantics:

## String or Numeric Equality

'Foo' ~~ 'Foo'; # True if strings are equal.
12.5 ~~ 12.50; # True if numbers are equal.

## Regex - For matching a regular expression against the left side.
## Returns a (Match) object, which evaluates as True if regexp matches.

my $obj = 'abc' ~~ /a/;
say $obj; # ｢a｣
say $obj.WHAT; # (Match)

## Hashes
'key' ~~ %hash; # True if key exists in hash

## Type - Checks if left side "has type" (can check superclasses and roles)

1 ~~ Int; # True

## Smart-matching against a boolean always returns that boolean (and will warn).

1 ~~ True; # True
False ~~ True; # True

## General syntax is $arg ~~ &bool-returning-function;
## For a complete list of combinations, use this table:
## http://perlcabal.org/syn/S03.html#Smart_matching

## You also, of course, have `<`, `<=`, `>`, `>=`.
## Their string equivalent are also available : `lt`, `le`, `gt`, `ge`.
3 > 4;

## * Range constructors
3 .. 7; # 3 to 7, both included
## `^` on either side them exclusive on that side :
3 ^..^ 7; # 3 to 7, not included (basically `4 .. 6`)
## This also works as a shortcut for `0..^N`:
^10; # means 0..^10

## This also allows us to demonstrate that Perl 6 has lazy/infinite arrays,
## using the Whatever Star:
my @array = 1..*; # 1 to Infinite ! `1..Inf` is the same.
say @array[^10]; # you can pass arrays as subscripts and it'll return
                 #  an array of results. This will print
                 # "1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10" (and not run out of memory !)
## Note : when reading an infinite list, Perl 6 will "reify" the elements
## it needs, then keep them in memory. They won't be calculated more than once.
## It also will never calculate more elements that are needed.
## Trying 

## An array subscript can also be a closure.
## It'll be called with the length as the argument
say join(' ', @array[15..*]); #=> 15 16 17 18 19
## which is equivalent to:
say join(' ', @array[-> $n { 15..$n }]);
## Note: if you try to do either of those with an infinite array,
##       you'll trigger an infinite loop (your program won't finish)

## You can use that in most places you'd expect, even assigning to an array
my @numbers = ^20;

## Here numbers increase by "6"; more on `...` operator later.
my @seq =  3, 9 ... * > 95; # 3 9 15 21 27 [...] 81 87 93 99;
@numbers[5..*] = 3, 9 ... *; # even though the sequence is infinite,
                             # only the 15 needed values will be calculated.
say @numbers; #=> 0 1 2 3 4 3 9 15 21 [...] 81 87
              # (only 20 values)

## * And &&, Or ||
3 && 4; # 4, which is Truthy. Calls `.Bool` on `4` and gets `True`.
0 || False; # False. Calls `.Bool` on `0`

## * Short-circuit (and tight) versions of the above
#    Returns the first argument that evaluates to False, or the last argument.

my ( $a, $b, $c ) = 1, 0, 2;
$a && $b && $c; # Returns 0, the first False value

## || Returns the first argument that evaluates to True
$b || $a; # 1

## And because you're going to want them,
## you also have compound assignment operators:
$a *= 2; # multiply and assignment. Equivalent to $a = $a * 2;
$b %%= 5; # divisible by and assignment
@array .= sort; # calls the `sort` method and assigns the result back
```

## More on subs !

```perl6
## As we said before, Perl 6 has *really* powerful subs. We're going to see
## a few more key concepts that make them better than in any other language :-).
```

### Unpacking !

```perl6
## It's the ability to "extract" arrays and keys (AKA "destructuring").
## It'll work in `my`s and in parameter lists.
my ($f, $g) = 1, 2;
say $f; #=> 1
my ($, $, $h) = 1, 2, 3; # keep the non-interesting anonymous
say $h; #=> 3

my ($head, *@tail) = 1, 2, 3; # Yes, it's the same as with "slurpy subs"
my (*@small) = 1;

sub unpack_array(@array [$fst, $snd]) {
  say "My first is $fst, my second is $snd ! All in all, I'm @array[].";
  # (^ remember the `[]` to interpolate the array)
}
unpack_array(@tail); #=> My first is 2, my second is 3 ! All in all, I'm 2 3


## If you're not using the array itself, you can also keep it anonymous,
## much like a scalar:
sub first-of-array(@ [$fst]) { $fst }
first-of-array(@small); #=> 1
first-of-array(@tail); # Throws an error "Too many positional parameters passed"
                       # (which means the array is too big).

## You can also use a slurp ...
sub slurp-in-array(@ [$fst, *@rest]) { # You could keep `*@rest` anonymous
  say $fst + @rest.elems; # `.elems` returns a list's length.
                          # Here, `@rest` is `(3,)`, since `$fst` holds the `2`.
}
slurp-in-array(@tail); #=> 3

## You could even extract on a slurpy (but it's pretty useless ;-).)
sub fst(*@ [$fst]) { # or simply : `sub fst($fst) { ... }`
  say $fst;
}
fst(1); #=> 1
fst(1, 2); # errors with "Too many positional parameters passed"

## You can also destructure hashes (and classes, which you'll learn about later)
## The syntax is basically `%hash-name (:key($variable-to-store-value-in))`.
## The hash can stay anonymous if you only need the values you extracted.
sub key-of(% (:value($val), :qua($qua))) {
  say "Got val $val, $qua times.";
}

## Then call it with a hash: (you need to keep the brackets for it to be a hash)
key-of({value => 'foo', qua => 1});
#key-of(%hash); # the same (for an equivalent `%hash`)

## The last expression of a sub is returned automatically
## (though you may use the `return` keyword, of course):
sub next-index($n) {
  $n + 1;
}
my $new-n = next-index(3); # $new-n is now 4

## This is true for everything, except for the looping constructs
## (due to performance reasons): there's reason to build a list
## if we're just going to discard all the results.
## If you still want to build one, you can use the `do` statement prefix:
## (or the `gather` prefix, which we'll see later)
sub list-of($n) {
  do for ^$n { # note the use of the range-to prefix operator `^` (`0..^N`)
    $_ # current loop iteration
  }
}
my @list3 = list-of(3); #=> (0, 1, 2)
```

### lambdas

```perl6
## You can create a lambda with `-> {}` ("pointy block") or `{}` ("block")
my &lambda = -> $argument { "The argument passed to this lambda is $argument" }
## `-> {}` and `{}` are pretty much the same thing, except that the former can
## take arguments, and that the latter can be mistaken as a hash by the parser.

## We can, for example, add 3 to each value of an array using map:
my @arrayplus3 = map({ $_ + 3 }, @array); # $_ is the implicit argument

## A sub (`sub {}`) has different semantics than a block (`{}` or `-> {}`):
## A block doesn't have a "function context" (though it can have arguments),
## which means that if you return from it,
## you're going to return from the parent function. Compare:
sub is-in(@array, $elem) {
  # this will `return` out of the `is-in` sub
  # once the condition evaluated to True, the loop won't be run anymore
  map({ return True if $_ == $elem }, @array);
}
sub truthy-array(@array) {
  # this will produce an array of `True` and `False`:
  # (you can also say `anon sub` for "anonymous subroutine")
  map(sub ($i) { if $i { return True } else { return False } }, @array);
  # ^ the `return` only returns from the anonymous `sub`
}

## You can also use the "whatever star" to create an anonymous function
## (it'll stop at the furthest operator in the current expression)
my @arrayplus3 = map(*+3, @array); # `*+3` is the same as `{ $_ + 3 }`
my @arrayplus3 = map(*+*+3, @array); # Same as `-> $a, $b { $a + $b + 3 }`
                                     # also `sub ($a, $b) { $a + $b + 3 }`
say (*/2)(4); #=> 2
              # Immediately execute the function Whatever created.
say ((*+3)/5)(5); #=> 1.6
                  # works even in parens !

## But if you need to have more than one argument (`$_`)
## in a block (without wanting to resort to `-> {}`),
## you can also use the implicit argument syntax, `$^` :
map({ $^a + $^b + 3 }, @array); # equivalent to following:
map(sub ($a, $b) { $a + $b + 3 }, @array); # (here with `sub`)

## Note : those are sorted lexicographically.
# `{ $^b / $^a }` is like `-> $a, $b { $b / $a }`
```

### About types...

```perl6
## Perl6 is gradually typed. This means you can specify the type
## of your variables/arguments/return types, or you can omit them
## and they'll default to "Any".
## You obviously get access to a few base types, like Int and Str.
## The constructs for declaring types are "class", "role",
## which you'll see later.

## For now, let us examine "subset":
## a "subset" is a "sub-type" with additional checks.
## For example: "a very big integer is an Int that's greater than 500"
## You can specify the type you're subtyping (by default, Any),
## and add additional checks with the "where" keyword:
subset VeryBigInteger of Int where * > 500;
```

### Multiple Dispatch

```perl6
## Perl 6 can decide which variant of a `sub` to call based on the type of the
## arguments, or on arbitrary preconditions, like with a type or a `where`:

## with types
multi sub sayit(Int $n) { # note the `multi` keyword here
  say "Number: $n";
}
multi sayit(Str $s) { # a multi is a `sub` by default
  say "String: $s";
}
sayit("foo"); # prints "String: foo"
sayit(True); # fails at *compile time* with
             # "calling 'sayit' will never work with arguments of types ..."

## with arbitrary precondition (remember subsets?):
multi is-big(Int $n where * > 50) { "Yes !" } # using a closure
multi is-big(Int $ where 10..50) { "Quite." } # Using smart-matching
                                              # (could use a regexp, etc)
multi is-big(Int $) { "No" }

subset Even of Int where * %% 2;

multi odd-or-even(Even) { "Even" } # The main case using the type.
                                   # We don't name the argument.
multi odd-or-even($) { "Odd" } # "else"

## You can even dispatch based on a positional's argument presence !
multi with-or-without-you(:$with!) { # You need make it mandatory to
                                     # be able to dispatch against it.
  say "I can live ! Actually, I can't.";
}
multi with-or-without-you {
  say "Definitely can't live.";
}
## This is very, very useful for many purposes, like `MAIN` subs (covered 
## later), and even the language itself is using it in several places.
##
## - `is`, for example, is actually a `multi sub` named `trait_mod:<is>`,
## and it works off that.
## - `is rw`, is simply a dispatch to a function with this signature:
## sub trait_mod:<is>(Routine $r, :$rw!) {}
##
## (commented because running this would be a terrible idea !)
```

## Scoping

```perl6
## In Perl 6, unlike many scripting languages, (such as Python, Ruby, PHP),
## you must declare your variables before using them. The `my` declarator
## you have learned uses "lexical scoping". There are a few other declarators,
## (`our`, `state`, ..., ) which we'll see later.
## This is called "lexical scoping", where in inner blocks,
## you can access variables from outer blocks.
my $file_scoped = 'Foo';
sub outer {
  my $outer_scoped = 'Bar';
  sub inner {
    say "$file_scoped $outer_scoped";
  }
  &inner; # return the function
}
outer()(); #=> 'Foo Bar'

## As you can see, `$file_scoped` and `$outer_scoped` were captured.
## But if we were to try and use `$bar` outside of `foo`,
## the variable would be undefined (and you'd get a compile time error).
```

## Twigils

```perl6
## There are many special `twigils` (composed sigil's) in Perl 6.
## Twigils define the variables' scope.
## The * and ? twigils work on standard variables:
## * Dynamic variable
## ? Compile-time variable
## The ! and the . twigils are used with Perl 6's objects:
## ! Attribute (class member)
## . Method (not really a variable)

## `*` Twigil: Dynamic Scope
## These variables use the`*` twigil to mark dynamically-scoped variables.
## Dynamically-scoped variables are looked up through the caller, not through
## the outer scope

my $*dyn_scoped_1 = 1;
my $*dyn_scoped_2 = 10;

sub say_dyn {
  say "$*dyn_scoped_1 $*dyn_scoped_2";
}

sub call_say_dyn {
  my $*dyn_scoped_1 = 25; # Defines $*dyn_scoped_1 only for this sub.
  $*dyn_scoped_2 = 100; # Will change the value of the file scoped variable.
  say_dyn(); #=> 25 100 $*dyn_scoped 1 and 2 will be looked for in the call.
             # It uses the value of $*dyn_scoped_1 from inside this sub's 
             # lexical scope even though the blocks aren't nested (they're 
             # call-nested).
}
say_dyn(); #=> 1 10
call_say_dyn(); #=> 25 100
                # Uses $*dyn_scoped_1 as defined in call_say_dyn even though
                # we are calling it from outside.
say_dyn(); #=> 1 100 We changed the value of $*dyn_scoped_2 in call_say_dyn
           #         so now its value has changed.
```

## Object Model

```perl6
## To call a method on an object, add a dot followed by the method name:
## => $object.method
## Classes are declared with the `class` keyword. Attributes are declared
## with the `has` keyword, and methods declared with `method`.
## Every attribute that is private uses the ! twigil for example: `$!attr`.
## Immutable public attributes use the `.` twigil.
## (you can make them mutable with `is rw`)
## The easiest way to remember the `$.` twigil is comparing it to how methods
## are called.

## Perl 6's object model ("SixModel") is very flexible,
## and allows you to dynamically add methods, change semantics, etc ...
## (these will not all be covered here, and you should refer to:
## https://docs.perl6.org/language/objects.html.

class Attrib-Class {
  has $.attrib; # `$.attrib` is immutable.
               # From inside the class, use `$!attrib` to modify it.
  has $.other-attrib is rw; # You can mark a public attribute `rw`.
  has Int $!private-attrib = 10;

  method get-value {
    $.attrib + $!private-attrib;
  }

  method set-value($param) { # Methods can take parameters
    $!attrib = $param;   # This works, because `$!` is always mutable.
	# $.attrib = $param; # Wrong: You can't use the `$.` immutable version.

    $.other-attrib = 5; # This works, because `$.other-attrib` is `rw`.
  }

  method !private-method {
    say "This method is private to the class !";
  }
};

## Create a new instance of Attrib-Class with $.attrib set to 5 :
## Note: you can't set private-attribute from here (more later on).
my $class-obj = Attrib-Class.new(attrib => 5);
say $class-obj.get-value; #=> 15
# $class-obj.attrib = 5; # This fails, because the `has $.attrib` is immutable
$class-obj.other-attrib = 10; # This, however, works, because the public
                              # attribute is mutable (`rw`).
```

### Object Inheritance

```perl6
## Perl 6 also has inheritance (along with multiple inheritance)
## While `method`'s are inherited, `submethod`'s are not.
## Submethods are useful for object construction and destruction tasks,
## such as BUILD, or methods that must be overridden by subtypes.
## We will learn about BUILD later on.

class Parent {
  has $.age;
  has $.name;
  # This submethod won't be inherited by Child.
  submethod favorite-color {
    say "My favorite color is Blue";
  }
  # This method is inherited
  method talk { say "Hi, my name is $!name" }
}
# Inheritance uses the `is` keyword
class Child is Parent {
  method talk { say "Goo goo ga ga" }
  # This shadows Parent's `talk` method, This child hasn't learned to speak yet!
}
my Parent $Richard .= new(age => 40, name => 'Richard');
$Richard.favorite-color; #=> "My favorite color is Blue"
$Richard.talk; #=> "Hi, my name is Richard"
## $Richard is able to access the submethod, he knows how to say his name.

my Child $Madison .= new(age => 1, name => 'Madison');
$Madison.talk; # prints "Goo goo ga ga" due to the overridden method.
# $Madison.favorite-color # does not work since it is not inherited

## When you use `my T $var`, `$var` starts off with `T` itself in it,
## so you can call `new` on it.
## (`.=` is just the dot-call and the assignment operator:
##  `$a .= b` is the same as `$a = $a.b`)
## Also note that `BUILD` (the method called inside `new`)
## will set parent properties too, so you can pass `val => 5`.
```

### Roles, or Mixins

```perl6
## Roles are supported too (also called Mixins in other languages)
role PrintableVal {
  has $!counter = 0;
  method print {
    say $.val;
  }
}

## you "import" a mixin (a "role") with "does":
class Item does PrintableVal {
  has $.val;

  ## When `does`-ed, a `role` literally "mixes in" the class:
  ## the methods and attributes are put together, which means a class can access
  ## the private attributes/methods of its roles (but not the inverse !):
  method access {
    say $!counter++;
  }

  ## However, this:
  ## method print {}
  ## is ONLY valid when `print` isn't a `multi` with the same dispatch.
  ## (this means a parent class can shadow a child class's `multi print() {}`,
  ##  but it's an error if a role does)

  ## NOTE: You can use a role as a class (with `is ROLE`). In this case, 
  ##       methods will be shadowed, since the compiler will consider `ROLE` to 
  ##       be a class.
}
```

## Exceptions

```perl6
## Exceptions are built on top of classes, in the package `X` (like `X::IO`).
## In Perl6 exceptions are automatically 'thrown'
open 'foo'; #> Failed to open file foo: no such file or directory
## It will also print out what line the error was thrown at and other error info

## You can throw an exception using `die`:
die 'Error!'; #=> Error!

## Or more explicitly:
die X::AdHoc.new(payload => 'Error!');

## In Perl 6, `orelse` is similar to the `or` operator, except it only matches
## undefined variables instead of anything evaluating as false.
## Undefined values include: `Nil`, `Mu` and `Failure` as well as `Int`, `Str`
## and other types that have not been initialized to any value yet.
## You can check if something is defined or not using the defined method:
my $uninitialized;
say $uninitiazilzed.defined; #> False
## When using `orelse` it will disarm the exception and alias $_ to that failure
## This will avoid it being automatically handled and printing lots of scary
## error messages to the screen.
## We can use the exception method on $_ to access the exception
open 'foo' orelse say "Something happened {.exception}";

## This also works:
open 'foo' orelse say "Something happened $_"; #> Something happened
              #>  Failed to open file foo: no such file or directory
## Both of those above work but in case we get an object from the left side that
## is not a failure we will probably get a warning.  We see below how we can use
## `try` and `CATCH` to be more specific with the exceptions we catch.
```

### Using `try` and `CATCH`

```perl6
## By using `try` and `CATCH` you can contain and handle exceptions without
## disrupting the rest of the program. `try` will set the last exception to
## the special variable `$!` Note: This has no relation to $!variables.
try open 'foo';
say "Well, I tried! $!" if defined $!; #> Well, I tried! Failed to open file
                                       #foo: no such file or directory
## Now, what if we want more control over handling the exception?
## Unlike many other languages, in Perl 6, you put the `CATCH` block *within*
## the block to `try`. Similar to how $_ was set when we 'disarmed' the
## exception with orelse, we also use $_ in the CATCH block.
## Note: ($! is only set *after* the `try` block)
## By default, a `try` has a `CATCH` block that catches
## any exception (`CATCH { default {} }`).

try { my $a = (0 %% 0);  CATCH { say "Something happened: $_" } }
 #=> Something happened: Attempt to divide by zero using infix:<%%>

## You can redefine it using `when`s (and `default`)
## to handle the exceptions you want:
try {
  open 'foo';
  CATCH {     # In the `CATCH` block, the exception is set to $_
    when X::AdHoc { say "Error: $_" }
     #=>Error: Failed to open file /dir/foo: no such file or directory

    ## Any other exception will be re-raised, since we don't have a `default`
    ## Basically, if a `when` matches (or there's a `default`) marks the
	  ## exception as
    ## "handled" so that it doesn't get re-thrown from the `CATCH`.
    ## You still can re-throw the exception (see below) by hand.
  }
}

## There are also some subtleties to exceptions. Some Perl 6 subs return a
## `Failure`, which is a kind of "unthrown exception". They're not thrown until
## you tried to look at their content, unless you call `.Bool`/`.defined` on
## them - then they're handled.
## (the `.handled` method is `rw`, so you can mark it as `False` back yourself)
##
## You can throw a `Failure` using `fail`. Note that if the pragma `use fatal`
## is on, `fail` will throw an exception (like `die`).
fail "foo"; # We're not trying to access the value, so no problem.
try {
  fail "foo";
  CATCH {
    default { say "It threw because we tried to get the fail's value!" }
  }
}

## There is also another kind of exception: Control exceptions.
## Those are "good" exceptions, which happen when you change your program's 
## flow, using operators like `return`, `next` or `last`.
## You can "catch" those with `CONTROL` (not 100% working in Rakudo yet).
```

## Packages

```perl6
## Packages are a way to reuse code. Packages are like "namespaces", and any
## element of the six model (`module`, `role`, `class`, `grammar`, `subset` and
## `enum`) are actually packages. (Packages are the lowest common denominator)
## Packages are important - especially as Perl is well-known for CPAN,
## the Comprehensive Perl Archive Network.

## You can use a module (bring its declarations into scope) with `use`
use JSON::Tiny; # if you installed Rakudo* or Panda, you'll have this module
say from-json('[1]').perl; #=> [1]

## You should not declare packages using the `package` keyword (unlike Perl 5).
## Instead, use `class Package::Name::Here;` to declare a class, or if you only
## want to export variables/subs, you can use `module`.

module Hello::World { # Bracketed form
                      # If `Hello` doesn't exist yet, it'll just be a "stub",
                      #  that can be redeclared as something else later.
  # ... declarations here ...
}
unit module Parse::Text; # file-scoped form

grammar Parse::Text::Grammar { # A grammar is a package, which you could `use`
}                    # You will learn more about grammars in the regex section

## As said before, any part of the six model is also a package.
## Since `JSON::Tiny` uses its own `JSON::Tiny::Actions` class, you can use it:
my $actions = JSON::Tiny::Actions.new;

## We'll see how to export variables and subs in the next part:
```

## Declarators

```perl6
## In Perl 6, you get different behaviors based on how you declare a variable.
## You've already seen `my` and `has`, we'll now explore the others.

## * `our` declarations happen at `INIT` time -- (see "Phasers" below)
## It's like `my`, but it also creates a package variable.
## (All packagish things (`class`, `role`, etc) are `our` by default)
module Var::Increment {
  our $our-var = 1; # Note: you can't put a type constraint like Int on an
  my $my-var = 22;  # `our` variable.
  our sub Inc {

    our sub available { # If you try to make inner `sub`s `our`...
                        # Better know what you're doing (Don't !).
      say "Don't do that. Seriously. You'll get burned.";
    }

    my sub unavailable { # `my sub` is the default
      say "Can't access me from outside, I'm 'my'!";
    }
    say ++$our-var; # Increment the package variable and output its value
  }

}
say $Var::Increment::our-var; #=> 1 This works
say $Var::Increment::my-var; #=> (Any) This will not work.

Var::Increment::Inc; #=> 2
Var::Increment::Inc; #=> 3 # Notice how the value of $our-var was
                         # retained.
Var::Increment::unavailable; #> Could not find symbol '&unavailable'

## * `constant` (happens at `BEGIN` time)
## You can use the `constant` keyword to declare a compile-time variable/symbol:
constant Pi = 3.14;
constant $var = 1;

## And if you're wondering, yes, it can also contain infinite lists.
constant why-not = 5, 15 ... *;
say why-not[^5]; #=> 5 15 25 35 45

## * `state` (happens at run time, but only once)
## State variables are only initialized one time
## (they exist in other languages such as C as `static`)
sub fixed-rand {
  state $val = rand;
  say $val;
}
fixed-rand for ^10; # will print the same number 10 times

## Note, however, that they exist separately in different enclosing contexts.
## If you declare a function with a `state` within a loop, it'll re-create the
## variable for each iteration of the loop. See:
for ^5 -> $a {
  sub foo {
    state $val = rand; # This will be a different value for every value of `$a`
  }
  for ^5 -> $b {
    say foo; # This will print the same value 5 times, but only 5.
             # Next iteration will re-run `rand`.
  }
}
```

## Phasers

```perl6
## Phasers in Perl 6 are blocks that happen at determined points of time in your
## program.  They are called phasers because they mark a change in the phase
## of a program.  For example, when the program is compiled, a for loop runs,
## you leave a block, or an exception gets thrown. 
## (`CATCH` is actually a phaser!)
## Some of them can be used for their return values, some of them can't
## (those that can have a "[*]" in the beginning of their explanation text).
## Let's have a look !

## * Compile-time phasers
BEGIN { say "[*] Runs at compile time, as soon as possible, only once" }
CHECK { say "[*] Runs at compile time, as late as possible, only once" }

## * Run-time phasers
INIT { say "[*] Runs at run time, as soon as possible, only once" }
END { say "Runs at run time, as late as possible, only once" }

## * Block phasers
ENTER { say "[*] Runs everytime you enter a block, repeats on loop blocks" }
LEAVE { say "Runs everytime you leave a block, even when an exception
    happened. Repeats on loop blocks." }

PRE {
    say "Asserts a precondition at every block entry,
        before ENTER (especially useful for loops)";
    say "If this block doesn't return a truthy value,
        an exception of type X::Phaser::PrePost is thrown.";
}

## example:
for 0..2 {
    PRE { $_ > 1 } # This is going to blow up with "Precondition failed"
}

POST {
    say "Asserts a postcondition at every block exit,
        after LEAVE (especially useful for loops)";
    say "If this block doesn't return a truthy value,
        an exception of type X::Phaser::PrePost is thrown, like PRE.";
}
for 0..2 {
    POST { $_ < 2 } # This is going to blow up with "Postcondition failed"
}

## * Block/exceptions phasers
sub {
    KEEP { say "Runs when you exit a block successfully
                (without throwing an exception)" }
    UNDO { say "Runs when you exit a block unsuccessfully 
                (by throwing an exception)" }
}

## * Loop phasers
for ^5 {
  FIRST { say "[*] The first time the loop is run, before ENTER" }
  NEXT { say "At loop continuation time, before LEAVE" }
  LAST { say "At loop termination time, after LEAVE" }
}

## * Role/class phasers
COMPOSE { "When a role is composed into a class. /!\ NOT YET IMPLEMENTED" }

## They allow for cute tricks or clever code ...:
say "This code took " ~ (time - CHECK time) ~ "s to compile";

## ... or clever organization:
sub do-db-stuff {
  $db.start-transaction; # start a new transaction
  KEEP $db.commit; # commit the transaction if all went well
  UNDO $db.rollback; # or rollback if all hell broke loose
}
```

## Statement prefixes

```perl6
## Those act a bit like phasers: they affect the behavior of the following code.
## Though, they run in-line with the executable code, so they're in lowercase.
## (`try` and `start` are theoretically in that list, but explained elsewhere)
## Note: all of these (except start) don't need explicit brackets `{` and `}`.

## - `do` (that you already saw) - runs a block or a statement as a term
## You can't normally use a statement as a value (or "term"):
##
##    my $value = if True { 1 } # `if` is a statement - parse error
##
## This works:
my $a = do if True { 5 } # with `do`, `if` is now a term.

## - `once` - Makes sure a piece of code only runs once
for ^5 { once say 1 }; #=> 1
                       # Only prints ... once.
## Like `state`, they're cloned per-scope
for ^5 { sub { once say 1 }() } #=> 1 1 1 1 1
                                # Prints once per lexical scope

## - `gather` - Co-routine thread
## Gather allows you to `take` several values in an array,
##  much like `do`, but allows you to take any expression.
say gather for ^5 {
  take $_ * 3 - 1;
  take $_ * 3 + 1;
} #=> -1 1 2 4 5 7 8 10 11 13
say join ',', gather if False {
  take 1;
  take 2;
  take 3;
} # Doesn't print anything.

## - `eager` - Evaluate statement eagerly (forces eager context)
## Don't try this at home:
##
##    eager 1..*; # this will probably hang for a while (and might crash ...).
##
## But consider:
constant thrice = gather for ^3 { say take $_ }; # Doesn't print anything

## versus:
constant thrice = eager gather for ^3 { say take $_ }; #=> 0 1 2
```

## Iterables

```perl6
## Iterables are objects that can be iterated similar to the `for` construct
## `flat`, flattens iterables:
say (1, 10, (20, 10) ); #> (1 10 (20 10)) Notice how grouping is maintained
say (1, 10, (20, 10) ).flat; #> (1 10 20 10) Now the iterable is flat

## - `lazy` - Defer actual evaluation until value is fetched 
## (forces lazy context)
my @lazy-array = (1..100).lazy;
say @lazy-array.is-lazy; #> True # Check for laziness with the `is-lazy` method.
say @lazy-array; #> [...] List has not been iterated on!
my @lazy-array { .print }; # This works and will only do as much work as
                           # is needed.
[//]: # ( TODO explain that gather/take and map are all lazy)
## - `sink` - An `eager` that discards the results (forces sink context)
constant nilthingie = sink for ^3 { .say } #=> 0 1 2
say nilthingie.perl; #=> Nil

## - `quietly` blocks will suppress warnings:
quietly { warn 'This is a warning!' }; #=> No output

## - `contend` - Attempts side effects under STM
## Not yet implemented !
```

## More operators thingies !

```perl6
## Everybody loves operators ! Let's get more of them

## The precedence list can be found here:
## https://docs.perl6.org/language/operators#Operator_Precedence
## But first, we need a little explanation about associativity:

## * Binary operators:
$a ! $b ! $c; # with a left-associative `!`, this is `($a ! $b) ! $c`
$a ! $b ! $c; # with a right-associative `!`, this is `$a ! ($b ! $c)`
$a ! $b ! $c; # with a non-associative `!`, this is illegal
$a ! $b ! $c; # with a chain-associative `!`, this is `($a ! $b) and ($b ! $c)`
$a ! $b ! $c; # with a list-associative `!`, this is `infix:<>`

## * Unary operators:
!$a! # with left-associative `!`, this is `(!$a)!`
!$a! # with right-associative `!`, this is `!($a!)`
!$a! # with non-associative `!`, this is illegal
```

### Create your own operators !

```perl6
## Okay, you've been reading all of that, so I guess I should try
## to show you something exciting.
## I'll tell you a little secret (or not-so-secret):
## In Perl 6, all operators are actually just funny-looking subroutines.

## You can declare an operator just like you declare a sub:
sub prefix:<win>($winner) { # refer to the operator categories
                            # (yes, it's the "words operator" `<>`)
  say "$winner Won !";
}
win "The King"; #=> The King Won !
                # (prefix is before)

## you can still call the sub with its "full name":
say prefix:<!>(True); #=> False

sub postfix:<!>(Int $n) {
  [*] 2..$n; # using the reduce meta-operator ... See below ;-) !
}
say 5!; #=> 120
        # Postfix operators (after) have to come *directly* after the term.
        # No whitespace. You can use parentheses to disambiguate, i.e. `(5!)!`


sub infix:<times>(Int $n, Block $r) { # infix in the middle
  for ^$n {
    $r(); # You need the explicit parentheses to call the function in `$r`,
          #  else you'd be referring at the variable itself, like with `&r`.
  }
}
3 times -> { say "hello" }; #=> hello
                            #=> hello
                            #=> hello
                            # You're very recommended to put spaces
                            # around your infix operator calls.

## For circumfix and post-circumfix ones
sub circumfix:<[ ]>(Int $n) {
  $n ** $n
}
say [5]; #=> 3125
         # circumfix is around. Again, no whitespace.

sub postcircumfix:<{ }>(Str $s, Int $idx) {
  ## post-circumfix is
  ## "after a term, around something"
  $s.substr($idx, 1);
}
say "abc"{1}; #=> b
              # after the term `"abc"`, and around the index (1)

## This really means a lot -- because everything in Perl 6 uses this.
## For example, to delete a key from a hash, you use the `:delete` adverb
## (a simple named argument underneath):
%h{$key}:delete;
## equivalent to:
postcircumfix:<{ }>(%h, $key, :delete); # (you can call operators like that)

## It's *all* using the same building blocks!
## Syntactic categories (prefix infix ...), named arguments (adverbs), ...,
##  - used to build the language - are available to you.
## (you are, obviously, recommended against making an operator out of
## *everything* -- with great power comes great responsibility)
```

### Meta operators !

```perl6
## Oh boy, get ready. Get ready, because we're delving deep
## into the rabbit's hole, and you probably won't want to go
## back to other languages after reading that.
## (I'm guessing you don't want to already at that point).
## Meta-operators, as their name suggests, are *composed* operators.
## Basically, they're operators that apply another operator.

## * Reduce meta-operator
## It's a prefix meta-operator that takes a binary function and
##  one or many lists. If it doesn't get passed any argument,
##  it either returns a "default value" for this operator
##  (a meaningless value) or `Any` if there's none (examples below).
##
## Otherwise, it pops an element from the list(s) one at a time, and applies
##  the binary function to the last result (or the list's first element)
##  and the popped element.
##
## To sum a list, you could use the reduce meta-operator with `+`, i.e.:
say [+] 1, 2, 3; #=> 6
## equivalent to `(1+2)+3`

say [*] 1..5; #=> 120
## equivalent to `((((1*2)*3)*4)*5)`.

## You can reduce with any operator, not just with mathematical ones.
## For example, you could reduce with `//` to get
## the first defined element of a list:
say [//] Nil, Any, False, 1, 5; #=> False
                                # (Falsey, but still defined)

## Default value examples:
say [*] (); #=> 1
say [+] (); #=> 0
            # meaningless values, since N*1=N and N+0=N.
say [//];   #=> (Any)
            # There's no "default value" for `//`.

## You can also call it with a function you made up, using double brackets:
sub add($a, $b) { $a + $b }
say [[&add]] 1, 2, 3; #=> 6

## * Zip meta-operator
## This one is an infix meta-operator that also can be used as a "normal"
## operator.  It takes an optional binary function (by default, it just creates
## a pair), and will pop one value off of each array and call its binary 
## function on these until it runs out of elements. It returns an array with 
## all of these new elements.
(1, 2) Z (3, 4); # ((1, 3), (2, 4)), since by default, the function 
                 # makes an array.
1..3 Z+ 4..6; # (5, 7, 9), using the custom infix:<+> function

## Since `Z` is list-associative (see the list above),
## you can use it on more than one list
(True, False) Z|| (False, False) Z|| (False, False); # (True, False)

## And, as it turns out, you can also use the reduce meta-operator with it:
[Z||] (True, False), (False, False), (False, False); # (True, False)


## And to end the operator list:

## * Sequence operator
## The sequence operator is one of Perl 6's most powerful features:
## it's composed of first, on the left, the list you want Perl 6 to deduce from
## (and might include a closure), and on the right, a value or the predicate
## that says when to stop (or Whatever for a lazy infinite list).
my @list = 1, 2, 3 ... 10; # basic deducing
#my @list = 1, 3, 6 ... 10; # this dies because Perl 6 can't figure out the end
my @list = 1, 2, 3 ...^ 10; # as with ranges, you can exclude the last element
                            # (the iteration when the predicate matches).
my @list = 1, 3, 9 ... * > 30; # you can use a predicate
                               # (with the Whatever Star, here).
my @list = 1, 3, 9 ... { $_ > 30 }; # (equivalent to the above)

my @fib = 1, 1, *+* ... *; # lazy infinite list of fibonacci series,
                           #  computed using a closure!
my @fib = 1, 1, -> $a, $b { $a + $b } ... *; # (equivalent to the above)
my @fib = 1, 1, { $^a + $^b } ... *; #(... also equivalent to the above)
## $a and $b will always take the previous values, meaning here
##  they'll start with $a = 1 and $b = 1 (values we set by hand).
##  then $a = 1 and $b = 2 (result from previous $a+$b), and so on.

say @fib[^10]; #=> 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
               # (using a range as the index)
## Note : as for ranges, once reified, elements aren't re-calculated.
## That's why `@primes[^100]` will take a long time the first time you print
## it, then be instant.
```

## Regular Expressions

```perl6
## I'm sure a lot of you have been waiting for this one.
## Well, now that you know a good deal of Perl 6 already, we can get started.
## First off, you'll have to forget about "PCRE regexps" (perl-compatible 
## regexps).
##
## IMPORTANT: Don't skip them because you know PCRE. They're different.
## Some things are the same (like `?`, `+`, and `*`),
##  but sometimes the semantics change (`|`).
## Make sure you read carefully, because you might trip over a new behavior.
##
## Perl 6 has many features related to RegExps. After all, Rakudo parses itself.
## We're first going to look at the syntax itself,
##  then talk about grammars (PEG-like), differences between
##  `token`, `regex` and `rule` declarators, and some more.
## Side note: you still have access to PCRE regexps using the `:P5` modifier.
##  (we won't be discussing this in this tutorial, however)
##
## In essence, Perl 6 natively implements PEG ("Parsing Expression Grammars").
## The pecking order for ambiguous parses is determined by a multi-level
##  tie-breaking test:
##  - Longest token matching. `foo\s+` beats `foo` (by 2 or more positions)
##  - Longest literal prefix. `food\w*` beats `foo\w*` (by 1)
##  - Declaration from most-derived to less derived grammars
##     (grammars are actually classes)
##  - Earliest declaration wins
say so 'a' ~~ /a/; #=> True
say so 'a' ~~ / a /; #=> True #  More readable with some spaces!

## In all our examples, we're going to use the smart-matching operator against
##  a regexp. We're converting the result using `so`, but in fact, it's
##  returning a `Match` object. They know how to respond to list indexing,
##  hash indexing, and return the matched string.
## The results of the match are available as `$/` (implicitly lexically-scoped).
## You can also use the capture variables which start at 0:
##    `$0`, `$1', `$2`...
##
## You can also note that `~~` does not perform start/end checking
##  (meaning the regexp can be matched with just one char of the string),
##  we're going to explain later how you can do it.

## In Perl 6, you can have any alphanumeric as a literal,
## everything else has to be escaped, using a backslash or quotes.
say so 'a|b' ~~ / a '|' b /; # `True`. Wouldn't mean the same if `|` wasn't 
                             # escaped
say so 'a|b' ~~ / a \| b /;  # `True`. Another way to escape it.

## The whitespace in a regexp is actually not significant,
##  unless you use the `:s` (`:sigspace`, significant space) adverb.
say so 'a b c' ~~ / a  b  c /; #> `False`. Space is not significant here
say so 'a b c' ~~ /:s a b c /; #> `True`. We added the modifier `:s` here.
## If we use only one space between strings in a regex, Perl 6 will warn us:
say so 'a b c' ~~ / a b c /; #> 'False' #> Space is not significant here; 
## please use quotes or :s (:sigspace) modifier (or, to suppress this warning,
## omit the space, or otherwise change the spacing)
## To fix this and make the spaces less ambiguous,  either use at least two
## spaces between strings or use the `:s` adverb.

## As we saw before, we can embed the `:s` inside the slash delimiters, but we 
## can also put it outside of them if we specify `m` for 'match':
say so 'a b c' ~~ m:s/a  b  c/; #> `True`
## By using `m` to specify 'match', we can also use delimiters other 
## than slashes:
say so 'abc' ~~ m{a  b  c}; #> `True`

## Use the :i adverb to specify case insensitivity:
say so 'ABC' ~~ m:i{a  b  c}; #> `True`

## It is, however, important as for how modifiers (that you're gonna see just 
## below) are applied ...

## Quantifying - `?`, `+`, `*` and `**`.
## - `?` - 0 or 1
so 'ac' ~~ / a  b  c /; # `False`
so 'ac' ~~ / a  b?  c /; # `True`, the "b" matched 0 times.
so 'abc' ~~ / a  b?  c /; # `True`, the "b" matched 1 time.

## ... As you read just before, whitespace is important because it determines
##  which part of the regexp is the target of the modifier:
so 'def' ~~ / a  b  c? /; # `False`. Only the `c` is optional
so 'def' ~~ / a  b?  c /; # `False`. Whitespace is not significant
so 'def' ~~ / 'abc'? /; # `True`. The whole "abc" group is optional.

## Here (and below) the quantifier applies only to the `b`

## - `+` - 1 or more
so 'ac' ~~ / a  b+  c /; # `False`; `+` wants at least one matching
so 'abc' ~~ / a  b+  c /; # `True`; one is enough
so 'abbbbc' ~~ / a  b+  c /; # `True`, matched 4 "b"s

## - `*` - 0 or more
so 'ac' ~~ / a  b*  c /; # `True`, they're all optional.
so 'abc' ~~ / a  b*  c /; # `True`
so 'abbbbc' ~~ / a  b*  c /; # `True`
so 'aec' ~~ / a  b*  c /; # `False`. "b"(s) are optional, not replaceable.

## - `**` - (Unbound) Quantifier
## If you squint hard enough, you might understand
##  why exponentation is used for quantity.
so 'abc' ~~ / a  b**1  c /; # `True` (exactly one time)
so 'abc' ~~ / a  b**1..3  c /; # `True` (one to three times)
so 'abbbc' ~~ / a  b**1..3  c /; # `True`
so 'abbbbbbc' ~~ / a  b**1..3  c /; # `False` (too much)
so 'abbbbbbc' ~~ / a  b**3..*  c /; # `True` (infinite ranges are okay)

## - `<[]>` - Character classes
## Character classes are the equivalent of PCRE's `[]` classes, but
##  they use a more perl6-ish syntax:
say 'fooa' ~~ / f <[ o a ]>+ /; #=> 'fooa'

## You can use ranges:
say 'aeiou' ~~ / a <[ e..w ]> /; #=> 'ae'

## Just like in normal regexes, if you want to use a special character, 
## escape it (the last one is escaping a space)
say 'he-he !' ~~ / 'he-' <[ a..z \! \  ]> + /; #=> 'he-he !'

## You'll get a warning if you put duplicate names
## (which has the nice effect of catching the wrote quoting:)
'he he' ~~ / <[ h e ' ' ]> /; # Warns "Repeated characters found in characters
                              # class"

## You can also negate them ... (equivalent to `[^]` in PCRE)
so 'foo' ~~ / <-[ f o ]> + /; # False

## ... and compose them: :
so 'foo' ~~ / <[ a..z ] - [ f o ]> + /;   # False (any letter except f and o)
so 'foo' ~~ / <-[ a..z ] + [ f o ]> + /;  # True (no letter except f and o)
so 'foo!' ~~ / <-[ a..z ] + [ f o ]> + /; # True (the + doesn't replace the 
                                          # left part)
```

### Grouping and capturing

```perl6
## Group: you can group parts of your regexp with `[]`.
## These groups are *not* captured (like PCRE's `(?:)`).
so 'abc' ~~ / a [ b ] c /; # `True`. The grouping does pretty much nothing
so 'foo012012bar' ~~ / foo [ '01' <[0..9]> ] + bar /;
## The previous line returns `True`.
## We match the "012" 1 or more time (the `+` was applied to the group).

## But this does not go far enough, because we can't actually get back what
## we matched.
## Capture: We can actually *capture* the results of the regexp, 
## using parentheses.
so 'fooABCABCbar' ~~ / foo ( 'A' <[A..Z]> 'C' ) + bar /; # `True`. (using `so`
                                                         #  here, `$/` below)

## So, starting with the grouping explanations.
## As we said before, our `Match` object is available as `$/`:
say $/; # Will print some weird stuff (we'll explain) (or "Nil" if 
        # nothing matched).

## As we also said before, it has array indexing:
say $/[0]; #=> ｢ABC｣ ｢ABC｣
           # These weird brackets are `Match` objects.
           # Here, we have an array of these.
say $0; # The same as above.

## Our capture is `$0` because it's the first and only one capture in the 
## regexp. You might be wondering why it's an array, and the answer is simple:
## Some capture (indexed using `$0`, `$/[0]` or a named one) will be an array
## IFF it can have more than one element
## (so, with `*`, `+` and `**` (whatever the operands), but not with `?`).
## Let's use examples to see that:

## Note: We quoted A B C to demonstrate that the whitespace between them isn't
##       significant. If we want the whitespace to *be* significant there, we 
##       can use the :sigspace modifier.
so 'fooABCbar' ~~ / foo ( "A" "B" "C" )? bar /; # `True`
say $/[0]; #=> ｢ABC｣
say $0.WHAT; #=> (Match)
             # There can't be more than one, so it's only a single match object.
so 'foobar' ~~ / foo ( "A" "B" "C" )? bar /; #=> True
say $0.WHAT; #=> (Any)
             # This capture did not match, so it's empty
so 'foobar' ~~ / foo ( "A" "B" "C" ) ** 0..1 bar /; # `True`
say $0.WHAT; #=> (Array)
             # A specific quantifier will always capture an Array,
             #  may it be a range or a specific value (even 1).

## The captures are indexed per nesting. This means a group in a group will be 
## nested under its parent group: `$/[0][0]`, for this code:
'hello-~-world' ~~ / ( 'hello' ( <[ \- \~ ]> + ) ) 'world' /;
say $/[0].Str; #=> hello~
say $/[0][0].Str; #=> ~

## This stems from a very simple fact: `$/` does not contain strings, integers 
## or arrays, it only contains match objects. These contain the `.list`, `.hash`
## and `.Str` methods. (but you can also just use `match<key>` for hash access
## and `match[idx]` for array access)
say $/[0].list.perl; #=> (Match.new(...),).list
                     # We can see it's a list of Match objects. Those contain
                     # a bunch of infos: where the match started/ended,
                     #    the "ast" (see actions later), etc.
                     # You'll see named capture below with grammars.

## Alternatives - the `or` of regexps
## WARNING: They are DIFFERENT from PCRE regexps.
so 'abc' ~~ / a [ b | y ] c /; # `True`. Either "b" or "y".
so 'ayc' ~~ / a [ b | y ] c /; # `True`. Obviously enough ...

## The difference between this `|` and the one you're used to is LTM.
## LTM means "Longest Token Matching". This means that the engine will always
## try to match as much as possible in the strng
'foo' ~~ / fo | foo /; # `foo`, because it's longer.
## To decide which part is the "longest", it first splits the regex in 
## two parts:
## The "declarative prefix" (the part that can be statically analyzed)
## and the procedural parts.
## Declarative prefixes include alternations (`|`), conjunctions (`&`),
## sub-rule calls (not yet introduced), literals, characters classes and 
## quantifiers.
## The latter include everything else: back-references, code assertions,
## and other things that can't traditionnaly be represented by normal regexps.
##
## Then, all the alternatives are tried at once, and the longest wins.
## Examples:
## DECLARATIVE | PROCEDURAL
/ 'foo' \d+     [ <subrule1> || <subrule2> ] /;
## DECLARATIVE (nested groups are not a problem)
/ \s* [ \w & b ] [ c | d ] /;
## However, closures and recursion (of named regexps) are procedural.
## ... There are also more complicated rules, like specificity
##  (literals win over character classes)

## Note: the first-matching `or` still exists, but is now spelled `||`
'foo' ~~ / fo || foo /; # `fo` now.
```

## Extra: the MAIN subroutine

```perl6
## The `MAIN` subroutine is called when you run a Perl 6 file directly.
## It's very powerful, because Perl 6 actually parses the arguments
##  and pass them as such to the sub. It also handles named argument (`--foo`)
##  and will even go as far as to autogenerate a `--help`
sub MAIN($name) { say "Hello, $name !" }
## This produces:
##    $ perl6 cli.pl
##    Usage:
##      t.pl <name>

## And since it's a regular Perl 6 sub, you can have multi-dispatch:
## (using a "Bool" for the named argument so that we can do `--replace`
##  instead of `--replace=1`)
subset File of Str where *.IO.d; # convert to IO object to check the file exists

multi MAIN('add', $key, $value, Bool :$replace) { ... }
multi MAIN('remove', $key) { ... }
multi MAIN('import', File, Str :$as) { ... } # omitting parameter name
## This produces:
##    $ perl6 cli.pl
##    Usage:
##      t.pl [--replace] add <key> <value>
##      t.pl remove <key>
##      t.pl [--as=<Str>] import (File)
## As you can see, this is *very* powerful.
## It even went as far as to show inline the constants.
## (the type is only displayed if the argument is `$`/is named)
```

## APPENDIX A:
### List of things

```perl6
## It's considered by now you know the Perl6 basics.
## This section is just here to list some common operations,
##  but which are not in the "main part" of the tutorial to bloat it up

## Operators


## * Sort comparison
## They return one value of the `Order` enum : `Less`, `Same` and `More`
##  (which numerify to -1, 0 or +1).
1 <=> 4; # sort comparison for numerics
'a' leg 'b'; # sort comparison for string
$obj eqv $obj2; # sort comparison using eqv semantics

## * Generic ordering
3 before 4; # True
'b' after 'a'; # True

## * Short-circuit default operator
## Like `or` and `||`, but instead returns the first *defined* value :
say Any // Nil // 0 // 5; #=> 0

## * Short-circuit exclusive or (XOR)
## Returns `True` if one (and only one) of its arguments is true
say True ^^ False; #=> True
## * Flip Flop
## The flip flop operators (`ff` and `fff`, equivalent to P5's `..`/`...`).
##  are operators that take two predicates to test:
## They are `False` until their left side returns `True`, then are `True` until
##  their right side returns `True`.
## Like for ranges, you can exclude the iteration when it became `True`/`False`
##  by using `^` on either side.
## Let's start with an example :
for <well met young hero we shall meet later> {
  # by default, `ff`/`fff` smart-match (`~~`) against `$_`:
  if 'met' ^ff 'meet' { # Won't enter the if for "met"
                        #  (explained in details below).
    .say
  }

  if rand == 0 ff rand == 1 { # compare variables other than `$_`
    say "This ... probably will never run ...";
  }
}
## This will print "young hero we shall meet" (excluding "met"):
## the flip-flop will start returning `True` when it first encounters "met"
## (but will still return `False` for "met" itself, due to the leading `^`
##  on `ff`), until it sees "meet", which is when it'll start returning `False`.

## The difference between `ff` (awk-style) and `fff` (sed-style) is that
##  `ff` will test its right side right when its left side changes to `True`,
##  and can get back to `False` right away
##  (*except* it'll be `True` for the iteration that matched) -
## While `fff` will wait for the next iteration to
##  try its right side, once its left side changed:
.say if 'B' ff 'B' for <A B C B A>; #=> B B
                                    # because the right-hand-side was tested
                                    # directly (and returned `True`).
                                    # "B"s are printed since it matched that 
                                    # time (it just went back to `False` 
                                    # right away).
.say if 'B' fff 'B' for <A B C B A>; #=> B C B
                                    # The right-hand-side wasn't tested until
                                    #  `$_` became "C"
                                    # (and thus did not match instantly).

## A flip-flop can change state as many times as needed:
for <test start print it stop not printing start print again stop not anymore> {
  .say if $_ eq 'start' ^ff^ $_ eq 'stop'; # exclude both "start" and "stop",
                                           #=> "print it print again"
}

## You might also use a Whatever Star,
## which is equivalent to `True` for the left side or `False` for the right:
for (1, 3, 60, 3, 40, 60) { # Note: the parenthesis are superfluous here
                            # (sometimes called "superstitious parentheses")
 .say if $_ > 50 ff *; # Once the flip-flop reaches a number greater than 50,
                       #  it'll never go back to `False`
                       #=> 60 3 40 60
}

## You can also use this property to create an `If`
## that'll not go through the first time :
for <a b c> {
  .say if * ^ff *; # the flip-flop is `True` and never goes back to `False`,
                   #  but the `^` makes it *not run* on the first iteration
                   #=> b c
}


## - `===` is value identity and uses `.WHICH` on the objects to compare them
## - `=:=` is container identity and uses `VAR()` on the objects to compare them

```

If you want to go further, you can:

 - Read the [Perl 6 Docs](https://docs.perl6.org/). This is a great
 resource on Perl6.  If you are looking for something, use the search bar.
 This will give you a dropdown menu of all the pages referencing your search
 term (Much better than using Google to find Perl 6 documents!)
 - Read the [Perl 6 Advent Calendar](http://perl6advent.wordpress.com/). This
 is a great source of Perl 6 snippets and explanations.  If the docs don't
 describe something well enough, you may find more detailed information here.
 This information may be a bit older but there are many great examples and
 explanations.  Posts stopped at the end of 2015 when the language was declared
 stable and Perl 6.c was released.
 - Come along on `#perl6` at `irc.freenode.net`. The folks here are 
 always helpful.
 - Check the [source of Perl 6's functions and 
 classes](https://github.com/rakudo/rakudo/tree/nom/src/core). Rakudo is 
 mainly written in Perl 6 (with a lot of NQP, "Not Quite Perl", a Perl 6 subset
 easier to implement and optimize).
 - Read [the language design documents](http://design.perl6.org). They explain 
 P6 from an implementor point-of-view, but it's still very interesting.