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diff --git a/CONTRIBUTING.markdown b/CONTRIBUTING.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..9ee33ebc --- /dev/null +++ b/CONTRIBUTING.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +# Contributing + +All contributions are welcome, from the tiniest typo to a brand new article. +Translations in all languages are welcome (or, for that matter, original +articles in any language). Send a pull request or open an issue any time of day +or night. + +**Please prepend the tag `[language/lang-code]` to your issues and pull +requests.** For example, `[python/en]` for English Python. This will help +everyone pick out things they care about. + +We're happy for any contribution in any form, but if you're making more than one +major change (i.e. translations for two different languages) it would be super +cool of you to make a separate pull request for each one so that someone can +review them more effectively and/or individually. + +## Style Guidelines + +- **Keep lines of under 80 chars** + + Try to keep **line length in code blocks to 80 characters or fewer**. + + Otherwise, the text will overflow and look odd. +- **Prefer example to exposition** + + Try to use as few words as possible. + + Code examples are preferred over exposition in all cases. +- **Eschew surplusage** + + We welcome newcomers, but the target audience for this site is programmers + with some experience. + + Try to avoid explaining basic concepts except for those specific to the + language in question. + + Keep articles succinct and scannable. We all know how to use Google here. +- **Use UTF-8** + + For translations (or EN articles with non-ASCII characters) please make sure + your file is UTF-8 encoded. + + Try to leave out the byte-order-mark at the start of the file. (`:set nobomb` + in Vim) + + +### Header configuration + +The actual site uses Middleman to generate HTML files from these Markdown ones. +Middleman, or at least the custom scripts underpinning the site, requires that +some key information be defined in the header. + +The following fields are necessary for English articles about programming +languages: + +- **language** The *programming language* in question +- **contributors** A list of [author, URL] lists to credit + +Other fields: + +- **filename**: The filename for this article's code. It will be fetched, mashed + together, and made downloadable. + + For non-English articles, *filename* should have a language-specific + suffix. +- **lang**: For translations, the human language this article is in. For + categorization, mostly. + +Here's an example header for an Esperanto translation of Ruby: + +```yaml +--- +language: ruby +filename: learnruby-epo.ruby +contributors: + - ["Doktor Esperanto", "http://example.com/"] + - ["Someone else", "http://someoneelseswebsite.com/"] +lang: ep-ep +--- +``` diff --git a/PULL_REQUEST_TEMPLATE.md b/PULL_REQUEST_TEMPLATE.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3f55e3fb --- /dev/null +++ b/PULL_REQUEST_TEMPLATE.md @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +- [ ] PR touches only one file (or a set of logically related files with similar changes made) +- [ ] Content changes are aimed at *intermediate to experienced programmers* (this is a poor format for explaining fundamental programming concepts) +- [ ] YAML Frontmatter formatted according to [CONTRIBUTING.md](https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs/blob/master/CONTRIBUTING.markdown) + - [ ] Seriously, look at it now. Watch for quotes and double-check field names. diff --git a/README.markdown b/README.markdown index 94afbcbe..a71e85bd 100644 --- a/README.markdown +++ b/README.markdown @@ -1,88 +1,45 @@ -# [Learn X in Y minutes](http://learnxinyminutes.com) +# [Learn X in Y minutes][1] Whirlwind tours of (several, hopefully many someday) popular and -ought-to-be-more-popular programming languages, presented as valid, -commented code and explained as they go. +ought-to-be-more-popular programming languages, presented as valid, commented +code and explained as they go. ## We need YOU!... -... to write more inline code tutorials. Just grab an existing file from -this repo and copy the formatting (don't worry, it's all very simple). -Make a new file, send a pull request, and if it passes muster I'll get it up pronto. -Remember to fill in the "contributors" fields so you get credited -properly! +... to write more inline code tutorials. Just grab an existing file from this +repo and copy the formatting (don't worry, it's all very simple). Make a new +file, send a pull request, and if it passes muster I'll get it up pronto. +Remember to fill in the "contributors" fields so you get credited properly! ## Contributing -All contributions are welcome, from the tiniest typo to a brand new article. Translations -in all languages are welcome (or, for that matter, original articles in any language). -Send a pull request or open an issue any time of day or night. +All contributions are welcome, from the tiniest typo to a brand new article. +Translations in all languages are welcome (or, for that matter, original +articles in any language). Send a pull request or open an issue any time of day +or night. -**Please tag your issues and pull requests with [language/lang-code] at the beginning** -**(e.g. [python/en] for English Python).** This will help everyone pick out things they -care about. +**Please prepend the tag `[language/lang-code]` to your issues and pull +requests.** For example, `[python/en]` for English Python. This will help +everyone pick out things they care about. -We're happy for any contribution in any form, but if you're making more than one major change -(i.e. translations for two different languages) it would be super cool of you to make a -separate pull request for each one so that someone can review them more effectively and/or -individually. +We're happy for any contribution in any form, but if you're making more than one +major change (i.e. translations for two different languages) it would be super +cool of you to make a separate pull request for each one so that someone can +review them more effectively and/or individually. -### Style Guidelines +For a detailed style guide, please review the full [CONTRIBUTING][2] guidelines. -* **Keep lines under 80 chars** -* **Prefer example to exposition** -* **Eschew surplusage** -* **Use UTF-8** - -Long version: - -* Try to keep **line length in code blocks to 80 characters or fewer**, or they'll overflow - and look odd. - -* Try to use as few words as possible. Code examples are preferred over exposition in all cases. - -* We welcome newcomers, but the target audience for this site is programmers with some experience. - So, try to avoid explaining basic concepts except for those specific to the language in question, - to keep articles succinct and scannable. We all know how to use Google here. - -* For translations (or English articles with non-ASCII characters), please make sure your file is - UTF-8 encoded, and try to leave out the byte-order-mark at the start of the file. (`:set nobomb` in Vim) - -### Header configuration - -The actual site uses Middleman to generate HTML files from these Markdown ones. Middleman, or at least -the custom scripts underpinning the site, required that some key information be defined in the header. - -The following fields are necessary for English articles about programming languages: - -* **language** The *programming language* in question -* **contributors** A list of [author, URL] lists to credit - -Other fields: - -* **filename**: The filename for this article's code. It will be fetched, mashed together, and made downloadable. - For non-English articles, *filename* should have a language-specific suffix. -* **lang**: For translations, the human language this article is in. For categorization, mostly. - -Here's an example header for an Esperanto translation of Ruby: +## License -```yaml ---- -language: ruby -filename: learnruby-epo.ruby -contributors: - - ["Doktor Esperanto", "http://example.com/"] - - ["Someone else", "http://someoneelseswebsite.com/"] -lang: ep-ep ---- -``` +Contributors retain copyright to their work, and can request removal at any +time. By uploading a doc here, you agree to publish your work under the default +[Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported][3] licensing included on +each doc page. -## License +Anything not covered by the above -- basically, this README -- you can use as +you wish, I guess. -Contributors retain copyright to their work, and can request removal at any time. -By uploading a doc here, you agree to publish your work under the default -[Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en_US) -licensing included on each doc page. -Anything not covered by the above -- basically, this README -- you can use -as you wish, I guess. +[1]: http://learnxinyminutes.com +[2]: /CONTRIBUTING.markdown +[3]: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en_US diff --git a/asciidoc.html.markdown b/asciidoc.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8326c581 --- /dev/null +++ b/asciidoc.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,122 @@ +--- +language: asciidoc +contributors: + - ["Ryan Mavilia", "http://unoriginality.rocks/"] +filename: asciidoc.md +--- + +AsciiDoc is a markup language similar to Markdown and it can be used for anything from books to blogs. Created in 2002 by Stuart Rackham the language is simple but it allows for a great amount of customization. + +Document Header + +Headers are optional and can't contain blank lines. It must be offset from content by at least one blank line. + +Title Only + +``` += Document Title + +First sentence of document. +``` + +Title and Author + +``` += Document Title +First Last <first.last@learnxinyminutes.com> + +Start of this document. +``` + +Multiple Authors + +``` += Document Title +John Doe <john@go.com>; Jane Doe<jane@yo.com>; Black Beard <beardy@pirate.com> + +Start of a doc with multiple authors. +``` + +Revision Line (requires an author line) + +``` += Doc Title V1 +Potato Man <chip@crunchy.com> +v1.0, 2016-01-13 + +This article about chips is going to be fun. +``` + +Paragraphs + +``` +You don't need anything special for paragraphs. + +Add a blank line between paragraphs to separate them. + +To create a line blank add a + +and you will receive a line break! +``` + +Formatting Text + +``` +_underscore creates italics_ +*asterisks for bold* +*_combine for extra fun_* +`use ticks to signify monospace` +`*bolded monospace*` +``` + +Section Titles + +``` += Level 0 (may only be used in document's header) + +== Level 1 <h2> + +=== Level 2 <h3> + +==== Level 3 <h4> + +===== Level 4 <h5> + +====== Level 5 <h6> + +======= Level 6 <h7> + +``` + +Lists + +To create a bulleted list use asterisks. + +``` +* foo +* bar +* baz +``` + +To create a numbered list use periods. + +``` +. item 1 +. item 2 +. item 3 +``` + +You can nest lists by adding extra asterisks or periods up to five times. + +``` +* foo 1 +** foo 2 +*** foo 3 +**** foo 4 +***** foo 5 + +. foo 1 +.. foo 2 +... foo 3 +.... foo 4 +..... foo 5 +``` diff --git a/asymptotic-notation.html.markdown b/asymptotic-notation.html.markdown index a516737e..4167ba8d 100644 --- a/asymptotic-notation.html.markdown +++ b/asymptotic-notation.html.markdown @@ -137,3 +137,4 @@ code examples soon. * [MIT](http://web.mit.edu/16.070/www/lecture/big_o.pdf) * [KhanAcademy](https://www.khanacademy.org/computing/computer-science/algorithms/asymptotic-notation/a/asymptotic-notation) +* [Big-O Cheatsheet](http://bigocheatsheet.com/) - common structures, operations, and algorithms, ranked by complexity. diff --git a/bash.html.markdown b/bash.html.markdown index 211d2944..f3c9cccc 100644 --- a/bash.html.markdown +++ b/bash.html.markdown @@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ echo Hello, $Name! # We have the usual if structure: # use 'man test' for more info about conditionals -if [ $Name -ne $USER ] +if [ $Name != $USER ] then echo "Your name isn't your username" else @@ -91,12 +91,12 @@ else fi # NOTE: if $Name is empty, bash sees the above condition as: -if [ -ne $USER ] +if [ != $USER ] # which is invalid syntax # so the "safe" way to use potentially empty variables in bash is: -if [ "$Name" -ne $USER ] ... +if [ "$Name" != $USER ] ... # which, when $Name is empty, is seen by bash as: -if [ "" -ne $USER ] ... +if [ "" != $USER ] ... # which works as expected # There is also conditional execution @@ -130,6 +130,15 @@ ls -l # Lists every file and directory on a separate line # .txt files in the current directory: ls -l | grep "\.txt" +# Since bash works in the context of a current directory, you might want to +# run your command in some other directory. We have cd for changing location: +cd ~ # change to home directory +cd .. # go up one directory + # (^^say, from /home/username/Downloads to /home/username) +cd /home/username/Documents # change to specified directory +cd ~/Documents/.. # still in home directory..isn't it?? + + # You can redirect command input and output (stdin, stdout, and stderr). # Read from stdin until ^EOF$ and overwrite hello.py with the lines # between "EOF": diff --git a/brainfuck.html.markdown b/bf.html.markdown index a76169c8..c8bbee61 100644 --- a/brainfuck.html.markdown +++ b/bf.html.markdown @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ --- -language: brainfuck +language: bf contributors: - ["Prajit Ramachandran", "http://prajitr.github.io/"] - ["Mathias Bynens", "http://mathiasbynens.be/"] diff --git a/c++.html.markdown b/c++.html.markdown index d03092e5..a02e7e5b 100644 --- a/c++.html.markdown +++ b/c++.html.markdown @@ -149,7 +149,7 @@ namespace First { namespace Second { void foo() { - printf("This is Second::foo\n") + printf("This is Second::foo\n"); } } @@ -330,7 +330,7 @@ ECarTypes GetPreferredCarType() } // As of C++11 there is an easy way to assign a type to the enum which can be -// useful in serialization of data and converting enums back-and-forth between +// useful in serialization of data and converting enums back-and-forth between // the desired type and their respective constants enum ECarTypes : uint8_t { @@ -352,7 +352,7 @@ void WritePreferredCarTypeToFile(ECarTypes InputCarType) } // On the other hand you may not want enums to be accidentally cast to an integer -// type or to other enums so it is instead possible to create an enum class which +// type or to other enums so it is instead possible to create an enum class which // won't be implicitly converted enum class ECarTypes : uint8_t { @@ -468,7 +468,7 @@ int main() { // Inheritance: // This class inherits everything public and protected from the Dog class -// as well as private but may not directly access private members/methods +// as well as private but may not directly access private members/methods // without a public or protected method for doing so class OwnedDog : public Dog { @@ -801,6 +801,94 @@ void doSomethingWithAFile(const std::string& filename) // all automatically destroy their contents when they fall out of scope. // - Mutexes using lock_guard and unique_lock +// containers with object keys of non-primitive values (custom classes) require +// compare function in the object itself or as a function pointer. Primitives +// have default comparators, but you can override it. +class Foo { +public: + int j; + Foo(int a) : j(a) {} +}; +struct compareFunction { + bool operator()(const Foo& a, const Foo& b) const { + return a.j < b.j; + } +}; +//this isn't allowed (although it can vary depending on compiler) +//std::map<Foo, int> fooMap; +std::map<Foo, int, compareFunction> fooMap; +fooMap[Foo(1)] = 1; +fooMap.find(Foo(1)); //true + +/////////////////////////////////////// +// Lambda Expressions (C++11 and above) +/////////////////////////////////////// + +// lambdas are a convenient way of defining an anonymous function +// object right at the location where it is invoked or passed as +// an argument to a function. + +// For example, consider sorting a vector of pairs using the second +// value of the pair + +vector<pair<int, int> > tester; +tester.push_back(make_pair(3, 6)); +tester.push_back(make_pair(1, 9)); +tester.push_back(make_pair(5, 0)); + +// Pass a lambda expression as third argument to the sort function +// sort is from the <algorithm> header + +sort(tester.begin(), tester.end(), [](const pair<int, int>& lhs, const pair<int, int>& rhs) { + return lhs.second < rhs.second; + }); + +// Notice the syntax of the lambda expression, +// [] in the lambda is used to "capture" variables +// The "Capture List" defines what from the outside of the lambda should be available inside the function body and how. +// It can be either: +// 1. a value : [x] +// 2. a reference : [&x] +// 3. any variable currently in scope by reference [&] +// 4. same as 3, but by value [=] +// Example: + +vector<int> dog_ids; +// number_of_dogs = 3; +for(int i = 0; i < 3; i++) { + dog_ids.push_back(i); +} + +int weight[3] = {30, 50, 10}; + +// Say you want to sort dog_ids according to the dogs' weights +// So dog_ids should in the end become: [2, 0, 1] + +// Here's where lambda expressions come in handy + +sort(dog_ids.begin(), dog_ids.end(), [&weight](const int &lhs, const int &rhs) { + return weight[lhs] < weight[rhs]; + }); +// Note we captured "weight" by reference in the above example. +// More on Lambdas in C++ : http://stackoverflow.com/questions/7627098/what-is-a-lambda-expression-in-c11 + +/////////////////////////////// +// Range For (C++11 and above) +/////////////////////////////// + +// You can use a range for loop to iterate over a container +int arr[] = {1, 10, 3}; + +for(int elem: arr){ + cout << elem << endl; +} + +// You can use "auto" and not worry about the type of the elements of the container +// For example: + +for(auto elem: arr) { + // Do something with each element of arr +} ///////////////////// // Fun stuff @@ -852,20 +940,50 @@ Foo f1; f1 = f2; -// How to truly clear a container: -class Foo { ... }; -vector<Foo> v; -for (int i = 0; i < 10; ++i) - v.push_back(Foo()); +/////////////////////////////////////// +// Tuples (C++11 and above) +/////////////////////////////////////// + +#include<tuple> + +// Conceptually, Tuples are similar to old data structures (C-like structs) but instead of having named data members , +// its elements are accessed by their order in the tuple. + +// We start with constructing a tuple. +// Packing values into tuple +auto first = make_tuple(10, 'A'); +const int maxN = 1e9; +const int maxL = 15; +auto second = make_tuple(maxN, maxL); + +// printing elements of 'first' tuple +cout << get<0>(first) << " " << get<1>(first) << "\n"; //prints : 10 A + +// printing elements of 'second' tuple +cout << get<0>(second) << " " << get<1>(second) << "\n"; // prints: 1000000000 15 + +// Unpacking tuple into variables + +int first_int; +char first_char; +tie(first_int, first_char) = first; +cout << first_int << " " << first_char << "\n"; // prints : 10 A + +// We can also create tuple like this. + +tuple<int, char, double> third(11, 'A', 3.14141); +// tuple_size returns number of elements in a tuple (as a constexpr) + +cout << tuple_size<decltype(third)>::value << "\n"; // prints: 3 + +// tuple_cat concatenates the elements of all the tuples in the same order. -// Following line sets size of v to 0, but destructors don't get called -// and resources aren't released! -v.empty(); -v.push_back(Foo()); // New value is copied into the first Foo we inserted +auto concatenated_tuple = tuple_cat(first, second, third); +// concatenated_tuple becomes = (10, 'A', 1e9, 15, 11, 'A' ,3.14141) -// Truly destroys all values in v. See section about temporary objects for -// explanation of why this works. -v.swap(vector<Foo>()); +cout << get<0>(concatenated_tuple) << "\n"; // prints: 10 +cout << get<3>(concatenated_tuple) << "\n"; // prints: 15 +cout << get<5>(concatenated_tuple) << "\n"; // prints: 'A' ``` Further Reading: diff --git a/c.html.markdown b/c.html.markdown index 3d632eab..d4ff529d 100644 --- a/c.html.markdown +++ b/c.html.markdown @@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ int main (int argc, char** argv) /////////////////////////////////////// // Types /////////////////////////////////////// - + // All variables MUST be declared at the top of the current block scope // we declare them dynamically along the code for the sake of the tutorial @@ -148,15 +148,10 @@ int main (int argc, char** argv) printf("Enter the array size: "); // ask the user for an array size int size; fscanf(stdin, "%d", &size); - char buf[size]; - fgets(buf, sizeof buf, stdin); - - // strtoul parses a string to an unsigned integer - size_t size2 = strtoul(buf, NULL, 10); - int var_length_array[size2]; // declare the VLA + int var_length_array[size]; // declare the VLA printf("sizeof array = %zu\n", sizeof var_length_array); - // A possible outcome of this program may be: + // Example: // > Enter the array size: 10 // > sizeof array = 40 @@ -244,7 +239,7 @@ int main (int argc, char** argv) z = (e > f) ? e : f; // => 10 "if e > f return e, else return f." // Increment and decrement operators: - char *s = "iLoveC"; + char *s = "ILoveC"; int j = 0; s[j++]; // => "i". Returns the j-th item of s THEN increments value of j. j = 0; @@ -318,9 +313,15 @@ int main (int argc, char** argv) case 1: printf("Huh, 'a' equals 1!\n"); break; + // Be careful - without a "break", execution continues until the + // next "break" is reached. + case 3: + case 4: + printf("Look at that.. 'a' is either 3, or 4\n"); + break; default: // if `some_integral_expression` didn't match any of the labels - fputs("error!\n", stderr); + fputs("Error!\n", stderr); exit(-1); break; } @@ -345,8 +346,8 @@ int main (int argc, char** argv) https://ideone.com/GuPhd6 this will print out "Error occured at i = 52 & j = 99." */ - - + + /////////////////////////////////////// // Typecasting /////////////////////////////////////// @@ -445,7 +446,7 @@ int main (int argc, char** argv) for (xx = 0; xx < 20; xx++) { *(my_ptr + xx) = 20 - xx; // my_ptr[xx] = 20-xx } // Initialize memory to 20, 19, 18, 17... 2, 1 (as ints) - + // Note that there is no standard way to get the length of a // dynamically allocated array in C. Because of this, if your arrays are // going to be passed around your program a lot, you need another variable @@ -496,7 +497,7 @@ int add_two_ints(int x1, int x2) /* Functions are call by value. When a function is called, the arguments passed to -≈the function are copies of the original arguments (except arrays). Anything you +the function are copies of the original arguments (except arrays). Anything you do to the arguments in the function do not change the value of the original argument where the function was called. @@ -721,13 +722,13 @@ typedef void (*my_fnp_type)(char *); /******************************* Header Files ********************************** -Header files are an important part of c as they allow for the connection of c -source files and can simplify code and definitions by seperating them into -seperate files. +Header files are an important part of c as they allow for the connection of c +source files and can simplify code and definitions by separating them into +separate files. -Header files are syntaxtically similar to c source files but reside in ".h" -files. They can be included in your c source file by using the precompiler -command #include "example.h", given that example.h exists in the same directory +Header files are syntactically similar to c source files but reside in ".h" +files. They can be included in your c source file by using the precompiler +command #include "example.h", given that example.h exists in the same directory as the c file. */ @@ -763,7 +764,7 @@ enum traffic_light_state {GREEN, YELLOW, RED}; Node createLinkedList(int *vals, int len); /* Beyond the above elements, other definitions should be left to a c source */ -/* file. Excessive includeds or definitions should, also not be contained in */ +/* file. Excessive includes or definitions should, also not be contained in */ /* a header file but instead put into separate headers or a c file. */ #endif /* End of the if precompiler directive. */ diff --git a/chapel.html.markdown b/chapel.html.markdown index 7252a3e4..9c1daf40 100644 --- a/chapel.html.markdown +++ b/chapel.html.markdown @@ -629,7 +629,7 @@ for (i, j) in zip( toThisArray.domain, -100..#5 ){ } writeln( toThisArray ); -// This is all very important in undestanding why the statement +// This is all very important in understanding why the statement // var iterArray : [1..10] int = [ i in 1..10 ] if ( i % 2 == 1 ) then j; // exhibits a runtime error. // Even though the domain of the array and the loop-expression are @@ -914,7 +914,7 @@ proc main(){ [ val in myBigArray ] val = 1 / val; // Parallel operation // Atomic variables, common to many languages, are ones whose operations - // occur uninterupted. Multiple threads can both modify atomic variables + // occur uninterrupted. Multiple threads can both modify atomic variables // and can know that their values are safe. // Chapel atomic variables can be of type bool, int, uint, and real. var uranium: atomic int; @@ -1066,7 +1066,7 @@ The more information you give the Chapel development team about issues you encou Feel free to email the team and other developers through the [sourceforge email lists](https://sourceforge.net/p/chapel/mailman). If you're really interested in the development of the compiler or contributing to the project, -[check out the master Github repository](https://github.com/chapel-lang/chapel). +[check out the master GitHub repository](https://github.com/chapel-lang/chapel). It is under the [Apache 2.0 License](http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0). Installing the Compiler diff --git a/coldfusion.html.markdown b/coldfusion.html.markdown index 70804a1e..482612fe 100644 --- a/coldfusion.html.markdown +++ b/coldfusion.html.markdown @@ -3,13 +3,17 @@ language: coldfusion filename: learncoldfusion.cfm contributors: - ["Wayne Boka", "http://wboka.github.io"] + - ["Kevin Morris", "https://twitter.com/kevinmorris"] --- ColdFusion is a scripting language for web development. [Read more here.](http://www.adobe.com/products/coldfusion-family.html) -```html +### CFML +_**C**old**F**usion **M**arkup **L**anguage_ +ColdFusion started as a tag-based language. Almost all functionality is available using tags. +```html <em>HTML tags have been provided for output readability</em> <!--- Comments start with "<!---" and end with "--->" ---> @@ -229,40 +233,38 @@ ColdFusion is a scripting language for web development. <em>Code for reference (Functions must return something to support IE)</em> -<pre> -<cfcomponent> - <cfset this.hello = "Hello" /> - <cfset this.world = "world" /> +<cfcomponent> + <cfset this.hello = "Hello" /> + <cfset this.world = "world" /> - <cffunction name="sayHello"> - <cfreturn this.hello & ", " & this.world & "!" /> - </cffunction> + <cffunction name="sayHello"> + <cfreturn this.hello & ", " & this.world & "!" /> + </cffunction> - <cffunction name="setHello"> - <cfargument name="newHello" type="string" required="true" /> + <cffunction name="setHello"> + <cfargument name="newHello" type="string" required="true" /> - <cfset this.hello = arguments.newHello /> + <cfset this.hello = arguments.newHello /> - <cfreturn true /> - </cffunction> + <cfreturn true /> + </cffunction> - <cffunction name="setWorld"> - <cfargument name="newWorld" type="string" required="true" /> + <cffunction name="setWorld"> + <cfargument name="newWorld" type="string" required="true" /> - <cfset this.world = arguments.newWorld /> + <cfset this.world = arguments.newWorld /> - <cfreturn true /> - </cffunction> + <cfreturn true /> + </cffunction> - <cffunction name="getHello"> - <cfreturn this.hello /> - </cffunction> + <cffunction name="getHello"> + <cfreturn this.hello /> + </cffunction> - <cffunction name="getWorld"> - <cfreturn this.world /> - </cffunction> -</cfcomponent> -</pre> + <cffunction name="getWorld"> + <cfreturn this.world /> + </cffunction> +</cfcomponent> <cfset this.hello = "Hello" /> <cfset this.world = "world" /> @@ -314,8 +316,13 @@ ColdFusion is a scripting language for web development. <cfoutput><p>#getWorld()#</p></cfoutput> ``` +### CFScript +_**C**old**F**usion **S**cript_ +In recent years, the ColdFusion language has added script syntax to mirror tag functionality. When using an up-to-date CF server, almost all functionality is available using scrypt syntax. + ## Further Reading The links provided here below are just to get an understanding of the topic, feel free to Google and find specific examples. 1. [Coldfusion Reference From Adobe](https://helpx.adobe.com/coldfusion/cfml-reference/topics.html) +2. [Open Source Documentation](http://cfdocs.org/) diff --git a/common-lisp.html.markdown b/common-lisp.html.markdown index 63183c1e..9a23bc26 100644 --- a/common-lisp.html.markdown +++ b/common-lisp.html.markdown @@ -339,7 +339,7 @@ nil ; for false - and the empty list ;; The () in the above is the list of arguments for the function (defun hello (name) - (format nil "Hello, ~a " name)) + (format nil "Hello, ~a" name)) (hello "Steve") ; => "Hello, Steve" @@ -430,7 +430,7 @@ nil ; for false - and the empty list (defun walker (n) (if (zerop n) :walked - (walker (1- n)))) + (walker (- n 1)))) (walker 5) ; => :walked @@ -614,9 +614,16 @@ nil ; for false - and the empty list ## Further Reading -[Keep moving on to the Practical Common Lisp book.](http://www.gigamonkeys.com/book/) +* [Keep moving on to the Practical Common Lisp book.](http://www.gigamonkeys.com/book/) +* [A Gentle Introduction to...](https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~dst/LispBook/book.pdf) +## Extra Info + +* [CLiki](http://www.cliki.net/) +* [common-lisp.net](https://common-lisp.net/) +* [Awesome Common Lisp](https://github.com/CodyReichert/awesome-cl) + ## Credits. Lots of thanks to the Scheme people for rolling up a great starting diff --git a/cs-cz/brainfuck.html.markdown b/cs-cz/brainfuck.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..29abc21f --- /dev/null +++ b/cs-cz/brainfuck.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,87 @@ +--- +language: brainfuck +contributors: + - ["Prajit Ramachandran", "http://prajitr.github.io/"] + - ["Mathias Bynens", "http://mathiasbynens.be/"] +translators: + - ["Vojta Svoboda", "https://github.com/vojtasvoboda/"] +filename: learnbrainfuck-cz.bf +lang: cs-cz +--- + +Brainfuck (psaný bez kapitálek s vyjímkou začátku věty) je extrémně minimální +Turingovsky kompletní (ekvivalentní) programovací jazyk a má pouze 8 příkazů. + +Můžete si ho vyzkoušet přímo v prohlížeči s [brainfuck-visualizer](http://fatiherikli.github.io/brainfuck-visualizer/). + +``` +Jakýkoliv znak mimo "><+-.,[]" (bez uvozovek) je ignorován. + +Brainfuck je reprezentován jako pole, které má 30.000 buněk s počátkem v nule +a datovým ukazatelem na aktuální buňce. + +Můžeme využít těchto osm příkazů: ++ : Přičte k aktuální buňce jedničku. +- : Odečte od aktuální buňky jedničku. +> : Posune datový ukazatel na další buňku, která je napravo. +< : Posune datový ukazatel na předchozí buňku, která je nalevo. +. : Vytiskne ASCII hodnotu aktuální buňky (například 65 = 'A'). +, : Načte jeden znak do aktuální buňky. +[ : Pokud je hodnota aktuální buňky nulová, přeskočí na buňku odpovídající ] . + Jinak skočí na další instrukci. +] : Pokud je hodnota aktuální buňky nulova, přeskočí na další instrukci. + Jinak skočí zpět na instrukci odpovídající [ . + +[ a ] tak tvoří 'while' smyčku a tyto symboly musí tak být v páru. + +Pojďme se mrknout na některé brainfuck programy. + +++++++ [ > ++++++++++ < - ] > +++++ . + +Tento program vypíše písmeno 'A' (v ASCII je to číslo 65). Nejdříve navýší +buňku #1 na hodnotu 6. Buňka #1 bude použita pro smyčku. Potom program vstoupí +do smyčky ([) a sníží hodnotu buňky #1 o jedničku. Ve smyčce zvýší hodnotu +buňky #2 desetkrát, vrátí ze zpět na buňku #1 a sníží její hodnotu o jedničku. +Toto se stane šestkrát (je potřeba šestkrát snížit hodnotu buňky #1, aby byla +nulová a program přeskočil na konec cyklu označený znakem ]. + +Na konci smyčky, kdy jsme na buňce #1 (která má hodnotu 0), tak má buňka #2 +hodnotu 60. Přesuneme se na buňku #2 a pětkrát zvýšíme její hodnotu o jedničku +na hodnotu 65. Na konci vypíšeme hodnotu buňky #2 - 65, což je v ASCII znak 'A' +na terminálu. + + +, [ > + < - ] > . + +Tento program přečte znak z uživatelského vstupu a zkopíruje ho do buňky #1. +Poté začne smyčka - přesun na buňku #2, zvýšení hodnoty buňky #2 o jedničku, +přesun zpět na buňku #1 a snížení její hodnoty o jedničku. Takto smyčka pokračuje +do té doby, než je buňka #1 nulová a buňka #2 nabyde původní hodnotu buňky #1. +Protože jsme na buňce #1, přesuneme se na buňku #2 a vytiskneme její hodnotu +v ASCII. + +Je dobré vědět, že mezery jsou v programu uvedené pouze z důvodu čitelnosti. +Program je možné klidně zapsat i takto: + +,[>+<-]>. + + +Nyní se podívejte na tento program a zkuste zjistit co dělá: + +,>,< [ > [ >+ >+ << -] >> [- << + >>] <<< -] >> + +Tento program vezme dvě čísla ze vstupu a vynásobí je. + +Program nejdříve načte dvě vstupní hodnoty. Poté začíná smyčka řízená hodnotou +v buňce #1 - přesun na buňku #2 a start druhé vnořené smyčky, která je řízená +hodnotou v buňce #2 a zvyšuje hodnotu v buňce #3. Nicméně je zde problém +kdy na konci vnitřní smyčky je v buňce #2 nula a smyčka by tak znovu +napokračovala. Vyřešíme to tak, že zvyšujeme o jedničku i buňku #4 a její +hodnotu poté překopírujeme do buňky #2. Na konci programu je v buňce #3 +výsledek. +``` + +A to je brainbuck. Zase tak složitý není, co? Zkuste si nyní napsat nějaký +vlastní brainfuck program a nebo interpretr v jiném jazyce, což není zase +tak složité, ale pokud jste opravdový masochista, zkuste si naprogramovat +interpretr jazyka brainfuck v jazyce... brainfuck :) diff --git a/cs-cz/json.html.markdown b/cs-cz/json.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..5972da5e --- /dev/null +++ b/cs-cz/json.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- +language: json +contributors: + - ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"] + - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] +translators: + - ["Vojta Svoboda", "https://github.com/vojtasvoboda/"] +filename: learnjson-cz.json +lang: cs-cz +--- + +JSON je exterémně jednoduchý datově nezávislý formát a bude asi jeden z +nejjednodušších 'Learn X in Y Minutes' ze všech. + +JSON nemá ve své nejzákladnější podobě žádné komentáře, ale většina parserů +umí pracovat s komentáři ve stylu jazyka C (`//`, `/* */`). Pro tyto účely +však budeme používat 100% validní JSON bez komentářů. Pojďme se podívat na +syntaxi formátu JSON: + +```json +{ + "klic": "value", + + "hodnoty": "Musí být vždy uvozený v dvojitých uvozovkách", + "cisla": 0, + "retezce": "Hellø, wørld. Všechny unicode znaky jsou povolené, společně s \"escapováním\".", + "pravdivostni_hodnota": true, + "prazdna_hodnota": null, + + "velke_cislo": 1.2e+100, + + "objekt": { + "komentar": "Most of your structure will come from objects.", + + "pole": [0, 1, 2, 3, "Pole nemusí být pouze homogenní.", 5], + + "jiny_objekt": { + "comment": "Je povolené jakkoli hluboké zanoření." + } + }, + + "cokoli": [ + { + "zdroje_drasliku": ["banány"] + }, + [ + [1, 0, 0, 0], + [0, 1, 0, 0], + [0, 0, 1, "neo"], + [0, 0, 0, 1] + ] + ], + + "alternativni_styl_zapisu": { + "komentar": "Mrkni se na toto!" + , "pozice_carky": "Na pozici čárky nezáleží - pokud je před hodnotou, ať už je kdekoli, tak je validní." + , "dalsi_komentar": "To je skvělé." + }, + + "to_bylo_rychle": "A tím jsme hotový. Nyní již víte vše, co může formát JSON nabídnout!" +} +``` diff --git a/cs-cz/markdown.html.markdown b/cs-cz/markdown.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..568e4343 --- /dev/null +++ b/cs-cz/markdown.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,260 @@ +--- +language: markdown +lang: cs-cz +contributors: + - ["Dan Turkel", "http://danturkel.com/"] +translators: + - ["Michal Martinek", "https://github.com/MichalMartinek"] +filename: markdown-cz.md +lang: cs-cz +--- + +Markdown byl vytvořen Johnem Gruberem v roce 2004. Je zamýšlen jako lehce čitelná +a psatelná syntaxe, která je jednoduše převeditelná do HTML (a dnes i do mnoha +dalších formátů) + +```markdown +<!-- Markdown je nadstavba nad HTML, takže jakýkoliv kód HTML je validní +Markdown, to znamená, že můžeme používat HTML elementy, třeba jako komentář, a +nebudou ovlivněny parserem Markdownu. Avšak, pokud vytvoříte HTML element v +Markdownu, tak nemůžete používat syntaxi Markdownu uvnitř tohoto elementu. --> + +<!-- Markdown se také mírně liší v jednotlivých interpretacích parseru. Tento +návod vás bude upozorňovat, které vlastnosti jsou obecné a které specifické pro +konkrétní parser. --> + +<!-- Nadpisy --> +<!-- Můžete vytvořit HTML elementy <h1> až <h6> jednoduše tak, že text předsadíte +počtem křížků (#), podle toho jaké úrovně to má být nadpis --> +# Toto je <h1> +## Toto je <h2> +### Toto je <h3> +#### Toto je <h4> +##### Toto je <h5> +###### Toto je <h6> + +<!-- Markdown obsahuje taky dvě další cesty, jak udělat h1 a h2 --> +Toto je h1 +========== + +Toto je h2 +---------- + +<!-- Jednoduché stylování textu --> +<!-- Pomocí markdownu můžete text jednoduše označit jako kurzívu či tučný --> + +*Tento text je kurzívou;* +_Stejně jako tento._ + +**Tento text je tučně** +__Stejně jako tento.__ + +***Tento text je obojí*** +**_Jako tento!_** +*__A tento!__* + +<!-- Ve verzi Markdownu od GitHubu, máme k dispozici taky prošktrnutí: --> + +~~Tento text je prošktrnutý.~~ + +<!-- Odstavce jsou jedna nebo více řádek textu, oddělených jednou nebo více prázdnými řádky. --> + +Toto je odstavec. Píši odstavec, není to zábava? + +Teď jsem v odstavci 2. +Jsem pořád v odstavci 2! + + +Toto je odstavec 3. + +<!-- Chtěli jste někdy vložit znak <br /> tag? Můžete napsat na konec odstavce +dvě nebo více mezer a potom začít nový odstavec. --> + +Tento odstavec končí dvěma mezerami. + +Nad tímto odstavcem je <br />! + +<!-- Blokové citace se dělají jednoduše pomocí znaku >. --> + +> Toto je bloková citace. Můžete dokonce +> manuálně rozdělit řádky, a před každý vložit >, nebo nechat vaše řádky jakkoliv dlouhé, ať se zarovnají sami. +> Nedělá to rozdíl, dokud začínáte vždy znakem >. + +> Můžu použít více než jednu +>> odsazení? +> Jak je to úhledné, že? + +<!-- Seznamy --> +<!-- Nečíslovaný seznam můžete jednoduše udělat pomocí hvězdiček, plusů, nebo + pomlček --> + +* Položka +* Položka +* Jinná položka + +nebo + ++ Položka ++ Položka ++ Další položka + +nebo + +- Položka +- Položka +- Další položka + +<!-- Číslovaný seznam se dělají pomocí čísla a . --> + +1. Položka jedna +2. Položka dvě +3. Položka tři + +<!-- Nemusíte dokonce psát čísla správně a markdown je zobrazi správně, + ale nemusí to být vždy dobrý nápad --> + +1. Položka jedna +1. Položka dvě +1. Položka tři +<!-- (Toto zobrazí to samě, jako příklad nadtím.) --> + +<!-- Můžete také tvořit podseznamy --> + +1. Položka jedna +2. Položka dvě +3. Položka tři + * Podpoložka + * Podpoložka +4. Položka čtyři + +<!-- Existují i zašktávací seznamy. Toto vytvoří HTML checkboxy. --> + +Boxy níže bez 'x' jsou nezašktrnuté checkboxy. +- [ ] První úkol +- [ ] Druhý úkol +Tento box bude zašktrnutý +- [x] Tento úkol byl dokončen + +<!-- Bloky ködu --> +<!-- Můžete označit kód bloku (který používá <code> element) odsazením pomocí 4 + mezer, nebo tabu --> + + Toto je kód + Stejně jako toto + +<!-- Můžete dokonce přidat další 4 mezery nebo tab pro další odsazení --> + + moje_pole.each do |i| + puts i + end + +<!-- Kód na řádku může být označen pomocí zpětných apostrofů ` --> + +Jan nevědel, jak se dělá `go_to()` funkce! + +<!-- V Markdownu od GitHubu , můžete použít speciální syntaxi pro kód --> + +\`\`\`ruby <!-- vyjma zpětných lomítek, jenom ```ruby ! --> +def neco + puts "Ahoj světe!" +end +\`\`\` <!-- zde taky, žádné zpětná lomítka, pouze ``` --> + +<!-- Text výše nepotřebuje odsazení a navíc GitHub použije zvýraznění označeného + jazyka. --> + +<!-- Horizontální čára (<hr />) --> +<!-- Horizontální čára se jednoduše přidá pomocí 3 nebo více hvězdiček nebo pomlček +s nebo bez mezer. --> + +*** +--- +- - - +**************** + +<!-- Odkazy --> +<!-- Jedna z nejlepších věcí na Markdownu je, jak jednoduše se dělají odkazy. +Dejte text, který chcete zobrazit, do [] následovaný url v závorkách () a je to. --> + +[Klikni na mě!](http://test.com/) + +<!-- Můžete také přidat jméno linku pomocí uvozovek --> + +[Klikni na mě!](http://test.com/ "Odkaz na Test.com") + +<!-- Relativní cesty fungují taky --> + +[Jdi na hudbu](/hudba/). + +<!-- Markdown taktéž podporuje reference odkazů. --> + +[Klikni na tento odkaz][link1] pro více informací! +[Taky zkontrolujte tento odkaz][neco], když chcete. + +[link1]: http://test.com/ "Cool!" +[neco]: http://neco.czz/ "Dobře!" + +<!-- Titulek může být v apostrofech nebo závorkách, nebo vyjmutý úplně. Reference + může být kdekoliv ve vašem dokumentu a identifikátor může být jakýkoliv, dokud + je unikátní.--> + +<!-- Také existuje "implicitní pojmenování", které použije text jako id --> + +[Toto][] je odkaz.. + +[toto]: http://totojelink.cz/ + +<!-- Ale toto není zrovna běžné užívané. --> + +<!-- Obrázky --> +<!-- Obrázky se dělají stejně jako odkazy, ale s vykřičníkem na začátku --> + + + +<!-- Reference fungují, jak bychom čekali--> + +![Toto je atribut alt][mujobrazek] + +[mujobrazek]: relativni/cesta/obrazek.jpg "a toto by byl titulek" + +<!-- Ostatní --> +<!-- Automatické odkazy --> + +<http://stranka.cz/> je stejná jako +[http://stranka.cz/](http://stranka.cz/) + +<!-- Automatické odkazy pro emaily--> + +<jmeno@prijmeni.cz> + +<!-- Escapování znaků --> + +Chci napsat *tento text obklopený hvězdičkami*, ale nechci aby to bylo kurzívou, tak udělám: \*tento text obklopený hvězdičkami\*. + +<!-- Klávesové zkratky --> +<!-- V Markdownu od GitHubu, můžete použít tag <kbd> k reprezentování klaves na počítači --> + +Váš počítač přestal pracovat? Zkuste +<kbd>Ctrl</kbd>+<kbd>Alt</kbd>+<kbd>Del</kbd> + +<!-- Tabulky --> +<!-- Tabulky jsou povolené pouze v Markdownu od GitHubu a jsou trochu podivně, + ale když je opravdu chcete: --> + +| Sloupec1 | Sloupec2 | Sloupec3 | +| :----------- | :------: | ------------: | +| Vlevo zarovn.| Na střed | Vpravo zarovn.| +| blah | blah | blah | + +<!-- nebo, to jde i taky: --> + +Sloupec 1 | Sloupec2 | Sloupec3 +:-- | :-: | --: +Ohh toto je tak ošklivé | radši to | nedělejte + +<!-- Konec --> + +``` + +Pro více informací, prozkoumejte oficiální článek o syntaxi od Johna Grubera + [zde](http://daringfireball.net/projects/markdown/syntax) a skvělý tahák od Adama Pritcharda [zde](https://github.com/adam-p/markdown-here/wiki/Markdown-Cheatsheet). diff --git a/cs-cz/python3.html.markdown b/cs-cz/python3.html.markdown index 6d2fd1eb..b498046a 100644 --- a/cs-cz/python3.html.markdown +++ b/cs-cz/python3.html.markdown @@ -566,7 +566,7 @@ Clovek.odkaslej_si() # => "*ehm*" # Lze importovat moduly import math -print(math.sqrt(16)) # => 4 +print(math.sqrt(16.0)) # => 4 # Lze také importovat pouze vybrané funkce z modulu from math import ceil, floor diff --git a/cs-cz/sass.html.markdown b/cs-cz/sass.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..0d2fca64 --- /dev/null +++ b/cs-cz/sass.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,439 @@ +--- +language: sass +filename: learnsass-cz.scss +contributors: + - ["Laura Kyle", "https://github.com/LauraNK"] + - ["Sean Corrales", "https://github.com/droidenator"] +translators: + - ["Michal Martinek", "https://github.com/MichalMartinek"] +lang: cs-cz +--- + +Sass je rozšíření jazyka CSS, který přidává nové vlastnosti jako proměnné, zanořování, mixiny a další. +Sass (a další preprocesory, jako [Less](http://lesscss.org/)) pomáhají vývojářům psát udržovatelný a neopakující (DRY) kód. + +Sass nabízí dvě možnosti syntaxe. SCSS, které je stejná jako CSS, akorát obsahuje nové vlastnosti Sassu. Nebo Sass, který používá odsazení místo složených závorek a středníků. +Tento tutoriál bude používat syntaxi CSS. + + +Pokud jste již obeznámeni s CSS3, budete schopni používat Sass relativně rychle. Nezprostředkovává nějaké úplně nové stylové možnosti, spíše nátroje, jak psát Vás CSS kód více efektivně, udržitelně a jednoduše. + +```scss + + +//Jednořádkové komentáře jsou ze Sassu při kompilaci vymazány + +/*Víceřádkové komentáře jsou naopak zachovány */ + + + +/*Proměnné +==============================*/ + + + +/* Můžete uložit CSS hodnotu (jako třeba barvu) do proměnné. +Použijte symbol '$' k jejímu vytvoření. */ + +$hlavni-barva: #A3A4FF; +$sekundarni-barva: #51527F; +$body-font: 'Roboto', sans-serif; + +/* Můžete používat proměnné napříč vaším souborem. +Teď, když chcete změnit barvu, stačí ji změnit pouze jednou.*/ + +body { + background-color: $hlavni-barva; + color: $sekundarni-barva; + font-family: $body-font; +} + +/* Toto se zkompiluje do: */ +body { + background-color: #A3A4FF; + color: #51527F; + font-family: 'Roboto', sans-serif; +} + + +/* Toto je o hodně více praktické, než měnit každý výskyt barvy. */ + + + +/*Mixiny +==============================*/ + + + +/* Pokud zjistíte, že píšete kód pro více než jeden element, můžete jej uložit do mixinu. + +Použijte '@mixin' direktivu, plus jméno vašeho mixinu.*/ + +@mixin na-stred { + display: block; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + left: 0; + right: 0; +} + +/* Mixin vložíte pomocí '@include' a jména mixinu */ + +div { + @include na-stred; + background-color: $hlavni-barva; +} + +/*Což se zkompiluje do: */ +div { + display: block; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + left: 0; + right: 0; + background-color: #A3A4FF; +} + + +/* Můžete využít mixiny i třeba pro takovéto ušetření práce: */ + +@mixin velikost($sirka, $vyska) { + width: $sirka; + height: $vyska; +} + +/*Stačí vložit argumenty: */ + +.obdelnik { + @include velikost(100px, 60px); +} + +.ctverec { + @include velikost(40px, 40px); +} + +/* Toto se zkompiluje do: */ +.obdelnik { + width: 100px; + height: 60px; +} + +.ctverec { + width: 40px; + height: 40px; +} + + + +/*Funkce +==============================*/ + + + +/* Sass obsahuje funkce, které vám pomůžou splnit různé úkoly. */ + +/* Funkce se spouštějí pomocí jejich jména, které následuje seznam argumentů uzavřený v kulatých závorkách. */ +body { + width: round(10.25px); +} + +.footer { + background-color: fade_out(#000000, 0.25) +} + +/* Se zkompiluje do: */ + +body { + width: 10px; +} + +.footer { + background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.75); +} + +/* Můžete také definovat vlastní funkce. Funkce jsou velmi podobné mixinům. + Když se snažíte vybrat mezi funkcí a mixinem, mějte na paměti, že mixiny + jsou lepší pro generování CSS kódu, zatímco funkce jsou lepší pro logiku. + Příklady ze sekce Matematické operátory jsou skvělí kandidáti na + znovupoužitelné funkce. */ + +/* Tato funkce vrací poměr k velikosti rodiče v procentech. +@function vypocitat-pomer($velikost, $velikost-rodice) { + @return $velikost / $velikost-rodice * 100%; +} + +$hlavni obsah: vypocitat-pomer(600px, 960px); + +.hlavni-obsah { + width: $hlavni-obsah; +} + +.sloupec { + width: vypocitat-pomer(300px, 960px); +} + +/* Zkompiluje do: */ + +.hlavni-obsah { + width: 62.5%; +} + +.sloupec { + width: 31.25%; +} + + + +/*Dědění +==============================*/ + + + +/*Dědění je způsob jak používat vlastnosti pro jeden selektor ve druhém. */ + +.oznameni { + @include velikost(5em, 5em); + border: 5px solid $sekundarni-barva; +} + +.oznameni-uspech { + @extend .oznameni; + border-color: #22df56; +} + +/* Zkompiluje do: */ +.oznameni, .oznameni-uspech { + width: 5em; + height: 5em; + border: 5px solid #51527F; +} + +.oznameni-uspech { + border-color: #22df56; +} + + +/* Dědění CSS výrazů je preferováno před vytvořením mixinu kvůli způsobu, + jakým způsobem Sass dává dohromady třídy, které sdílejí stejný kód. + Kdyby to bylo udělané pomocí mixinu, tak výška, šířka, rámeček by byl v + každém výrazu, který by volal mixin. I když tohle neovlivní vaše workflow, + přidá to kód navíc do souborů. */ + + +/*Zanořování +==============================*/ + + + +/*Sass vám umožňuje zanořovat selektory do selektorů */ + +ul { + list-style-type: none; + margin-top: 2em; + + li { + background-color: #FF0000; + } +} + +/* '&' nahradí rodičovský element. */ +/* Můžete také zanořovat pseudo třídy. */ +/* Pamatujte, že moc velké zanoření do hloubky snižuje čitelnost. + Doporučuje se používat maximálně trojité zanoření. + Na příklad: */ + +ul { + list-style-type: none; + margin-top: 2em; + + li { + background-color: red; + + &:hover { + background-color: blue; + } + + a { + color: white; + } + } +} + +/* Zkompiluje do: */ + +ul { + list-style-type: none; + margin-top: 2em; +} + +ul li { + background-color: red; +} + +ul li:hover { + background-color: blue; +} + +ul li a { + color: white; +} + + + +/*Částečné soubory a importy +==============================*/ + + + +/* Sass umožňuje vytvářet částečné soubory. Tyto soubory pomahájí udržovat váš + kód modulární. Tyto soubory by měli začínat vždy '_', např. _reset.css. + Částečné soubory se nepřevádí do CSS. */ + +/* Toto je kód, který si uložíme do souboru _reset.css */ + +html, +body, +ul, +ol { + margin: 0; + padding: 0; +} + +/* Sass obsahuje @import, které může být použit pro import částečných souborů. + Toto se liší od klasického CSS @import, který dělá HTTP požadavek na stáhnutí + souboru. Sass vezme importovaný soubor a vloží ho do kompilovaného kódu. */ + +@import 'reset'; + +body { + font-size: 16px; + font-family: Helvetica, Arial, Sans-serif; +} + +/* Zkompiluje do: */ + +html, body, ul, ol { + margin: 0; + padding: 0; +} + +body { + font-size: 16px; + font-family: Helvetica, Arial, Sans-serif; +} + + + +/*Zástupné selektory +==============================*/ + + + +/* Zástupné selektory jsou užitečné, když vytváříte CSS výraz, ze kterého + chcete později dědit. Když chcete vytvořit výraz, ze kterého je možné pouze + dědit pomocí @extend, vytvořte zástupný selektor s CSS výrazem. Ten začíná + symbolem '%' místo '.' nebo '#'. Tyto výrazy se neobjeví ve výsledném CSS */ + +%okno-obsahu { + font-size: 14px; + padding: 10px; + color: #000; + border-radius: 4px; +} + +.okno-zpravy { + @extend %okno-obsahu; + background-color: #0000ff; +} + +/* Zkompiluje do: */ + +.okno-zpravy { + font-size: 14px; + padding: 10px; + color: #000; + border-radius: 4px; +} + +.okno-zpravy { + background-color: #0000ff; +} + + + +/*Matematické operace +==============================*/ + + + +/* Sass obsahuje následující operátory: +, -, *, /, and %. Tyto operátory + můžou být velmi užitečné pro počítání hodnot přímo ve vašem souboru Sass. + Níže je příklad, jak udělat jednoduchý dvousloupcový layout. */ + +$oblast-obsahu: 960px; +$hlavni-obsah: 600px; +$vedlejsi-sloupec: 300px; + +$obsah-velikost: $hlavni-obsah / $oblast-obsahu * 100%; +$vedlejsi-sloupec-velikost: $vedlejsi-sloupec / $oblast-obsahu * 100%; +$zbytek-velikost: 100% - ($main-size + $vedlejsi-sloupec-size); + +body { + width: 100%; +} + +.hlavni-obsah { + width: $obsah-velikost; +} + +.vedlejsi-sloupec { + width: $vedlejsi-sloupec-velikost; +} + +.zbytek { + width: $zbytek-velikost; +} + +/* Zkompiluje do: */ + +body { + width: 100%; +} + +.hlavni-obsah { + width: 62.5%; +} + +.vedlejsi-sloupec { + width: 31.25%; +} + +.gutter { + width: 6.25%; +} + + +``` + + + +## SASS nebo Sass? +Divili jste se někdy, jestli je Sass zkratka nebo ne? Pravděpodobně ne, ale řeknu vám to stejně. Jméno tohoto jazyka je slovo, "Sass", a ne zkratka. +Protože to lidé konstatně píší jako "SASS", nazval ho autor jazyka jako "Syntactically Awesome StyleSheets" (Syntaktický úžasně styly). + + +## Procvičování Sassu +Pokud si chcete hrát se Sassem ve vašem prohlížeči, navštivte [SassMeister](http://sassmeister.com/). +Můžete používát oba dva způsoby zápisu, stačí si vybrat v nastavení SCSS nebo SASS. + + +## Kompatibilita + +Sass může být použit v jakémkoliv projektu, jakmile máte program, pomocí kterého ho zkompilujete do CSS. Pokud si chcete ověřit, že CSS, které Sass produkuje je kompatibilní s prohlížeči: + +[QuirksMode CSS](http://www.quirksmode.org/css/) a [CanIUse](http://caniuse.com) jsou skvělé stránky pro kontrolu kompatibility. + + +## Kam dál? +* [Oficiální dokumentace](http://sass-lang.com/documentation/file.SASS_REFERENCE.html) +* [The Sass Way](http://thesassway.com/) obsahuje tutoriál a řadu skvělých článků diff --git a/csharp.html.markdown b/csharp.html.markdown index dfdd98de..7d7f4340 100644 --- a/csharp.html.markdown +++ b/csharp.html.markdown @@ -45,8 +45,8 @@ using System.Data.Entity; // Using this code from another source file: using Learning.CSharp; namespace Learning.CSharp { - // Each .cs file should at least contain a class with the same name as the file - // you're allowed to do otherwise, but shouldn't for sanity. + // Each .cs file should at least contain a class with the same name as the file. + // You're allowed to do otherwise, but shouldn't for sanity. public class LearnCSharp { // BASIC SYNTAX - skip to INTERESTING FEATURES if you have used Java or C++ before @@ -630,7 +630,7 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried"; public static class Extensions { - // EXTENSION FUNCTIONS + // EXTENSION METHODS public static void Print(this object obj) { Console.WriteLine(obj.ToString()); diff --git a/css.html.markdown b/css.html.markdown index d8f30ca3..8ee4f4b9 100644 --- a/css.html.markdown +++ b/css.html.markdown @@ -6,20 +6,21 @@ contributors: - ["Geoffrey Liu", "https://github.com/g-liu"] - ["Connor Shea", "https://github.com/connorshea"] - ["Deepanshu Utkarsh", "https://github.com/duci9y"] + - ["Tyler Mumford", "https://tylermumford.com"] filename: learncss.css --- -In the early days of the web there were no visual elements, just pure text. But with further development of web browsers, fully visual web pages also became common. +Web pages are built with HTML, which specifies the content of a page. CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) is a separate language which specifies a page's **appearance**. -CSS helps maintain separation between the content (HTML) and the look-and-feel of a web page. +CSS code is made of static *rules*. Each rule takes one or more *selectors* and gives specific *values* to a number of visual *properties*. Those properties are then applied to the page elements indicated by the selectors. -CSS lets you target different elements on an HTML page and assign different visual properties to them. +This guide has been written with CSS 2 in mind, which is extended by the new features of CSS 3. -This guide has been written for CSS 2, though CSS 3 is fast becoming popular. - -**NOTE:** Because CSS produces visual results, in order to learn it, you need try everything in a CSS playground like [dabblet](http://dabblet.com/). +**NOTE:** Because CSS produces visual results, in order to learn it, you need to try everything in a CSS playground like [dabblet](http://dabblet.com/). The main focus of this article is on the syntax and some general tips. +## Syntax + ```css /* comments appear inside slash-asterisk, just like this line! there are no "one-line comments"; this is the only comment style */ @@ -28,7 +29,7 @@ The main focus of this article is on the syntax and some general tips. ## SELECTORS #################### */ -/* the selector is used to target an element on a page. +/* the selector is used to target an element on a page. */ selector { property: value; /* more properties...*/ } /* @@ -69,7 +70,7 @@ div { } [otherAttr|='en'] { font-size:smaller; } -/* You can concatenate different selectors to create a narrower selector. Don't +/* You can combine different selectors to create a more focused selector. Don't put spaces between them. */ div.some-class[attr$='ue'] { } @@ -92,7 +93,7 @@ div.some-parent.class-name { } .i-am-any-element-before ~ .this-element { } /* There are some selectors called pseudo classes that can be used to select an - element when it is in a particular state */ + element only when it is in a particular state */ /* for example, when the cursor hovers over an element */ selector:hover { } @@ -103,7 +104,7 @@ selector:visited { } /* or hasn't been visited */ selected:link { } -/* or an element in focus */ +/* or an element is in focus */ selected:focus { } /* any element that is the first child of its parent */ @@ -156,10 +157,10 @@ selector { color: tomato; /* a named color */ color: rgb(255, 255, 255); /* as rgb values */ color: rgb(10%, 20%, 50%); /* as rgb percentages */ - color: rgba(255, 0, 0, 0.3); /* as rgba values (CSS 3) Note: 0 < a < 1 */ + color: rgba(255, 0, 0, 0.3); /* as rgba values (CSS 3) Note: 0 <= a <= 1 */ color: transparent; /* equivalent to setting the alpha to 0 */ color: hsl(0, 100%, 50%); /* as hsl percentages (CSS 3) */ - color: hsla(0, 100%, 50%, 0.3); /* as hsla percentages with alpha */ + color: hsla(0, 100%, 50%, 0.3); /* as hsl percentages with alpha */ /* Images as backgrounds of elements */ background-image: url(/img-path/img.jpg); /* quotes inside url() optional */ @@ -194,7 +195,7 @@ Save a CSS stylesheet with the extension `.css`. ## Precedence or Cascade -An element may be targeted by multiple selectors and may have a property set on it in more than once. In these cases, one of the rules takes precedence over others. Generally, a rule in a more specific selector take precedence over a less specific one, and a rule occuring later in the stylesheet overwrites a previous one. +An element may be targeted by multiple selectors and may have a property set on it in more than once. In these cases, one of the rules takes precedence over others. Rules with a more specific selector take precedence over a less specific one, and a rule occuring later in the stylesheet overwrites a previous one. This process is called cascading, hence the name Cascading Style Sheets. @@ -238,10 +239,10 @@ Most of the features in CSS 2 (and many in CSS 3) are available across all brows ## Resources -* To run a quick compatibility check, [CanIUse](http://caniuse.com). -* CSS Playground [Dabblet](http://dabblet.com/). -* [Mozilla Developer Network's CSS documentation](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS) -* [Codrops' CSS Reference](http://tympanus.net/codrops/css_reference/) +* [CanIUse](http://caniuse.com) (Detailed compatibility info) +* [Dabblet](http://dabblet.com/) (CSS playground) +* [Mozilla Developer Network's CSS documentation](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS) (Tutorials and reference) +* [Codrops' CSS Reference](http://tympanus.net/codrops/css_reference/) (Reference) ## Further Reading diff --git a/d.html.markdown b/d.html.markdown index 80c1dc65..edb3bff5 100644 --- a/d.html.markdown +++ b/d.html.markdown @@ -53,15 +53,15 @@ void main() { // For and while are nice, but in D-land we prefer 'foreach' loops. // The '..' creates a continuous range, including the first value // but excluding the last. - foreach(i; 1..1_000_000) { + foreach(n; 1..1_000_000) { if(n % 2 == 0) - writeln(i); + writeln(n); } // There's also 'foreach_reverse' when you want to loop backwards. - foreach_reverse(i; 1..int.max) { + foreach_reverse(n; 1..int.max) { if(n % 2 == 1) { - writeln(i); + writeln(n); } else { writeln("No!"); } @@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ void main() { ``` We can define new types with `struct`, `class`, `union`, and `enum`. Structs and unions -are passed to functions by value (i.e. copied) and classes are passed by reference. Futhermore, +are passed to functions by value (i.e. copied) and classes are passed by reference. Furthermore, we can use templates to parameterize all of these on both types and values! ```c @@ -199,8 +199,8 @@ our getter and setter methods, and keep the clean syntax of accessing members directly! Other object-oriented goodies at our disposal -include `interface`s, `abstract class`es, -and `override`ing methods. D does inheritance just like Java: +include interfaces, abstract classes, +and overriding methods. D does inheritance just like Java: Extend one class, implement as many interfaces as you please. We've seen D's OOP facilities, but let's switch gears. D offers @@ -218,7 +218,7 @@ void main() { // from 1 to 100. Easy! // Just pass lambda expressions as template parameters! - // You can pass any old function you like, but lambdas are convenient here. + // You can pass any function you like, but lambdas are convenient here. auto num = iota(1, 101).filter!(x => x % 2 == 0) .map!(y => y ^^ 2) .reduce!((a, b) => a + b); @@ -228,7 +228,7 @@ void main() { ``` Notice how we got to build a nice Haskellian pipeline to compute num? -That's thanks to a D innovation know as Uniform Function Call Syntax. +That's thanks to a D innovation know as Uniform Function Call Syntax (UFCS). With UFCS, we can choose whether to write a function call as a method or free function call! Walter wrote a nice article on this [here.](http://www.drdobbs.com/cpp/uniform-function-call-syntax/232700394) @@ -238,21 +238,23 @@ is of some type A on any expression of type A as a method. I like parallelism. Anyone else like parallelism? Sure you do. Let's do some! ```c +// Let's say we want to populate a large array with the square root of all +// consecutive integers starting from 1 (up until the size of the array), and we +// want to do this concurrently taking advantage of as many cores as we have +// available. + import std.stdio; import std.parallelism : parallel; import std.math : sqrt; void main() { - // We want take the square root every number in our array, - // and take advantage of as many cores as we have available. + // Create your large array auto arr = new double[1_000_000]; - // Use an index, and an array element by referece, - // and just call parallel on the array! + // Use an index, access every array element by reference (because we're + // going to change each element) and just call parallel on the array! foreach(i, ref elem; parallel(arr)) { - ref = sqrt(i + 1.0); + elem = sqrt(i + 1.0); } } - - ``` diff --git a/dart.html.markdown b/dart.html.markdown index f7601271..fc7b220e 100644 --- a/dart.html.markdown +++ b/dart.html.markdown @@ -498,7 +498,7 @@ main() { ## Further Reading -Dart has a comprehenshive web-site. It covers API reference, tutorials, articles and more, including a +Dart has a comprehensive web-site. It covers API reference, tutorials, articles and more, including a useful Try Dart online. http://www.dartlang.org/ http://try.dartlang.org/ diff --git a/de-de/bash-de.html.markdown b/de-de/bash-de.html.markdown index fb9cd9d4..541d28bb 100644 --- a/de-de/bash-de.html.markdown +++ b/de-de/bash-de.html.markdown @@ -28,18 +28,50 @@ echo Hello, world! echo 'Dies ist die erste Zeile'; echo 'Dies die zweite Zeile' # Variablen deklariert man so: -VARIABLE="irgendein String" +Variable="irgendein String" # Aber nicht so: -VARIABLE = "irgendein String" -# Bash wird VARIABLE für einen Befehl halten, den es ausführen soll. Es wird einen Fehler ausgeben, +Variable = "irgendein String" +# Bash wird 'Variable' für einen Befehl halten, den es ausführen soll. Es wird einen Fehler ausgeben, # weil es den Befehl nicht findet. +# Und so auch nicht: +Variable= 'Some string' +# Bash wird 'Variable' wieder für einen Befehl halten, den es ausführen soll. Es wird einen Fehler ausgeben, +# Hier wird der Teil 'Variable=' als nur für diesen einen Befehl gültige Zuweisung an die Variable gesehen. + # Eine Variable wird so benutzt: -echo $VARIABLE -echo "$VARIABLE" -# Wenn du eine Variable selbst benutzt – ihr Werte zuweist, sie exportierst oder irgendetwas anders –, +echo $Variable +echo "$Variable" +echo ${Variable} +# aber +echo '$Variable' +# Wenn du eine Variable selbst benutzt – ihr Werte zuweist, sie exportierst oder irgendetwas anderes –, # dann über ihren Namen ohne $. Aber wenn du ihren zugewiesenen Wert willst, dann musst du $ voranstellen. +# Beachte: ' (Hochkomma) verhindert das Interpretieren der Variablen + +# Ersetzen von Zeichenketten in Variablen +echo ${Variable/irgendein/neuer} +# Ersetzt das erste Vorkommen von "irgendein" durch "neuer" + +# Teil einer Zeichenkette +Laenge=7 +echo ${Variable:0:Laenge} +# Gibt nur die ersten 7 Zeichen zurück + +# Standardwert verwenden +echo ${Foo:-"ErsatzWennLeerOderUngesetzt"} +# Das funktioniert mit nicht gesetzten Variablen (Foo=) und leeren Zeichenketten (Foo="") +# Die Zahl 0 (Foo=0) liefert 0. +# Beachte: der wert der Variablen wird nicht geändert + +# Eingebaute Variable (BUILTINS): +# Einige nützliche Beispiele +echo "Rückgabewert des letzten Befehls: $?" +echo "Die PID des skripts: $$" +echo "Anzahl der Argumente beim Aufruf: $#" +echo "Alle Argumente beim Aufruf: $@" +echo "Die Argumente in einzelnen Variablen: $1 $2..." # Einen Wert aus der Eingabe lesen: echo "Wie heisst du?" @@ -47,14 +79,30 @@ read NAME # Wir mussten nicht mal eine neue Variable deklarieren echo Hello, $NAME! # Wir haben die übliche if-Struktur: -if true +# 'man test' liefert weitere Informationen zu Bedingungen +if [ "$NAME" -ne $USER ] then - echo "Wie erwartet" + echo "Dein Name ist nicht dein Login-Name" else - echo "Und dies nicht" + echo "Dein Name ist dein Login-Name" +fi + +# Es gibt auch bedingte Ausführung +echo "immer ausgeführt" || echo "Nur ausgeführt wenn der erste Befehl fehlschlägt" +echo "immer ausgeführt" && echo "Nur ausgeführt wenn der erste Befehl Erfolg hat" + +# Um && und || mit if statements zu verwenden, braucht man mehrfache Paare eckiger Klammern: +if [ $NAME == "Steve" ] && [ $Alter -eq 15 ] +then + echo "Wird ausgeführt wenn $NAME gleich 'Steve' UND $Alter gleich 15." +fi + +if [ $Name == "Daniya" ] || [ $Name == "Zach" ] +then + echo "Wird ausgeführt wenn $NAME gleich 'Daniya' ODER $NAME gleich 'Zach'." fi -# Ausdrücke werden im folgenden Format festgehalten: +# Ausdrücke haben folgendes Format: echo $(( 10 + 5 )) # Anders als andere Programmiersprachen ist Bash eine Shell – es arbeitet also im Kontext von Verzeichnissen. @@ -69,13 +117,60 @@ ls -l # Liste alle Dateien und Unterverzeichnisse auf einer eigenen Zeile auf # txt-Dateien im aktuellen Verzeichnis auflisten: ls -l | grep "\.txt" -# Befehle können innerhalb anderer Befehle mit $( ) erstetzt werden: +# Ein- und Ausgabe können umgeleitet werden (stdin, stdout, and stderr). +# Von stdin lesen bis "EOF" allein in einer Zeile auftaucht +# und die Datei hello.py mit den Zeilen zwischen den beiden "EOF" +# überschreiben: +cat > hello.py << EOF +#!/usr/bin/env python +from __future__ import print_function +import sys +print("#stdout", file=sys.stdout) +print("#stderr", file=sys.stderr) +for line in sys.stdin: + print(line, file=sys.stdout) +EOF + +# Führe hello.py mit verschiedenen Umleitungen von +# stdin, stdout und stderr aus: +python hello.py < "input.in" +python hello.py > "output.out" +python hello.py 2> "error.err" +python hello.py > "output-and-error.log" 2>&1 +python hello.py > /dev/null 2>&1 +# Die Fehlerausgabe würde die Datei "error.err" überschreiben (falls sie existiert) +# verwende ">>" um stattdessen anzuhängen: +python hello.py >> "output.out" 2>> "error.err" + +# Überschreibe output.out, hänge an error.err an und zähle die Zeilen beider Dateien: +info bash 'Basic Shell Features' 'Redirections' > output.out 2>> error.err +wc -l output.out error.err + +# Führe einen Befehl aus und gib dessen "file descriptor" (zB /dev/fd/123) aus +# siehe: man fd +echo <(echo "#helloworld") + +# Mehrere Arten, um output.out mit "#helloworld" zu überschreiben: +cat > output.out <(echo "#helloworld") +echo "#helloworld" > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | cat > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | tee output.out >/dev/null + +# Löschen der Hilfsdateien von oberhalb, mit Anzeige der Dateinamen +# (mit '-i' für "interactive" erfolgt für jede Date eine Rückfrage) +rm -v output.out error.err output-and-error.log + +# Die Ausgabe von Befehlen kann mit Hilfe von $( ) in anderen Befehlen verwendet weden: # Der folgende Befehl zeigt die Anzahl aller Dateien und Unterverzeichnisse # im aktuellen Verzeichnis an. echo "Dieser Ordner beinhaltet $(ls | wc -l) Dateien und Verzeichnisse." +# Dasselbe kann man mit "backticks" `` erreichen, aber diese können +# nicht verschachtelt werden. $() ist die empfohlene Methode. +echo "Dieser Ordner beinhaltet `ls | wc -l` Dateien und Verzeichnisse." + # Bash nutzt einen case-Ausdruck, der sich ähnlich wie switch in Java oder C++ verhält. -case "$VARIABLE" +case "$Variable" in # Liste der Fälle, die unterschieden werden sollen 0) echo "Hier ist eine Null." @@ -83,10 +178,106 @@ in *) echo "Das ist nicht Null." esac -# loops iterieren über die angegebene Zahl von Argumenten: -# Der Inhalt von $VARIABLE wird dreimal ausgedruckt. -for $VARIABLE in x y z +# 'for' Schleifen iterieren über die angegebene Zahl von Argumenten: +# Der Inhalt von $Variable wird dreimal ausgedruckt. +for $Variable in {1..3} do - echo "$VARIABLE" + echo "$Variable" done + +# Oder verwende die "traditionelle 'for'-Schleife": +for ((a=1; a <= 3; a++)) +do + echo $a +done + +# Schleifen können auch mit Dateien arbeiten: +# 'cat' zeigt zuerst file1 an und dann file2 +for Variable in file1 file2 +do + cat "$Variable" +done + +# .. oder mit der Ausgabe eines Befehls: +# Ausgabe des Inhalts jeder Datei, die von 'ls' aufgezählt wird +for Output in $(ls) +do + cat "$Output" +done + +# while Schleife: +while [ true ] +do + echo "Schleifenkörper..." + break +done + +# Funktionen definieren +# Definition: +function foo () +{ + echo "Argumente funktionieren wie bei skripts: $@" + echo Und: $1 $2..." + echo "Dies ist eine Funktion" + return 0 +} + +# oder einfacher +bar () +{ + echo "Auch so kann man Funktionen deklarieren!" + return 0 +} + +# Aufruf der Funktion: +foo "My name is" $Name + +# Was du noch lernen könntest: +# Ausgabe der letzten 10 Zeilen von file.txt +tail -n 10 file.txt +# Ausgabe der ersten 10 Zeilen von file.txt +head -n 10 file.txt +# sortierte Ausgabe von file.txt +sort file.txt +# Mehrfachzeilen in sortierten Dateien unterdrücken +# oder (mit -d) nur diese ausgeben +uniq -d file.txt +# Ausgabe nur der ersten Spalte (vor dem ersten ',') +cut -d ',' -f 1 file.txt +# ersetze in file.txt jedes vorkommende 'gut' durch 'super' (versteht regex) +sed -i 's/gut/super/g' file.txt +# Ausgabe nach stdout aller Zeilen von file.txt, die auf eine regex passen +# Im Beispiel: Zeilen, die mit "foo" beginnen und mit "bar" enden +grep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt +# Mit der Option "-c" wird stattdessen die Anzahl der gefundenen Zeilen ausgegeben +grep -c "^foo.*bar$" file.txt +# verwende 'fgrep' oder 'grep -F' wenn du buchstäblich nach den Zeichen +# suchen willst, ohne sie als regex zu interpretieren +fgrep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt + +# Dokumentation über die in bash eingebauten Befehle +# bekommst du mit dem eingebauten Befehl 'help' +help +help help +help for +help return +help source +help . + +# Das bash-Handbuch liest du mit 'man' +apropos bash +man 1 bash +man bash + +# Dann gibt es noch das 'info' System (drücke ? um Hilfe angezeigt zu bekommen) +apropos info | grep '^info.*(' +man info +info info +info 5 info + +# info Dokumentation über bash: +info bash +info bash 'Bash Features' +info bash 6 +info --apropos bash ``` diff --git a/de-de/git-de.html.markdown b/de-de/git-de.html.markdown index 43939129..dea329d5 100644 --- a/de-de/git-de.html.markdown +++ b/de-de/git-de.html.markdown @@ -18,12 +18,12 @@ Anmerkung des Übersetzers: Einige englische Begriffe wie *Repository*, *Commit* ### Was ist Versionsverwaltung? -Eine Versionskontrolle erfasst die Änderungen einer Datei oder eines Verzeichnisses im Verlauf der Zeit. +Eine Versionsverwaltung erfasst die Änderungen einer Datei oder eines Verzeichnisses im Verlauf der Zeit. ### Zentrale im Vergleich mit verteilter Versionverwaltung -* Zentrale Versionskontrolle konzentriert sich auf das Synchronisieren, Verfolgen und Sichern von Dateien. -* Verteilte Versionskontrolle konzentriert sich auf das Teilen der Änderungen. Jede Änderung hat eine eindeutige ID. +* Zentrale Versionsverwaltung konzentriert sich auf das Synchronisieren, Verfolgen und Sichern von Dateien. +* Verteilte Versionsverwaltung konzentriert sich auf das Teilen der Änderungen. Jede Änderung hat eine eindeutige ID. * Verteilte Systeme haben keine vorbestimmte Struktur. Ein SVN-ähnliches, zentrales System wäre mit Git ebenso umsetzbar. [Weiterführende Informationen](http://git-scm.com/book/en/Getting-Started-About-Version-Control) @@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ Der Index ist die die Staging-Area von Git. Es ist im Grunde eine Ebene, die Arb ### Commit -Ein Commit ist ein Schnappschuss von Uderungen in deinem Arbeitsverzeichnis. Wenn du zum Beispiel 5 Dateien hinzugefügt und 2 andere entfernt hast, werden diese Änderungen im Commit (Schnappschuss) enthalten sein. Dieser Commit kann dann in andere Repositorys gepusht werden. Oder nicht! +Ein Commit ist ein Schnappschuss von Änderungen in deinem Arbeitsverzeichnis. Wenn du zum Beispiel 5 Dateien hinzugefügt und 2 andere entfernt hast, werden diese Änderungen im Commit (Schnappschuss) enthalten sein. Dieser Commit kann dann in andere Repositories gepusht werden. Oder nicht! ### Branch @@ -69,7 +69,9 @@ Ein Branch, ein Ast oder Zweig, ist im Kern ein Pointer auf den letzten Commit, ### HEAD und head (Teil des .git-Verzeichnisses) -HEAD ist ein Pointer auf den aktuellen Branch. Ein Repository hat nur einen *aktiven* HEAD. Ein head ist ein Pointer, der auf ein beliebige Zahl von heads zeigt. +HEAD ist ein Pointer auf den aktuellen Branch. Ein Repository hat nur einen *aktiven* HEAD. + +Ein *head* ist ein Pointer, der auf einen beliebigen Commit zeigt. Ein Repository kann eine beliebige Zahl von *heads* enthalten. ### Konzeptionelle Hintergründe @@ -127,7 +129,7 @@ Zeigt die Unterschiede zwischen Index (im Grunde dein Arbeitsverzeichnis/-reposi ```bash -# Zeigt den Branch, nicht-verfolgte Dateien, Uderungen und andere Unterschiede an +# Zeigt den Branch, nicht-verfolgte Dateien, Änderungen und andere Unterschiede an $ git status # Anderes Wissenswertes über git status anzeigen @@ -151,7 +153,7 @@ $ git add ./*.java ### branch -Verwalte alle Branches. Du kannst sie mit diesem Befehl ansehen, bearbeiten, neue erschaffen oder löschen. +Verwalte alle Branches. Du kannst sie mit diesem Befehl ansehen, bearbeiten, neue erzeugen oder löschen. ```bash # Liste alle bestehenden Branches und Remotes auf @@ -186,7 +188,7 @@ $ git checkout -b newBranch ### clone -Ein bestehendes Repository in ein neues Verzeichnis klonen oder kopieren. Es fügt außerdem für hedes geklonte Repo remote-tracking Branches hinzu. Du kannst auf diese Remote-Branches pushen. +Ein bestehendes Repository in ein neues Verzeichnis klonen oder kopieren. Es fügt außerdem für jedes geklonte Repository remote-tracking Branches hinzu. Du kannst auf diese Remote-Branches pushen. ```bash # Klone learnxinyminutes-docs @@ -288,16 +290,16 @@ $ git mv -f myFile existingFile ### pull -Führe einen Pull, zieht alle Daten, eines Repositorys und f?? einen Merge mit einem anderen Branch durch. +Führe einen Pull (zieht alle Daten eines Repositories) aus und führt einen Merge mit einem anderen Branch durch. ```bash -# Update deines lokalen Repos, indem ein Merge der neuen Uderungen -# von den remote-liegenden "origin"- und "master"-Branches durchgef?? wird. +# Update deines lokalen Repos, indem ein Merge der neuen Änderungen +# von den remote-liegenden "origin"- und "master"-Branches durchgeführt wird. # git pull <remote> <branch> # git pull => impliziter Verweis auf origin und master $ git pull origin master -# F?? einen Merge von Uderungen eines remote-Branch und ein Rebase +# Führt einen Merge von Änderungen eines remote-Branch und ein Rebase # des Branch-Commits im lokalen Repo durch. Wie: pull <remote> <branch>, git rebase <branch>" $ git pull origin master --rebase ``` @@ -337,8 +339,8 @@ $ git reset # Setze die Staging-Area zurück, um dem letzten Commit zu entsprechen und überschreibe das Arbeitsverzeichnis $ git reset --hard -# Bewegt die Spitze des Branches zu dem angegebenen Commit (das Verzeichnis bleibt unber??) -# Alle Uderungen bleiben im Verzeichnis erhalten +# Bewegt die Spitze des Branches zu dem angegebenen Commit (das Verzeichnis bleibt unberührt) +# Alle Änderungen bleiben im Verzeichnis erhalten $ git reset 31f2bb1 # Bewegt die Spitze des Branches zurück zu dem angegebenen Commit diff --git a/de-de/go-de.html.markdown b/de-de/go-de.html.markdown index 765372e0..94f48e65 100644 --- a/de-de/go-de.html.markdown +++ b/de-de/go-de.html.markdown @@ -3,17 +3,17 @@ language: Go filename: learngo-de.go contributors: - ["Joseph Adams", "https://github.com/jcla1"] + - ["Dennis Keller", "https://github.com/denniskeller"] + - ["Jerome Meinke", "https://github.com/jmeinke"] lang: de-de --- -Go wurde entwickelt, um Probleme zu lösen. Sie ist zwar nicht der neueste Trend in -der Informatik, aber sie ist einer der neuesten und schnellsten Wege, um Aufgabe in -der realen Welt zu lösen. - -Sie hat vertraute Elemente von imperativen Sprachen mit statischer Typisierung -und kann schnell kompiliert und ausgeführt werden. Verbunden mit leicht zu -verstehenden Parallelitäts-Konstrukten, um die heute üblichen mehrkern -Prozessoren optimal nutzen zu können, eignet sich Go äußerst gut für große -Programmierprojekte. +Die Sprache Go (auch golang) wurde von Google entwickelt und wird seit 2007 +benutzt. Go ähnelt in der Syntax der Sprache C, bietet darüber hinaus aber viele +Vorteile. Einerseits verzichtet Gp auf Speicherarithmetik und +benutzt einen Garbabe Collector. Andererseits enthält Go native Sprachelemente +für die Unterstützung von Nebenläufigkeit. Durch den Fokus auf einen schnellen +Kompilierprozess wird außerdem die Softwareentwicklung in Großprojekten +erleichtert. Außerdem beinhaltet Go eine gut ausgestattete Standardbibliothek und hat eine aktive Community. @@ -23,8 +23,8 @@ aktive Community. /* Mehr- zeiliger Kommentar */ -// Eine jede Quelldatei beginnt mit einer Paket-Klausel. -// "main" ist ein besonderer Pkaetname, da er ein ausführbares Programm +// Wie bei Java gehört jede Quelldatei einem Paket an (Modularisierung). +// "main" ist ein besonderer Paketname, da er ein ausführbares Programm // einleitet, im Gegensatz zu jedem anderen Namen, der eine Bibliothek // deklariert. package main @@ -37,9 +37,9 @@ import ( "strconv" // Zeichenkettenmanipulation ) -// Es folgt die Definition einer Funktions, in diesem Fall von "main". Auch hier +// Es folgt die Definition einer Funktion, in diesem Fall von "main". Auch hier // ist der Name wieder besonders. "main" markiert den Eintrittspunkt des -// Programms. Vergessen Sie nicht die geschweiften Klammern! +// Programms. func main() { // Println gibt eine Zeile zu stdout aus. // Der Prefix "fmt" bestimmt das Paket aus welchem die Funktion stammt. @@ -49,13 +49,13 @@ func main() { beyondHello() } -// Funktionen können Parameter akzeptieren, diese werden in Klammern deklariert, -// die aber auch bei keinen Parametern erforderlich sind. +// Funktionen können Parameter akzeptieren. Diese werden in Klammern deklariert, +// die aber auch ohne Parameter erforderlich sind. func beyondHello() { var x int // Deklaration einer Variable, muss vor Gebrauch geschehen. x = 3 // Zuweisung eines Werts. // Kurze Deklaration: Benutzen Sie ":=", um die Typisierung automatisch zu - // folgern, die Variable zu deklarieren und ihr einen Wert zu zuweisen. + // folgern, die Variable zu deklarieren und ihr einen Wert zuzuweisen. y := 4 // Eine Funktion mit mehreren Rückgabewerten. @@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ Zeilenumbrüche beinhalten.` // Selber Zeichenketten-Typ // "slices" haben eine dynamische Größe. Arrays und Slices haben beide ihre // Vorzüge, aber slices werden viel häufiger verwendet s3 := []int{4, 5, 9} // Vergleichen Sie mit a3, hier: keine Ellipse - s4 := make([]int, 4) // Weist Speicher für 4 ints zu, alle mit Initialwert 0 + s4 := make([]int, 4) // Weist Speicher für 4 ints zu, alle mit Wert 0 var d2 [][]float64 // Nur eine Deklaration, keine Speicherzuweisung bs := []byte("eine slice") // Umwandlungs-Syntax @@ -146,7 +146,7 @@ func learnFlowControl() { if false { // nicht hier } else { - // sonder hier! spielt die Musik + // sondern hier! spielt die Musik } // Benutzen Sie ein "switch" Statement anstatt eine Anreihung von if-s @@ -165,7 +165,7 @@ func learnFlowControl() { // Ab hier gilt wieder: x == 1 // For ist die einzige Schleifenform in Go, sie hat aber mehrere Formen: - for { // Endloschleife + for { // Endlosschleife break // nur ein Spaß continue // wird nie ausgeführt } @@ -200,7 +200,8 @@ type pair struct { x, y int } -// Definiere eine Methode von "pair". Dieser Typ erfüllt jetzt das Stringer interface. +// Definiere eine Methode von "pair". +// Dieser Typ erfüllt jetzt das Stringer interface. func (p pair) String() string { // p ist der Empfänger // Sprintf ist eine weitere öffentliche Funktion von fmt. // Der Syntax mit Punkt greift auf die Felder zu. @@ -254,18 +255,19 @@ func learnConcurrency() { // Die selbe "make"-Funktion wie vorhin. Sie initialisiert Speicher für // maps, slices und Kanäle. c := make(chan int) - // Starte drei parallele "Goroutines". Die Zahlen werden parallel (concurrently) - // erhöht. Alle drei senden ihr Ergebnis in den gleichen Kanal. + // Starte drei parallele "Goroutines". + // Die Zahlen werden parallel (concurrently) erhöht. + // Alle drei senden ihr Ergebnis in den gleichen Kanal. go inc(0, c) // "go" ist das Statement zum Start einer neuen Goroutine go inc(10, c) go inc(-805, c) // Auslesen und dann Ausgeben der drei berechneten Werte. // Man kann nicht im voraus feststellen in welcher Reihenfolge die Werte // ankommen. - fmt.Println(<-c, <-c, <-c) // mit dem Kannal rechts ist <- der Empfangs-Operator + fmt.Println(<-c, <-c, <-c) // mit dem Kanal rechts ist <- der Empfangs-Operator - cs := make(chan string) // ein weiterer Kannal, diesmal für strings - cc := make(chan chan string) // ein Kannal für string Kannäle + cs := make(chan string) // ein weiterer Kanal, diesmal für strings + cc := make(chan chan string) // ein Kanal für string Kanäle // Start einer neuen Goroutine, nur um einen Wert zu senden go func() { c <- 84 }() @@ -282,7 +284,7 @@ func learnConcurrency() { fmt.Println("wird nicht passieren.") } // Hier wird eine der beiden Goroutines fertig sein, die andere nicht. - // Sie wird warten bis der Wert den sie sendet von dem Kannal gelesen wird. + // Sie wird warten bis der Wert den sie sendet von dem Kanal gelesen wird. learnWebProgramming() // Go kann es und Sie hoffentlich auch bald. } @@ -300,19 +302,18 @@ func learnWebProgramming() { // Methode implementieren: ServeHTTP func (p pair) ServeHTTP(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) { // Senden von Daten mit einer Methode des http.ResponseWriter - w.Write([]byte("Sie habe Go in Y Minuten gelernt!")) + w.Write([]byte("Sie haben Go in Y Minuten gelernt!")) } ``` ## Weitere Resourcen -Alles zu Go finden Sie auf der [offiziellen Go Webseite](http://golang.org/). -Dort können sie der Tutorial folgen, interaktiv Quelltext ausprobieren und viel -Dokumentation lesen. +Informationen zu Go findet man auf der [offiziellen Go Webseite](http://golang.org/). +Dort gibt es unter anderem ein Tutorial und interaktive Quelltext-Beispiele, vor +allem aber Dokumentation zur Sprache und den Paketen. Auch zu empfehlen ist die Spezifikation von Go, die nach heutigen Standards sehr -kurz und auch gut verständlich formuliert ist. Auf der Leseliste von Go-Neulingen -ist außerdem der Quelltext der [Go standard Bibliothek](http://golang.org/src/pkg/). -Gut dokumentiert, demonstriert sie leicht zu verstehendes und im idiomatischen Stil -verfasstes Go. Erreichbar ist der Quelltext auch durch das Klicken der Funktionsnamen +kurz und gut verständlich formuliert ist. Auf der Leseliste von Go-Neulingen +ist außerdem der Quelltext der [Go standard Bibliothek](http://golang.org/src/pkg/) +einzusehen. Dieser kann als Referenz für leicht zu verstehendes und im idiomatischen Stil +verfasstes Go dienen. Erreichbar ist der Quelltext auch durch das Klicken der Funktionsnamen in der [offiziellen Dokumentation von Go](http://golang.org/pkg/). - diff --git a/de-de/haml-de.html.markdown b/de-de/haml-de.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7272b365 --- /dev/null +++ b/de-de/haml-de.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,156 @@ +--- +language: haml +filename: learnhaml-de.haml +contributors: + - ["Simon Neveu", "https://github.com/sneveu"] + - ["Sol Bekic", "https://github.com/S0lll0s"] +lang: de-de +--- + +Haml ist eine Markup- und Templatingsprache, aufgesetzt auf Ruby, mit der HTML Dokumente einfach beschrieben werden können. + +Haml vermindert Wiederholung und Fehleranfälligkeit, indem es Tags basierend auf der Markup-Struktur schließt und schachtelt. +Dadurch ergibt sich kurzes, präzises und logisches Markup. + +Haml kann außerhalb eines Ruby-projekts verwendet werden. Mit dem installierten Haml gem kann man das Terminal benutzen um Haml zu HTML umzuwandeln: + +$ haml input_file.haml output_file.html + + +```haml +/ ------------------------------------------- +/ Einrückung +/ ------------------------------------------- + +/ + Einrückung ist ein wichtiges Element des Haml Syntax, deswegen ist es + wichtig ein konsequentes Schema zu verwenden. Meistens werden zwei spaces + verwendet, solange die Einrückungen das gleiche Schema verfolgen können + aber auch andere Breiten und Tabs verwendet werden + + +/ ------------------------------------------- +/ Kommentare +/ ------------------------------------------- + +/ Kommentare beginnen mit einem Slash + +/ + Mehrzeilige Kommentare werden eingerückt und mit einem Slash + eingeführt + +-# Diese Zeile ist ein "stummes" Kommentar, es wird nicht mitgerendert + + +/ ------------------------------------------- +/ HTML Elemente +/ ------------------------------------------- + +/ Tags werden durch ein Prozentzeichen und den Tagnamen erzeugt +%body + %header + %nav + +/ Die Zeilen oben würden folgendes ergeben: + <body> + <header> + <nav></nav> + </header> + </body> + +/ Text kann direkt nach dem Tagnamen eingefügt werden: +%h1 Headline copy + +/ Mehrzeilige Inhalte müssen stattdessen eingerückt werden: +%p + This is a lot of content that we could probably split onto two + separate lines. + +/ + HTML kann mit &= escaped werden. So werden HTML-sensitive Zeichen + enkodiert. Zum Beispiel: + +%p + &= "Ja & Nein" + +/ würde 'Ja & Nein' ergeben + +/ HTML kann mit != dekodiert werden: +%p + != "so schreibt man ein Paragraph-Tag: <p></p>" + +/ ...was 'This is how you write a paragraph tag <p></p>' ergeben würde + +/ CSS Klassen können mit '.classname' an Tags angehängt werden: +%div.foo.bar + +/ oder über einen Ruby Hash: +%div{:class => 'foo bar'} + +/ Das div Tag wird standardmäßig verwendet, divs können also verkürzt werden: +.foo + +/ andere Attribute können über den Hash angegeben werden: +%a{:href => '#', :class => 'bar', :title => 'Bar'} + +/ Booleesche Attribute können mit 'true' gesetzt werden: +%input{:selected => true} + +/ data-Attribute können in einem eigenen Hash im :data key angegeben werden: +%div{:data => {:attribute => 'foo'}} + + +/ ------------------------------------------- +/ Verwendung von Ruby +/ ------------------------------------------- + +/ Mit dem = Zeichen können Ruby-werte evaluiert und als Tag-text verwendet werden: + +%h1= book.name + +%p + = book.author + = book.publisher + + +/ Code nach einem Bindestrich wird ausgeführt aber nicht gerendert: +- books = ['book 1', 'book 2', 'book 3'] + +/ So können zum Beispiel auch Blöcke verwendet werden: +- books.shuffle.each_with_index do |book, index| + %h1= book + + if book do + %p This is a book + +/ + Auch hier werden wieder keine End-Tags benötigt! + Diese ergeben sich aus der Einrückung. + + +/ ------------------------------------------- +/ Inline Ruby / Ruby Interpolation +/ ------------------------------------------- + +/ Ruby variablen können mit #{} in Text interpoliert werden: +%p dein bestes Spiel ist #{best_game} + + +/ ------------------------------------------- +/ Filter +/ ------------------------------------------- + +/ + Mit dem Doppelpinkt können Haml Filter benutzt werden. + Zum Beispiel gibt es den :javascript Filter, mit dem inline JS + geschrieben werden kann: + +:javascript + console.log('Dies ist ein <script>'); + +``` + +## Weitere Resourcen + +- [What is HAML?](http://haml.info/) - Eine gute Einleitung auf der Haml homepage (englisch) +- [Official Docs](http://haml.info/docs/yardoc/file.REFERENCE.html) - Die offizielle Haml Referenz (englisch) diff --git a/de-de/haskell-de.html.markdown b/de-de/haskell-de.html.markdown index 2c548961..d1a0008e 100644 --- a/de-de/haskell-de.html.markdown +++ b/de-de/haskell-de.html.markdown @@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ contributors: - ["Adit Bhargava", "http://adit.io"] translators: - ["Henrik Jürges", "https://github.com/santifa"] + - ["Nikolai Weh", "http://weh.hamburg"] filename: haskell-de.hs --- @@ -58,12 +59,13 @@ not False -- True -- Strings und Zeichen "Das ist ein String." 'a' -- Zeichen -'Einfache Anfuehrungszeichen gehen nicht.' -- error! +'Einfache Anführungszeichen gehen nicht.' -- error! -- Strings können konkateniert werden. "Hello " ++ "world!" -- "Hello world!" -- Ein String ist eine Liste von Zeichen. +['H', 'a', 'l', 'l', 'o', '!'] -- "Hallo!" "Das ist eine String" !! 0 -- 'D' @@ -76,11 +78,23 @@ not False -- True [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] [1..5] --- Haskell unterstuetzt unendliche Listen! -[1..] -- Die Liste aller natuerlichen Zahlen +-- Die zweite Variante nennt sich die "range"-Syntax. +-- Ranges sind recht flexibel: +['A'..'F'] -- "ABCDEF" + +-- Es ist möglich eine Schrittweite anzugeben: +[0,2..10] -- [0,2,4,6,8,10] +[5..1] -- [], da Haskell standardmässig inkrementiert. +[5,4..1] -- [5,4,3,2,1] + +-- Der "!!"-Operator extrahiert das Element an einem bestimmten Index: +[1..10] !! 3 -- 4 + +-- Haskell unterstützt unendliche Listen! +[1..] -- Die Liste aller natürlichen Zahlen -- Unendliche Listen funktionieren in Haskell, da es "lazy evaluation" --- unterstuetzt. Haskell evaluiert erst etwas, wenn es benötigt wird. +-- unterstützt. Haskell evaluiert erst etwas, wenn es benötigt wird. -- Somit kannst du nach dem 1000. Element fragen und Haskell gibt es dir: [1..] !! 999 -- 1000 @@ -92,12 +106,9 @@ not False -- True -- Zwei Listen konkatenieren [1..5] ++ [6..10] --- Ein Element als Head hinzufuegen +-- Ein Element als Head hinzufügen 0:[1..5] -- [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] --- Gibt den 5. Index zurueck -[0..] !! 5 -- 5 - -- Weitere Listenoperationen head [1..5] -- 1 tail [1..5] -- [2, 3, 4, 5] @@ -114,7 +125,8 @@ last [1..5] -- 5 -- Ein Tupel: ("haskell", 1) --- Auf Elemente eines Tupels zugreifen: +-- Ein Paar (Pair) ist ein Tupel mit 2 Elementen, auf die man wie folgt +-- zugreifen kann: fst ("haskell", 1) -- "haskell" snd ("haskell", 1) -- 1 @@ -140,9 +152,9 @@ add 1 2 -- 3 (//) a b = a `div` b 35 // 4 -- 8 --- Guards sind eine einfache Möglichkeit fuer Fallunterscheidungen. +-- Guards sind eine einfache Möglichkeit für Fallunterscheidungen. fib x - | x < 2 = x + | x < 2 = 1 | otherwise = fib (x - 1) + fib (x - 2) -- Pattern Matching funktioniert ähnlich. @@ -174,7 +186,7 @@ foldl1 (\acc x -> acc + x) [1..5] -- 15 -- 4. Mehr Funktionen ---------------------------------------------------- --- currying: Wenn man nicht alle Argumente an eine Funktion uebergibt, +-- currying: Wenn man nicht alle Argumente an eine Funktion übergibt, -- so wird sie eine neue Funktion gebildet ("curried"). -- Es findet eine partielle Applikation statt und die neue Funktion -- nimmt die fehlenden Argumente auf. @@ -190,23 +202,28 @@ foo 5 -- 15 -- Funktionskomposition -- Die (.) Funktion verkettet Funktionen. -- Zum Beispiel, die Funktion Foo nimmt ein Argument addiert 10 dazu und --- multipliziert dieses Ergebnis mit 5. -foo = (*5) . (+10) +-- multipliziert dieses Ergebnis mit 4. +foo = (*4) . (+10) + +-- (5 + 10) * 4 = 60 +foo 5 -- 60 --- (5 + 10) * 5 = 75 -foo 5 -- 75 +-- Haskell hat einen Operator `$`, welcher Funktionsapplikation durchführt. +-- Im Gegenzug zu der Standard-Funktionsapplikation, welche linksassoziativ ist +-- und die höchstmögliche Priorität von "10" hat, ist der `$`-Operator +-- rechtsassoziativ und hat die Priorität 0. Dieses hat (idr.) den Effekt, +-- dass der `komplette` Ausdruck auf der rechten Seite als Parameter für die +-- Funktion auf der linken Seite verwendet wird. +-- Mit `.` und `$` kann man sich so viele Klammern ersparen. --- Haskell hat eine Funktion `$`. Diese ändert den Vorrang, --- so dass alles links von ihr zuerst berechnet wird und --- und dann an die rechte Seite weitergegeben wird. --- Mit `.` und `$` kann man sich viele Klammern ersparen. +(even (fib 7)) -- false --- Vorher -(even (fib 7)) -- true +-- Äquivalent: +even $ fib 7 -- false --- Danach -even . fib $ 7 -- true +-- Funktionskomposition: +even . fib $ 7 -- false ---------------------------------------------------- -- 5. Typensystem @@ -221,31 +238,31 @@ even . fib $ 7 -- true True :: Bool -- Funktionen haben genauso Typen. --- `not` ist Funktion die ein Bool annimmt und ein Bool zurueckgibt: +-- `not` ist Funktion die ein Bool annimmt und ein Bool zurückgibt: -- not :: Bool -> Bool -- Eine Funktion die zwei Integer Argumente annimmt: -- add :: Integer -> Integer -> Integer -- Es ist guter Stil zu jeder Funktionsdefinition eine --- Typdefinition darueber zu schreiben: +-- Typdefinition darüber zu schreiben: double :: Integer -> Integer double x = x * 2 ---------------------------------------------------- --- 6. If-Anweisung und Kontrollstrukturen +-- 6. If-Ausdrücke und Kontrollstrukturen ---------------------------------------------------- --- If-Anweisung: +-- If-Ausdruck: haskell = if 1 == 1 then "awesome" else "awful" -- haskell = "awesome" --- If-Anweisungen können auch ueber mehrere Zeilen verteilt sein. --- Das Einruecken ist dabei äußerst wichtig. +-- If-Ausdrücke können auch über mehrere Zeilen verteilt sein. +-- Die Einrückung ist dabei wichtig. haskell = if 1 == 1 then "awesome" else "awful" --- Case-Anweisung: Zum Beispiel "commandline" Argumente parsen. +-- Case-Ausdruck: Am Beispiel vom Parsen von "commandline"-Argumenten. case args of "help" -> printHelp "start" -> startProgram @@ -276,7 +293,7 @@ foldl (\x y -> 2*x + y) 4 [1,2,3] -- 43 foldr (\x y -> 2*x + y) 4 [1,2,3] -- 16 -- die Abarbeitung sieht so aus: -(2 * 3 + (2 * 2 + (2 * 1 + 4))) +(2 * 1 + (2 * 2 + (2 * 3 + 4))) ---------------------------------------------------- -- 7. Datentypen @@ -300,7 +317,7 @@ data Maybe a = Nothing | Just a -- Diese sind alle vom Typ Maybe: Just "hello" -- vom Typ `Maybe String` Just 1 -- vom Typ `Maybe Int` -Nothing -- vom Typ `Maybe a` fuer jedes `a` +Nothing -- vom Typ `Maybe a` für jedes `a` ---------------------------------------------------- -- 8. Haskell IO @@ -309,8 +326,8 @@ Nothing -- vom Typ `Maybe a` fuer jedes `a` -- IO kann nicht völlig erklärt werden ohne Monaden zu erklären, -- aber man kann die grundlegenden Dinge erklären. --- Wenn eine Haskell Programm ausgefuehrt wird, so wird `main` aufgerufen. --- Diese muss etwas vom Typ `IO ()` zurueckgeben. Zum Beispiel: +-- Wenn eine Haskell Programm ausgeführt wird, so wird `main` aufgerufen. +-- Diese muss etwas vom Typ `IO ()` zurückgeben. Zum Beispiel: main :: IO () main = putStrLn $ "Hello, sky! " ++ (say Blue) @@ -338,10 +355,10 @@ sayHello = do -- an die Variable "name" gebunden putStrLn $ "Hello, " ++ name --- Uebung: Schreibe deine eigene Version von `interact`, +-- Übung: Schreibe deine eigene Version von `interact`, -- die nur eine Zeile einliest. --- `sayHello` wird niemals ausgefuehrt, nur `main` wird ausgefuehrt. +-- `sayHello` wird niemals ausgeführt, nur `main` wird ausgeführt. -- Um `sayHello` laufen zulassen kommentiere die Definition von `main` -- aus und ersetze sie mit: -- main = sayHello @@ -359,7 +376,7 @@ action = do input1 <- getLine input2 <- getLine -- Der Typ von `do` ergibt sich aus der letzten Zeile. - -- `return` ist eine Funktion und keine Schluesselwort + -- `return` ist eine Funktion und keine Schlüsselwort return (input1 ++ "\n" ++ input2) -- return :: String -> IO String -- Nun können wir `action` wie `getLine` benutzen: @@ -370,7 +387,7 @@ main'' = do putStrLn result putStrLn "This was all, folks!" --- Der Typ `IO` ist ein Beispiel fuer eine Monade. +-- Der Typ `IO` ist ein Beispiel für eine Monade. -- Haskell benutzt Monaden Seiteneffekte zu kapseln und somit -- eine rein funktional Sprache zu sein. -- Jede Funktion die mit der Außenwelt interagiert (z.B. IO) @@ -387,7 +404,7 @@ main'' = do -- Starte die REPL mit dem Befehl `ghci` -- Nun kann man Haskell Code eingeben. --- Alle neuen Werte muessen mit `let` gebunden werden: +-- Alle neuen Werte müssen mit `let` gebunden werden: let foo = 5 @@ -396,7 +413,7 @@ let foo = 5 >:t foo foo :: Integer --- Auch jede `IO ()` Funktion kann ausgefuehrt werden. +-- Auch jede `IO ()` Funktion kann ausgeführt werden. > sayHello What is your name? @@ -420,6 +437,6 @@ qsort (p:xs) = qsort lesser ++ [p] ++ qsort greater Haskell ist sehr einfach zu installieren. Hohl es dir von [hier](http://www.haskell.org/platform/). -Eine sehr viele langsamere Einfuehrung findest du unter: +Eine sehr viele langsamere Einführung findest du unter: [Learn you a Haskell](http://learnyouahaskell.com/) oder [Real World Haskell](http://book.realworldhaskell.org/). diff --git a/de-de/latex-de.html.markdown b/de-de/latex-de.html.markdown index 2c18b8fd..ee9c6e3e 100644 --- a/de-de/latex-de.html.markdown +++ b/de-de/latex-de.html.markdown @@ -6,19 +6,19 @@ contributors: - ["Sricharan Chiruvolu", "http://sricharan.xyz"] translators: - ["Moritz Kammerer", "https://github.com/phxql"] + - ["Jerome Meinke", "https://github.com/jmeinke"] lang: de-de filename: latex-de.tex --- ``` -% Alle Kommentare starten fangen mit % an -% Es gibt keine Kommentare über mehrere Zeilen +% Alle Kommentare starten mit einem Prozentzeichen % -% LateX ist keine "What You See Is What You Get" Textverarbeitungssoftware wie z.B. +% LaTeX ist keine "What You See Is What You Get" Textverarbeitungssoftware wie z.B. % MS Word oder OpenOffice Writer -% Jedes LateX-Kommando startet mit einem Backslash (\) +% Jedes LaTeX-Kommando startet mit einem Backslash (\) -% LateX-Dokumente starten immer mit der Definition des Dokuments, die sie darstellen +% LaTeX-Dokumente starten immer mit der Definition des Dokuments, die sie darstellen % Weitere Dokumententypen sind z.B. book, report, presentations, etc. % Optionen des Dokuments stehen zwischen den eckigen Klammern []. In diesem Fall % wollen wir einen 12 Punkte-Font verwenden. @@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ filename: latex-de.tex % Als nächstes definieren wir die Pakete, die wir verwenden wollen. % Wenn du z.B. Grafiken, farbigen Text oder Quelltext in dein Dokument einbetten möchtest, -% musst du die Fähigkeiten von Latex durch Hinzufügen von Paketen erweitern. +% musst du die Fähigkeiten von LaTeX durch Hinzufügen von Paketen erweitern. % Wir verwenden die Pakete float und caption für Bilder. \usepackage{caption} \usepackage{float} @@ -34,30 +34,41 @@ filename: latex-de.tex % Mit diesem Paket können leichter Umlaute getippt werden \usepackage[utf8]{inputenc} +% Es gibt eigentlich keine Kommentare über mehrere Zeilen, solche kann man +% aber selbst durch die Angabe eigener Kommandos definieren. +% Dieses Kommando kann man später benutzen. +\newcommand{\comment}[1]{} + % Es können durchaus noch weitere Optione für das Dokument gesetzt werden! \author{Chaitanya Krishna Ande, Colton Kohnke \& Sricharan Chiruvolu} \date{\today} -\title{Learn LaTeX in Y Minutes!} +\title{Learn \LaTeX\ in Y Minutes!} % Nun kann's losgehen mit unserem Dokument. % Alles vor dieser Zeile wird die Preamble genannt. -\begin{document} +\begin{document} + +\comment{ + Dies ist unser selbst-definierter Befehl + für mehrzeilige Kommentare. +} + % Wenn wir den Autor, das Datum und den Titel gesetzt haben, kann -% LateX für uns eine Titelseite generieren +% LaTeX für uns eine Titelseite generieren \maketitle -% Die meisten Paper haben ein Abstract. LateX bietet dafür einen vorgefertigen Befehl an. +% Die meisten Paper haben ein Abstract. LaTeX bietet dafür einen vorgefertigen Befehl an. % Das Abstract sollte in der logischen Reihenfolge, also nach dem Titel, aber vor dem % Inhalt erscheinen. % Dieser Befehl ist in den Dokumentenklassen article und report verfügbar. \begin{abstract} - LateX documentation geschrieben in LateX! Wie ungewöhnlich und garantiert nicht meine Idee! + \LaTeX -Documentation geschrieben in \LaTeX ! Wie ungewöhnlich und garantiert nicht meine Idee! \end{abstract} % Section Befehle sind intuitiv. % Alle Titel der sections werden automatisch in das Inhaltsverzeichnis übernommen. \section{Einleitung} -Hi, mein Name ist Moritz und zusammen werden wir LateX erforschen! +Hi, mein Name ist Moritz und zusammen werden wir \LaTeX\ erforschen! \section{Noch eine section} Das hier ist der Text für noch eine section. Ich glaube, wir brauchen eine subsection. @@ -71,16 +82,16 @@ So ist's schon viel besser. % Wenn wir den Stern nach section schreiben, dann unterdrückt LateX die Nummerierung. % Das funktioniert auch bei anderen Befehlen. -\section*{Das ist eine unnummerierte section} -Es müssen nicht alle sections nummeriert sein! +\section*{Das ist eine unnummerierte section} +Es müssen nicht alle Sections nummeriert sein! \section{Ein paar Notizen} -LateX ist ziemlich gut darin, Text so zu platzieren, dass es gut aussieht. +\LaTeX\ ist ziemlich gut darin, Text so zu platzieren, dass es gut aussieht. Falls eine Zeile \\ mal \\ woanders \\ umgebrochen \\ werden \\ soll, füge \textbackslash\textbackslash in den Code ein.\\ \section{Listen} -Listen sind eine der einfachsten Dinge in LateX. Ich muss morgen einkaufen gehen, +Listen sind eine der einfachsten Dinge in \LaTeX. Ich muss morgen einkaufen gehen, also lass uns eine Einkaufsliste schreiben: \begin{enumerate} % Dieser Befehl erstellt eine "enumerate" Umgebung. % \item bringt enumerate dazu, eins weiterzuzählen. @@ -96,7 +107,7 @@ also lass uns eine Einkaufsliste schreiben: \section{Mathe} -Einer der Haupteinsatzzwecke von LateX ist das Schreiben von akademischen +Einer der Haupteinsatzzwecke von \LaTeX\ ist das Schreiben von akademischen Artikeln oder Papern. Meistens stammen diese aus dem Bereich der Mathe oder anderen Wissenschaften. Und deswegen müssen wir in der Lage sein, spezielle Symbole zu unserem Paper hinzuzufügen! \\ @@ -106,18 +117,18 @@ Symbole für Mengen und relationen, Pfeile, Operatoren und Griechische Buchstabe um nur ein paar zu nennen.\\ Mengen und Relationen spielen eine sehr wichtige Rolle in vielen mathematischen -Papern. So schreibt man in LateX, dass alle y zu X gehören: $\forall$ y $\in$ X. \\ +Papern. So schreibt man in \LaTeX, dass alle y zu X gehören: $\forall$ y $\in$ X. \\ -% Achte auf die $ Zeichen vor und nach den Symbolen. Wenn wir in LateX schreiben, +% Achte auf die $ Zeichen vor und nach den Symbolen. Wenn wir in LaTeX schreiben, % geschieht dies standardmäßig im Textmodus. Die Mathe-Symbole existieren allerdings % nur im Mathe-Modus. Wir können den Mathe-Modus durch das $ Zeichen aktivieren und % ihn mit $ wieder verlassen. Variablen können auch im Mathe-Modus angezeigt werden. Mein Lieblingsbuchstabe im Griechischen ist $\xi$. Ich mag auch $\beta$, $\gamma$ und $\sigma$. -Bis jetzt habe ich noch keinen griechischen Buchstaben gefunden, den LateX nicht kennt! +Bis jetzt habe ich noch keinen griechischen Buchstaben gefunden, den \LaTeX nicht kennt! Operatoren sind ebenfalls wichtige Bestandteile von mathematischen Dokumenten: -Trigonometrische Funktionen ($\sin$, $\cos$, $\tan$), +Trigonometrische Funktionen ($\sin$, $\cos$, $\tan$), Logarithmus und Exponenten ($\log$, $\exp$), Grenzwerte ($\lim$), etc. haben vordefinierte Befehle. Lass uns eine Gleichung schreiben: \\ @@ -127,7 +138,7 @@ $\cos(2\theta) = \cos^{2}(\theta) - \sin^{2}(\theta)$\\ Brüche (Zähler / Nenner) können so geschrieben werden: % 10 / 7 -$^{10}/_{7}$ +$^{10}/_{7}$ % Komplexere Brüche können so geschrieben werden: % \frac{Zähler}{Nenner} @@ -142,19 +153,19 @@ Wir können Gleichungen auch in einer equation Umgebung verwenden. \end{equation} % Alle \begin Befehle müssen einen \end Befehl besitzen Wir können nun unsere Gleichung referenzieren! -Gleichung ~\ref{eq:pythagoras} ist auch als das Theorem des Pythagoras bekannt. Dieses wird in +Gleichung ~\ref{eq:pythagoras} ist auch als das Theorem des Pythagoras bekannt. Dieses wird in Abschnitt ~\ref{subsec:pythagoras} behandelt. Es können sehr viele Sachen mit Labels versehen werden: Grafiken, Gleichungen, Sections, etc. Summen und Integrale können mit den sum und int Befehlen dargestellt werden: -% Manche LateX-Compiler beschweren sich, wenn Leerzeilen in Gleichungen auftauchen -\begin{equation} +% Manche LaTeX-Compiler beschweren sich, wenn Leerzeilen in Gleichungen auftauchen +\begin{equation} \sum_{i=0}^{5} f_{i} -\end{equation} -\begin{equation} +\end{equation} +\begin{equation} \int_{0}^{\infty} \mathrm{e}^{-x} \mathrm{d}x -\end{equation} +\end{equation} \section{Grafiken} @@ -164,7 +175,7 @@ Aber keine Sorge, ich muss auch jedes mal nachschauen, welche Option wie wirkt. \begin{figure}[H] % H ist die Platzierungsoption \centering % Zentriert die Grafik auf der Seite % Fügt eine Grafik ein, die auf 80% der Seitenbreite einnimmt. - %\includegraphics[width=0.8\linewidth]{right-triangle.png} + %\includegraphics[width=0.8\linewidth]{right-triangle.png} % Auskommentiert, damit es nicht im Dokument auftaucht. \caption{Dreieck mit den Seiten $a$, $b$, $c$} \label{fig:right-triangle} @@ -177,7 +188,7 @@ Wir können Tabellen genauso wie Grafiken einfügen. \caption{Überschrift der Tabelle.} % Die {} Argumente geben an, wie eine Zeile der Tabelle dargestellt werden soll. % Auch hier muss ich jedes Mal nachschauen. Jedes. einzelne. Mal. - \begin{tabular}{c|cc} + \begin{tabular}{c|cc} Nummer & Nachname & Vorname \\ % Spalten werden durch & getrennt \hline % Eine horizontale Linie 1 & Biggus & Dickus \\ @@ -187,36 +198,36 @@ Wir können Tabellen genauso wie Grafiken einfügen. % \section{Links} % Kommen bald! -\section{Verhindern, dass LateX etwas kompiliert (z.B. Quelltext)} -Angenommen, wir wollen Quelltext in unserem LateX-Dokument. LateX soll -in diesem Fall nicht den Quelltext als LateX-Kommandos interpretieren, +\section{Verhindern, dass \LaTeX\ etwas kompiliert (z.B. Quelltext)} +Angenommen, wir wollen Quelltext in unserem \LaTeX-Dokument. \LaTeX\ soll +in diesem Fall nicht den Quelltext als \LaTeX-Kommandos interpretieren, sondern es einfach ins Dokument schreiben. Um das hinzubekommen, verwenden wir eine verbatim Umgebung. % Es gibt noch weitere Pakete für Quelltexte (z.B. minty, lstlisting, etc.) % aber verbatim ist das simpelste. -\begin{verbatim} +\begin{verbatim} print("Hello World!") a%b; % Schau dir das an! Wir können % im verbatim verwenden! random = 4; #decided by fair random dice roll \end{verbatim} -\section{Kompilieren} +\section{Kompilieren} Ich vermute, du wunderst dich, wie du dieses tolle Dokument in ein PDF verwandeln kannst. (Ja, dieses Dokument kompiliert wirklich!) \\ Dafür musst du folgende Schritte durchführen: \begin{enumerate} - \item Schreibe das Dokument. (den LateX-Quelltext). - \item Kompiliere den Quelltext in ein PDF. + \item Schreibe das Dokument. (den \LaTeX -Quelltext). + \item Kompiliere den Quelltext in ein PDF. Das Kompilieren sieht so ähnlich wie das hier aus (Linux): \\ - \begin{verbatim} - $pdflatex learn-latex.tex learn-latex.pdf + \begin{verbatim} + $pdflatex learn-latex.tex learn-latex.pdf \end{verbatim} \end{enumerate} -Manche LateX-Editoren kombinieren Schritt 1 und 2. Du siehst also nur Schritt 1 und Schritt +Manche \LaTeX-Editoren kombinieren Schritt 1 und 2. Du siehst also nur Schritt 1 und Schritt 2 wird unsichtbar im Hintergrund ausgeführt. Alle Formatierungsoptionen werden in Schritt 1 in den Quelltext geschrieben. Schritt 2 verwendet diff --git a/de-de/lua-de.html.markdown b/de-de/lua-de.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..83f8506c --- /dev/null +++ b/de-de/lua-de.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,426 @@ +--- +language: Lua +contributors: + - ["Tyler Neylon", "http://tylerneylon.com/"] +translators: + - ["Martin Schimandl", "https://github.com/Git-Jiro"] +filename: learnlua-de.lua +lang: de-de +--- + +```lua +-- Zwei Gedankenstriche starten ein einzeiliges Kommentar. + +--[[ + Fügt man zwei '[' und ']' hinzu, + erzeugt man einen mehrzeiligen Kommentar. +--]] +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- 1. Variablen und Fluß-Kontrolle. +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +num = 42 -- Alle Nummern sind vom Typ: Double. +-- Werd nicht nervös, 64-Bit Double haben 52 Bits zum Speichern von exakten +-- Ganzzahlen; Maschinen-Genauigkeit ist kein Problem für Ganzzahlen kleiner als +-- 52 Bit. + +s = 'walternate' -- Zeichenketten sind unveränderlich, wie bei Python. +t = "Doppelte Anführungszeichen sind auch OK" +u = [[ Doppelte eckige Klammern + beginnen und beenden + mehrzeilige Zeichenketten.]] +t = nil -- Undefineren von t; Lua hat einen Garbage Collection. + +-- Blöcke werden durch Schlüsselwörter wie do/end markiert: +while num < 50 do + num = num + 1 -- Es gibt Keine Operatoren wie ++ oder += +end + +-- If Bedingungen: +if num > 40 then + print('over 40') +elseif s ~= 'walternate' then -- ~= bedeutet ungleich + -- Gleichheits-Check == wie bei Python; OK für Zeichenketten. + io.write('not over 40\n') -- Standard ist stdout. +else + -- Variablen sind standardmäßig global. + thisIsGlobal = 5 -- Camel case ist üblich. + + -- So macht man eine Variable lokal: + local line = io.read() -- Lies die nächste Zeile von stdin. + + -- Zeichenketten zusammenführen mit dem .. Operator: + print('Winter is coming, ' .. line) +end + +-- Undefinierte Variablen geben nil zurück. +-- Das ist kein Fehler: +foo = anUnknownVariable -- Nun ist foo = nil. + +aBoolValue = false + +-- Nur nil und false sind unwahr; 0 and '' sind wahr! +if not aBoolValue then print('was false') end + +-- 'or' und 'and' sind "kurz-geschlossen". Das ist so ähnlich wie der a?b:c +-- operator in C/js: +-- in C/js: +ans = aBoolValue and 'yes' or 'no' --> 'no' + +karlSum = 0 +for i = 1, 100 do -- Ein Bereich inkludiert beide Enden. + karlSum = karlSum + i +end + +-- Verwende "100, 1, -1" als Breich für Countdowns: +fredSum = 0 +for j = 100, 1, -1 do fredSum = fredSum + j end + +-- Im Allgemeinen besteht ein Bereich aus: Anfang, Ende, [, Schrittweite]. + +-- Ein anderes Schleifen-Konstrukt: +repeat + print('Der Weg der Zukunft') + num = num - 1 +until num == 0 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- 2. Funktionen. +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +function fib(n) + if n < 2 then return n end + return fib(n - 2) + fib(n - 1) +end + +-- Closures und anonyme Funktionen sind ok: +function adder(x) + -- Die zurückgegebene Funktion wird erzeugt wenn addr aufgerufen wird und merkt + -- sich den Wert von x: + return function (y) return x + y end +end +a1 = adder(9) +a2 = adder(36) +print(a1(16)) --> 25 +print(a2(64)) --> 100 + +-- Rückgabewerte, Funktions-Aufrufe und Zuweisungen funktionieren alle mit +-- Listen die nicht immer gleich lang sein müssen. Überzählige Empfänger +-- bekommen nil; überzählige Sender werden ignoriert. + +x, y, z = 1, 2, 3, 4 +-- Nun ist x = 1, y = 2, z = 3, und 4 wird ignoriert. + +function bar(a, b, c) + print(a, b, c) + return 4, 8, 15, 16, 23, 42 +end + +x, y = bar('zaphod') --> prints "zaphod nil nil" +-- Nun ist x = 4, y = 8, die Werte 15..42 werden ignoriert. + +-- Funktionen sind erste Klasse, und können lokal oder global sein. +-- Das ist alles das Gleiche: +function f(x) return x * x end +f = function (x) return x * x end + +-- Das auch: +local function g(x) return math.sin(x) end +local g = function(x) return math.sin(x) end +-- Äquivalent zu local function g(x)..., außer das Referenzen auf g im +-- Funktions-Körper nicht wie erwartet funktionieren. +local g; g = function (x) return math.sin(x) end +-- Die Deklaration 'local g' macht Selbst-Referenzen auf g OK. + +-- Nebenbei gesagt, Trigonometrie-Funktionen verwenden Radianten. + +-- Funktionsaufrufe mit nur einem Zeichenketten-Parameter brauch keine runden +-- Klammern. +print 'hello' -- Funktioniert wunderbar. + +-- Funktionsaufrufe mit einem Tabellen-Parameter brauchen auch keine runden +-- Klammern. Mehr zu Tabellen kommt später. +print {} -- Funktioniert auch wunderbar. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- 3. Tabellen. +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +-- Tabellen sind die einzige zusammengesetzte Struktur in Lua. Sie sind +-- assoziative Arrays. Sie sind so ähnlich wie PHP arrays oder JavaScript +-- Objekte. Sie sind Hash-Lookup-Dictionaries die auch als Listen verwendet +-- werden können. + +-- Verwenden von Tabellen als Dictionaries oder Maps: + +-- Dict-Literale haben standardmäßig Zeichenketten als Schlüssel: +t = {key1 = 'value1', key2 = false} + +-- Zeichenketten-Schlüssel verwenden eine JavaScript ähnliche Punkt-Notation. +print(t.key1) -- Ausgabe 'value1'. +t.newKey = {} -- Neues Schlüssel/Wert-Paar hinzufügen. +t.key2 = nil -- key2 aus der Tabelle entfernen. + +-- Literale notation für jeden (nicht-nil) Wert als Schlüssel: +u = {['@!#'] = 'qbert', [{}] = 1729, [6.28] = 'tau'} +print(u[6.28]) -- Ausgabe "tau" + +-- Schlüssel-Vergleiche funktionieren per Wert für Nummern und Zeichenketten, +-- aber über die Identität bei Tabellen. +a = u['@!#'] -- Nun ist a = 'qbert'. +b = u[{}] -- Wir würden 1729 erwarten, aber es ist nil: +-- b = nil weil der Lookup fehlschlägt. Er schlägt Fehl, weil der Schlüssel +-- den wir verwendet haben nicht das gleiche Objekt ist das wir verwendet +-- haben um den original Wert zu speichern. Zahlen und Zeichnkette sind daher +-- die praktischeren Schlüssel. + +-- Eine Funktion mit nur einem Tabellen-Parameter benötigt keine Klammern. +function h(x) print(x.key1) end +h{key1 = 'Sonmi~451'} -- Ausgabe 'Sonmi~451'. + +for key, val in pairs(u) do -- Tabellen-Iteration. + print(key, val) +end + +-- _G ist eine spezielle Tabelle die alles Globale enthält. +print(_G['_G'] == _G) -- Ausgabe 'true'. + +-- Verwenden von Tabellen als Listen/Arrays: + +-- Listen-Literale verwenden implizit Ganzzahlen als Schlüssel: +v = {'value1', 'value2', 1.21, 'gigawatts'} +for i = 1, #v do -- #v ist die Größe von v für Listen. + print(v[i]) -- Indices beginnen mit 1 !! SO VERRÜCKT! +end +-- Eine 'Liste' ist kein echter Typ. v ist nur eine Tabelle mit fortlaufenden +-- Ganzzahlen als Schlüssel, die behandelt wird wie eine Liste. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- 3.1 Metatabellen und Metamethoden +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +-- Eine Tabelle kann eine Metatabelle haben. Diese verleiht ihr so etwas wie +-- Tabellen-Operator-Überladungs-Verhalten. Später sehen wir wie +-- Metatabellen js-prototypen artiges Verhalten unterstützen. + +f1 = {a = 1, b = 2} -- Repräsentiert den Bruch a/b. +f2 = {a = 2, b = 3} + +-- Dies würde Fehlschlagen: +-- s = f1 + f2 + +metafraction = {} +function metafraction.__add(f1, f2) + local sum = {} + sum.b = f1.b * f2.b + sum.a = f1.a * f2.b + f2.a * f1.b + return sum +end + +setmetatable(f1, metafraction) +setmetatable(f2, metafraction) + +s = f1 + f2 -- Rufe __add(f1, f2) vom der Metatabelle von f1 auf. + +-- f1 und f2 haben keine Schlüssel für ihre Metatabellen, anders als bei js +-- Prototypen. Daher muss mithilfe von getmetatable(f1) darauf zugegriffen +-- werden. Eine Metatabelle ist wie eine normale Tabelle mit Schlüsseln die +-- Lua bekannt sind, so wie __add. + + +-- Die nächste Zeile schlägt fehl weil s keine Metatabelle hat: +-- t = s + s +-- Mihilfe von Klassen ähnlichen Mustern kann das gelöst werden. +-- Siehe weiter unten. + +-- Ein __index einer Metatabelle überlädt Punkt-Lookups: +defaultFavs = {animal = 'gru', food = 'donuts'} +myFavs = {food = 'pizza'} +setmetatable(myFavs, {__index = defaultFavs}) +eatenBy = myFavs.animal -- Funktioniert dank Metatabelle! + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- Direkte Tabellen-Lookups die fehlschlagen werden mithilfe von __index der +-- Metatabelle wiederholt. Das geschieht rekursiv. + +-- __index kann auch eine Funktion mit der Form function(tbl, key) sein. +-- Damit kann man Lookups weiter anpassen. + +-- Werte wie __index,add, .. werden Metamethoden genannt. +-- HIer eine vollständige Liste aller Metamethoden. + +-- __add(a, b) für a + b +-- __sub(a, b) für a - b +-- __mul(a, b) für a * b +-- __div(a, b) für a / b +-- __mod(a, b) für a % b +-- __pow(a, b) für a ^ b +-- __unm(a) für -a +-- __concat(a, b) für a .. b +-- __len(a) für #a +-- __eq(a, b) für a == b +-- __lt(a, b) für a < b +-- __le(a, b) für a <= b +-- __index(a, b) <fn or a table> für a.b +-- __newindex(a, b, c) für a.b = c +-- __call(a, ...) für a(...) + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- 3.2 Klassen-Artige Tabellen und Vererbung. +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +-- Klassen sind in Lua nicht eingebaut. Es gibt verschieden Wege sie mithilfe +-- von Tabellen und Metatabellen zu erzeugen. + +-- Die Erklärund des Beispiels erfolgt unterhalb. + +Dog = {} -- 1. + +function Dog:new() -- 2. + local newObj = {sound = 'woof'} -- 3. + self.__index = self -- 4. + return setmetatable(newObj, self) -- 5. +end + +function Dog:makeSound() -- 6. + print('I say ' .. self.sound) +end + +mrDog = Dog:new() -- 7. +mrDog:makeSound() -- 'I say woof' -- 8. + +-- 1. Dog verhält sich wie eine Klasse; Ist aber eine Tabelle. +-- 2. "function tablename:fn(...)" ist das gleiche wie +-- "function tablename.fn(self, ...)", Der : fügt nur ein Argument namens +-- self hinzu. Siehe 7 & 8 um zu sehen wie self seinen Wert bekommt. +-- 3. newObj wird eine Instanz von Dog. +-- 4. "self" ist die zu Instanzierende Klasse. Meistern ist self = Dog, aber +-- dies kann durch Vererbung geändert werden. newObj bekommt die Funktionen +-- von self wenn wir die Metatabelle von newObj und __index von self auf +-- self setzen. +-- 5. Zur Erinnerung: setmetatable gibt sein erstes Argument zurück. +-- 6. Der Doppelpunkt funktioniert wie bei 2, aber dieses Mal erwarten wir das +-- self eine Instanz ist und keine Klasse. +-- 7. Das Selbe wie Dog.new(Dog), also self = Dog in new(). +-- 8. Das Selbe wie mrDog.makeSound(mrDog); self = mrDog. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +-- Vererbungs-Beispiel: + +LoudDog = Dog:new() -- 1. + +function LoudDog:makeSound() + local s = self.sound .. ' ' -- 2. + print(s .. s .. s) +end + +seymour = LoudDog:new() -- 3. +seymour:makeSound() -- 'woof woof woof' -- 4. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- 1. LoudDog bekommt die Methoden und Variablen von Dog. +-- 2. self hat einen 'sound' Schlüssel von new(), siehe 3. +-- 3. Das Gleiche wie "LoudDog.new(LoudDog)", und umgewandelt zu "Dog.new(LoudDog)" +-- denn LoudDog hat keinen 'new' Schlüssel, aber "__index = Dog" steht in der +-- Metatabelle. +-- Ergebnis: Die Metatabelle von seymour ist LoudDog und "LoudDog.__index = Dog". +-- Daher ist seymour.key gleich seymour.key, LoudDog.key, Dog.key, je nachdem +-- welche Tabelle als erstes einen passenden Schlüssel hat. +-- 4. Der 'makeSound' Schlüssel wird in LoudDog gefunden: Das ist das Gleiche +-- wie "LoudDog.makeSound(seymour)". + +-- Wenn nötig, sieht new() einer Sub-Klasse genau so aus wie new() der +-- Basis-Klasse: +function LoudDog:new() + local newObj = {} + -- set up newObj + self.__index = self + return setmetatable(newObj, self) +end + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +-- 4. Module. +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + +--[[ Dieser Abschnitt ist auskommentiert damit der Rest des Skripts lauffähig +-- bleibt. +``` + +```lua +-- Angenommen mod.lua sieht so aus: +local M = {} + +local function sayMyName() + print('Hrunkner') +end + +function M.sayHello() + print('Why hello there') + sayMyName() +end + +return M + +-- Eine andere Datei könnte die Funktionen in mod.lua so verwenden: +local mod = require('mod') -- Führe mod.lua aus. + +-- require ist der Standard-Weg um Module zu inkludieren. +-- require verhält sich wie: (Wenn nicht gecached wird; siehe später) +local mod = (function () + <Inhalt von mod.lua> +end)() +-- Es ist als ob mod.lua eine Funktion wäre, sodass lokale Variablen in +-- mod.lua ausserhalb unsichtbar sind. + +-- Das funktioniert weil mod hier das Gleiche wie M in mod.lua ist: +mod.sayHello() -- Says hello to Hrunkner. + +-- Das ist Falsch: sayMyName existiert nur in mod.lua: +mod.sayMyName() -- Fehler + +-- Der Rückgabe-Wert von require wird zwischengespeichert. Sodass Module nur +-- einmal abgearbeitet werden, auch wenn sie mit require öfters eingebunden +-- werden. + +-- Nehmen wir an mod2.lua enthält "print('Hi!')". +local a = require('mod2') -- Ausgabe Hi! +local b = require('mod2') -- Keine Ausgabe; a=b. + +-- dofile ist wie require aber ohne Zwischenspeichern. +dofile('mod2') --> Hi! +dofile('mod2') --> Hi! (läuft nochmal, nicht wie require) + +-- loadfile ladet eine lua Datei aber die Datei wird noch nicht abgearbeitet. +f = loadfile('mod2') -- Sobald f() aufgerufen wird läuft mod2.lua. + +-- loadstring ist loadfile für Zeichenketten +g = loadstring('print(343)') -- Gibt eine Funktion zurück.. +g() -- Ausgabe 343; Vorher kam keine Ausgabe. + +--]] + +``` +## Referenzen + +Ich war so begeistert Lua zu lernen, damit ich Spiele mit <a href="http://love2d.org/">Love 2D game engine</a> programmieren konnte. + +Ich habe angefangen mit <a href="http://nova-fusion.com/2012/08/27/lua-for-programmers-part-1/">BlackBulletIV's Lua for programmers</a>. +Danach habe ich das offizielle Lua Buch gelesen: <a href="http://www.lua.org/pil/contents.html">Programming in Lua</a> + +Es kann auch hilfreich sein hier vorbeizuschauen: <a href="http://lua-users.org/files/wiki_insecure/users/thomasl/luarefv51.pdf">Lua short +reference</a> + +Wichtige Themen die hier nicht angesprochen wurden; die Standard-Bibliotheken: + +* <a href="http://lua-users.org/wiki/StringLibraryTutorial">string library</a> +* <a href="http://lua-users.org/wiki/TableLibraryTutorial">table library</a> +* <a href="http://lua-users.org/wiki/MathLibraryTutorial">math library</a> +* <a href="http://lua-users.org/wiki/IoLibraryTutorial">io library</a> +* <a href="http://lua-users.org/wiki/OsLibraryTutorial">os library</a> + +Übrigends, die gesamte Datei ist gültiges Lua. Speichere sie als learn.lua und +starte sie als "lua learn.lua" ! + +Die Erstfassung ist von tylerneylon.com, und ist auch hier verfügbar: <a href="https://gist.github.com/tylerneylon/5853042">github gist</a>. Viel Spaß mit Lua! diff --git a/de-de/markdown-de.html.markdown b/de-de/markdown-de.html.markdown index 6a90980b..2c838660 100644 --- a/de-de/markdown-de.html.markdown +++ b/de-de/markdown-de.html.markdown @@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ __Genau wie dieser.__ **_Dieser auch!_** *__Und dieser genau so!__* -<!-- In "Github Flavored Markdown", dem von Github verwendeten Dialekt / Parser, +<!-- In "GitHub Flavored Markdown", dem von GitHub verwendeten Dialekt / Parser, gibt es auch noch durchgestrichenen Text: --> ~~Dieser Text wird durchgestrichen dargestellt.~~ @@ -148,7 +148,7 @@ indem du eine Zeile mit vier Leerzeichen oder einem Tabulator einrückst --> Hermann hatte nicht die leiseste Ahnung, was dieses `go_to()` bedeuten könnte! -<!-- In "Github Flavored Markdown" gibt es für Code nocheinmal eine +<!-- In "GitHub Flavored Markdown" gibt es für Code nocheinmal eine besondere Syntax --> \`\`\`ruby <!-- in "echt" musst du die Backslashes entfernen: ```ruby ! --> @@ -157,7 +157,7 @@ def foobar end \`\`\` <!-- hier auch keine Backslashes, nur ``` --> -<-- der obige Block muss nicht extra eingerückt werden, außerdem fügt Github +<-- der obige Block muss nicht extra eingerückt werden, außerdem fügt GitHub Syntax-Highlighting für die nach dem ``` angegebene Sprache hinzu --> <!-- Horizontale Linie (<hr />) --> @@ -233,7 +233,7 @@ Ich würde *diesen Teil gerne mit Sternen umschließen*, doch ohne dass er kursi wird. Also mache ich folgendes: \*Ich umschließe diesen Text mit Sternen\*! <!-- Tabellen --> -<!-- Tabellen gibt es bis jetzt nur in "Github Flavored Markdown". +<!-- Tabellen gibt es bis jetzt nur in "GitHub Flavored Markdown". Zudem sind sie ziemlich mühselig, aber wenn du es wirklich wissen willst: --> | Spalte1 | Spalte2 | Spalte3 | @@ -253,4 +253,4 @@ Ganz schön hässlich | vielleicht doch lieber | wieder aufhören Mehr Informationen gibt es in [John Gruber's offiziellem Blog-Post](http://daringfireball.net/projects/markdown/syntax) und bei Adam Pritchards [grandiosem Cheatsheet](https://github.com/adam-p/markdown-here/wiki/Markdown-Cheatsheet). -Infos zu Github Flavored Markdown [gibt es hier](https://help.github.com/articles/github-flavored-markdown).
\ No newline at end of file +Infos zu GitHub Flavored Markdown [gibt es hier](https://help.github.com/articles/github-flavored-markdown).
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/de-de/scala-de.html.markdown b/de-de/scala-de.html.markdown index 7fd299b4..456403a2 100644 --- a/de-de/scala-de.html.markdown +++ b/de-de/scala-de.html.markdown @@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ contributors: - ["Dominic Bou-Samra", "http://dbousamra.github.com"] - ["Geoff Liu", "http://geoffliu.me"] - ["Ha-Duong Nguyen", "http://reference-error.org"] + - ["Dennis Keller", "github.com/denniskeller"] translators: - ["Christian Albrecht", "https://github.com/coastalchief"] filename: learnscala-de.scala @@ -16,167 +17,172 @@ für die Java Virtual Machine (JVM), um allgemeine Programmieraufgaben zu erledigen. Scala hat einen akademischen Hintergrund und wurde an der EPFL (Lausanne / Schweiz) unter der Leitung von Martin Odersky entwickelt. - -# 0. Umgebung einrichten +```scala +/* Scala Umgebung einrichten: 1. Scala binaries herunterladen- http://www.scala-lang.org/downloads 2. Unzip/untar in ein Verzeichnis 3. das bin Unterverzeichnis der `PATH` Umgebungsvariable hinzufügen 4. Mit dem Kommando `scala` wird die REPL gestartet und zeigt als Prompt: -``` + scala> -``` Die REPL (Read-Eval-Print Loop) ist der interaktive Scala Interpreter. Hier kann man jeden Scala Ausdruck verwenden und das Ergebnis wird direkt ausgegeben. Als nächstes beschäftigen wir uns mit ein paar Scala Basics. +*/ -# 1. Basics -Einzeilige Kommentare beginnen mit zwei vorwärts Slash +///////////////////////////////////////////////// +// 1. Basics +///////////////////////////////////////////////// + +// Einzeilige Kommentare beginnen mit zwei Slashes /* - Mehrzeilige Kommentare, werden starten - mit Slash-Stern und enden mit Stern-Slash + Mehrzeilige Kommentare, starten + mit einem Slash-Stern und enden mit einem Stern-Slash */ // Einen Wert, und eine zusätzliche neue Zeile ausgeben -``` + println("Hello world!") println(10) -``` + // Einen Wert, ohne eine zusätzliche neue Zeile ausgeben -``` + print("Hello world") -``` -// Variablen werden entweder mit var oder val deklariert. -// Deklarationen mit val sind immutable, also unveränderlich -// Deklarationen mit var sind mutable, also veränderlich -// Immutability ist gut. -``` +/* + Variablen werden entweder mit var oder val deklariert. + Deklarationen mit val sind immutable, also unveränderlich + Deklarationen mit var sind mutable, also veränderlich + Immutability ist gut. +*/ val x = 10 // x ist 10 x = 20 // error: reassignment to val var y = 10 y = 20 // y ist jetzt 20 -``` -Scala ist eine statisch getypte Sprache, auch wenn in dem o.g. Beispiel +/* +Scala ist eine statisch getypte Sprache, auch wenn wir in dem o.g. Beispiel keine Typen an x und y geschrieben haben. -In Scala ist etwas eingebaut, was sich Type Inference nennt. D.h. das der -Scala Compiler in den meisten Fällen erraten kann, von welchen Typ eine ist, -so dass der Typ nicht jedes mal angegeben werden soll. +In Scala ist etwas eingebaut, was sich Type Inference nennt. Das heißt das der +Scala Compiler in den meisten Fällen erraten kann, von welchen Typ eine Variable ist, +so dass der Typ nicht jedes mal angegeben werden muss. Einen Typ gibt man bei einer Variablendeklaration wie folgt an: -``` +*/ val z: Int = 10 val a: Double = 1.0 -``` + // Bei automatischer Umwandlung von Int auf Double wird aus 10 eine 10.0 -``` + val b: Double = 10 -``` + // Boolean Werte -``` + true false -``` + // Boolean Operationen -``` + !true // false !false // true true == false // false 10 > 5 // true -``` + // Mathematische Operationen sind wie gewohnt -``` + 1 + 1 // 2 2 - 1 // 1 5 * 3 // 15 6 / 2 // 3 6 / 4 // 1 6.0 / 4 // 1.5 -``` + // Die Auswertung eines Ausdrucks in der REPL gibt den Typ // und das Ergebnis zurück. -``` + scala> 1 + 7 res29: Int = 8 -``` +/* Das bedeutet, dass das Resultat der Auswertung von 1 + 7 ein Objekt von Typ Int ist und einen Wert 0 hat. "res29" ist ein sequentiell generierter name, um das Ergebnis des Ausdrucks zu speichern. Dieser Wert kann bei Dir anders sein... - +*/ "Scala strings werden in doppelten Anführungszeichen eingeschlossen" 'a' // A Scala Char // 'Einzeln ge-quotete strings gibt es nicht!' <= This causes an error // Für Strings gibt es die üblichen Java Methoden -``` + "hello world".length "hello world".substring(2, 6) "hello world".replace("C", "3") -``` + // Zusätzlich gibt es noch extra Scala Methoden // siehe: scala.collection.immutable.StringOps -``` + "hello world".take(5) "hello world".drop(5) -``` + // String interpolation: prefix "s" -``` + val n = 45 s"We have $n apples" // => "We have 45 apples" -``` -// Ausdrücke im innern von interpolierten Strings gibt es auch -``` + +// Ausdrücke im Innern von interpolierten Strings gibt es auch + val a = Array(11, 9, 6) val n = 100 s"My second daughter is ${a(0) - a(2)} years old." // => "My second daughter is 5 years old." s"We have double the amount of ${n / 2.0} in apples." // => "We have double the amount of 22.5 in apples." s"Power of 2: ${math.pow(2, 2)}" // => "Power of 2: 4" -``` + // Formatierung der interpolierten Strings mit dem prefix "f" -``` + f"Power of 5: ${math.pow(5, 2)}%1.0f" // "Power of 5: 25" f"Square root of 122: ${math.sqrt(122)}%1.4f" // "Square root of 122: 11.0454" -``` + // Raw Strings, ignorieren Sonderzeichen. -``` + raw"New line feed: \n. Carriage return: \r." // => "New line feed: \n. Carriage return: \r." -``` + // Manche Zeichen müssen "escaped" werden, z.B. // ein doppeltes Anführungszeichen in innern eines Strings. -``` + "They stood outside the \"Rose and Crown\"" // => "They stood outside the "Rose and Crown"" -``` + // Dreifache Anführungszeichen erlauben es, dass ein String über mehrere Zeilen geht // und Anführungszeichen enthalten kann. -``` + val html = """<form id="daform"> <p>Press belo', Joe</p> <input type="submit"> </form>""" -``` -# 2. Funktionen + +///////////////////////////////////////////////// +// 2. Funktionen +///////////////////////////////////////////////// // Funktionen werden so definiert // @@ -184,74 +190,74 @@ val html = """<form id="daform"> // // Beachte: Es gibt kein return Schlüsselwort. In Scala ist der letzte Ausdruck // in einer Funktion der Rückgabewert. -``` + def sumOfSquares(x: Int, y: Int): Int = { val x2 = x * x val y2 = y * y x2 + y2 } -``` + // Die geschweiften Klammern können weggelassen werden, wenn // die Funktion nur aus einem einzigen Ausdruck besteht: -``` + def sumOfSquaresShort(x: Int, y: Int): Int = x * x + y * y -``` + // Syntax für Funktionsaufrufe: -``` + sumOfSquares(3, 4) // => 25 -``` + // In den meisten Fällen (mit Ausnahme von rekursiven Funktionen), können // Rückgabetypen auch weggelassen werden, da dieselbe Typ Inference, wie bei // Variablen, auch bei Funktionen greift: -``` + def sq(x: Int) = x * x // Compiler errät, dass der return type Int ist -``` + // Funktionen können default parameter haben: -``` + def addWithDefault(x: Int, y: Int = 5) = x + y addWithDefault(1, 2) // => 3 addWithDefault(1) // => 6 -``` + // Anonyme Funktionen sehen so aus: -``` + (x: Int) => x * x -``` + // Im Gegensatz zu def bei normalen Funktionen, kann bei anonymen Funktionen // sogar der Eingabetyp weggelassen werden, wenn der Kontext klar ist. // Beachte den Typ "Int => Int", dies beschreibt eine Funktion, // welche Int als Parameter erwartet und Int zurückgibt. -``` + val sq: Int => Int = x => x * x -``` + // Anonyme Funktionen benutzt man ganz normal: -``` + sq(10) // => 100 -``` + // Wenn ein Parameter einer anonymen Funktion nur einmal verwendet wird, // bietet Scala einen sehr kurzen Weg diesen Parameter zu benutzen, // indem die Parameter als Unterstrich "_" in der Parameterreihenfolge // verwendet werden. Diese anonymen Funktionen werden sehr häufig // verwendet. -``` + val addOne: Int => Int = _ + 1 val weirdSum: (Int, Int) => Int = (_ * 2 + _ * 3) addOne(5) // => 6 weirdSum(2, 4) // => 16 -``` + // Es gibt einen keyword return in Scala. Allerdings ist seine Verwendung // nicht immer ratsam und kann fehlerbehaftet sein. "return" gibt nur aus // dem innersten def, welches den return Ausdruck umgibt, zurück. // "return" hat keinen Effekt in anonymen Funktionen: -``` + def foo(x: Int): Int = { val anonFunc: Int => Int = { z => if (z > 5) @@ -261,28 +267,30 @@ def foo(x: Int): Int = { } anonFunc(x) // Zeile ist der return Wert von foo } -``` -# 3. Flow Control -## Wertebereiche und Schleifen -``` +///////////////////////////////////////////////// +// 3. Flow Control +///////////////////////////////////////////////// + +// Wertebereiche und Schleifen + 1 to 5 val r = 1 to 5 r.foreach(println) r foreach println (5 to 1 by -1) foreach (println) -``` -// Scala ist syntaktisch sehr grosszügig, Semikolons am Zeilenende + +// Scala ist syntaktisch sehr großzügig, Semikolons am Zeilenende // sind optional, beim Aufruf von Methoden können die Punkte // und Klammern entfallen und Operatoren sind im Grunde austauschbare Methoden // while Schleife -``` + var i = 0 while (i < 10) { println("i " + i); i += 1 } i // i ausgeben, res3: Int = 10 -``` + // Beachte: while ist eine Schleife im klassischen Sinne - // Sie läuft sequentiell ab und verändert die loop-Variable. @@ -291,28 +299,28 @@ i // i ausgeben, res3: Int = 10 // und zu parellelisieren. // Ein do while Schleife -``` + do { println("x ist immer noch weniger wie 10") x += 1 } while (x < 10) -``` + // Endrekursionen sind ideomatisch um sich wiederholende // Dinge in Scala zu lösen. Rekursive Funtionen benötigen explizit einen // return Typ, der Compiler kann ihn nicht erraten. // Unit, in diesem Beispiel. -``` + def showNumbersInRange(a: Int, b: Int): Unit = { print(a) if (a < b) showNumbersInRange(a + 1, b) } showNumbersInRange(1, 14) -``` -## Conditionals -``` + +// Conditionals + val x = 10 if (x == 1) println("yeah") if (x == 10) println("yeah") @@ -320,186 +328,193 @@ if (x == 11) println("yeah") if (x == 11) println ("yeah") else println("nay") println(if (x == 10) "yeah" else "nope") val text = if (x == 10) "yeah" else "nope" -``` -# 4. Daten Strukturen (Array, Map, Set, Tuples) -## Array -``` +///////////////////////////////////////////////// +// 4. Daten Strukturen (Array, Map, Set, Tuples) +///////////////////////////////////////////////// + +// Array + val a = Array(1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13) a(0) a(3) a(21) // Exception -``` -## Map - Speichert Key-Value-Paare -``` + +// Map - Speichert Key-Value-Paare + val m = Map("fork" -> "tenedor", "spoon" -> "cuchara", "knife" -> "cuchillo") m("fork") m("spoon") m("bottle") // Exception val safeM = m.withDefaultValue("no lo se") safeM("bottle") -``` -## Set - Speichert Unikate, unsortiert (sortiert -> SortedSet) -``` + +// Set - Speichert Unikate, unsortiert (sortiert -> SortedSet) + val s = Set(1, 3, 7) s(0) //false s(1) //true val s = Set(1,1,3,3,7) s: scala.collection.immutable.Set[Int] = Set(1, 3, 7) -``` -## Tuple - Speichert beliebige Daten und "verbindet" sie miteinander + +// Tuple - Speichert beliebige Daten und "verbindet" sie miteinander // Ein Tuple ist keine Collection. -``` + (1, 2) (4, 3, 2) (1, 2, "three") (a, 2, "three") -``` + // Hier ist der Rückgabewert der Funktion ein Tuple // Die Funktion gibt das Ergebnis, so wie den Rest zurück. -``` + val divideInts = (x: Int, y: Int) => (x / y, x % y) divideInts(10, 3) -``` + // Um die Elemente eines Tuples anzusprechen, benutzt man diese // Notation: _._n wobei n der index des Elements ist (Index startet bei 1) -``` + val d = divideInts(10, 3) d._1 d._2 -``` -# 5. Objekt Orientierte Programmierung -Bislang waren alle gezeigten Sprachelemente einfache Ausdrücke, welche zwar -zum Ausprobieren und Lernen in der REPL gut geeignet sind, jedoch in -einem Scala file selten alleine zu finden sind. -Die einzigen Top-Level Konstrukte in Scala sind nämlich: -- Klassen (classes) -- Objekte (objects) -- case classes -- traits +///////////////////////////////////////////////// +// 5. Objektorientierte Programmierung +///////////////////////////////////////////////// + +/* + Bislang waren alle gezeigten Sprachelemente einfache Ausdrücke, welche zwar + zum Ausprobieren und Lernen in der REPL gut geeignet sind, jedoch in + einem Scala file selten alleine zu finden sind. + Die einzigen Top-Level Konstrukte in Scala sind nämlich: + + - Klassen (classes) + - Objekte (objects) + - case classes + - traits -Diesen Sprachelemente wenden wir uns jetzt zu. + Diesen Sprachelemente wenden wir uns jetzt zu. +*/ -## Klassen +// Klassen // Zum Erstellen von Objekten benötigt man eine Klasse, wie in vielen // anderen Sprachen auch. // erzeugt Klasse mit default Konstruktor -``` + class Hund scala> val t = new Hund t: Hund = Hund@7103745 -``` + // Der Konstruktor wird direkt hinter dem Klassennamen deklariert. -``` + class Hund(sorte: String) scala> val t = new Hund("Dackel") t: Hund = Hund@14be750c scala> t.sorte //error: value sorte is not a member of Hund -``` + // Per val wird aus dem Attribut ein unveränderliches Feld der Klasse // Per var wird aus dem Attribut ein veränderliches Feld der Klasse -``` + class Hund(val sorte: String) scala> val t = new Hund("Dackel") t: Hund = Hund@74a85515 scala> t.sorte res18: String = Dackel -``` + // Methoden werden mit def geschrieben -``` + def bark = "Woof, woof!" -``` + // Felder und Methoden können public, protected und private sein // default ist public // private ist nur innerhalb des deklarierten Bereichs sichtbar -``` + class Hund { private def x = ... def y = ... } -``` + // protected ist nur innerhalb des deklarierten und aller // erbenden Bereiche sichtbar -``` + class Hund { protected def x = ... } class Dackel extends Hund { // x ist sichtbar } -``` -## Object -Wird ein Objekt ohne das Schlüsselwort "new" instanziert, wird das sog. -"companion object" aufgerufen. Mit dem "object" Schlüsselwort wird so -ein Objekt (Typ UND Singleton) erstellt. Damit kann man dann eine Klasse -benutzen ohne ein Objekt instanziieren zu müssen. -Ein gültiges companion Objekt einer Klasse ist es aber erst dann, wenn -es genauso heisst und in derselben Datei wie die Klasse definiert wurde. -``` + +// Object +// Wird ein Objekt ohne das Schlüsselwort "new" instanziert, wird das sog. +// "companion object" aufgerufen. Mit dem "object" Schlüsselwort wird so +// ein Objekt (Typ UND Singleton) erstellt. Damit kann man dann eine Klasse +// benutzen ohne ein Objekt instanziieren zu müssen. +// Ein gültiges companion Objekt einer Klasse ist es aber erst dann, wenn +// es genauso heisst und in derselben Datei wie die Klasse definiert wurde. + object Hund { def alleSorten = List("Pitbull", "Dackel", "Retriever") def createHund(sorte: String) = new Hund(sorte) } -``` -## Case classes -Fallklassen bzw. Case classes sind Klassen die normale Klassen um extra -Funktionalität erweitern. Mit Case Klassen bekommt man ein paar -Dinge einfach dazu, ohne sich darum kümmern zu müssen. Z.B. -ein companion object mit den entsprechenden Methoden, -Hilfsmethoden wie toString(), equals() und hashCode() und auch noch -Getter für unsere Attribute (das Angeben von val entfällt dadurch) -``` + +// Case classes +// Fallklassen bzw. Case classes sind Klassen die normale Klassen um extra +// Funktionalität erweitern. Mit Case Klassen bekommt man ein paar +// Dinge einfach dazu, ohne sich darum kümmern zu müssen. Z.B. +// ein companion object mit den entsprechenden Methoden, +// Hilfsmethoden wie toString(), equals() und hashCode() und auch noch +// Getter für unsere Attribute (das Angeben von val entfällt dadurch) + class Person(val name: String) class Hund(val sorte: String, val farbe: String, val halter: Person) -``` + // Es genügt das Schlüsselwort case vor die Klasse zu schreiben. -``` + case class Person(name: String) case class Hund(sorte: String, farbe: String, halter: Person) -``` + // Für neue Instanzen brauch man kein "new" -``` + val dackel = Hund("dackel", "grau", Person("peter")) val dogge = Hund("dogge", "grau", Person("peter")) -``` + // getter -``` + dackel.halter // => Person = Person(peter) -``` + // equals -``` + dogge == dackel // => false -``` + // copy // otherGeorge == Person("george", "9876") -``` + val otherGeorge = george.copy(phoneNumber = "9876") -``` -## Traits -Ähnlich wie Java interfaces, definiert man mit traits einen Objekttyp -und Methodensignaturen. Scala erlaubt allerdings das teilweise -implementieren dieser Methoden. Konstruktorparameter sind nicht erlaubt. -Traits können von anderen Traits oder Klassen erben, aber nur von -parameterlosen. -``` + +// Traits +// Ähnlich wie Java interfaces, definiert man mit traits einen Objekttyp +// und Methodensignaturen. Scala erlaubt allerdings das teilweise +// implementieren dieser Methoden. Konstruktorparameter sind nicht erlaubt. +// Traits können von anderen Traits oder Klassen erben, aber nur von +// parameterlosen. + trait Hund { def sorte: String def farbe: String @@ -511,9 +526,9 @@ class Bernhardiner extends Hund{ val farbe = "braun" def beissen = false } -``` + -``` + scala> b res0: Bernhardiner = Bernhardiner@3e57cd70 scala> b.sorte @@ -522,10 +537,10 @@ scala> b.bellen res2: Boolean = true scala> b.beissen res3: Boolean = false -``` + // Traits können auch via Mixins (Schlüsselwort "with") eingebunden werden -``` + trait Bellen { def bellen: String = "Woof" } @@ -541,25 +556,27 @@ scala> val b = new Bernhardiner b: Bernhardiner = Bernhardiner@7b69c6ba scala> b.bellen res0: String = Woof -``` -# 6. Pattern Matching -Pattern matching in Scala ist ein sehr nützliches und wesentlich -mächtigeres Feature als Vergleichsfunktionen in Java. In Scala -benötigt ein case Statement kein "break", ein fall-through gibt es nicht. -Mehrere Überprüfungen können mit einem Statement gemacht werden. -Pattern matching wird mit dem Schlüsselwort "match" gemacht. -``` +///////////////////////////////////////////////// +// 6. Pattern Matching +///////////////////////////////////////////////// + +// Pattern matching in Scala ist ein sehr nützliches und wesentlich +// mächtigeres Feature als Vergleichsfunktionen in Java. In Scala +// benötigt ein case Statement kein "break", ein fall-through gibt es nicht. +// Mehrere Überprüfungen können mit einem Statement gemacht werden. +// Pattern matching wird mit dem Schlüsselwort "match" gemacht. + val x = ... x match { case 2 => case 3 => case _ => } -``` + // Pattern Matching kann auf beliebige Typen prüfen -``` + val any: Any = ... val gleicht = any match { case 2 | 3 | 5 => "Zahl" @@ -568,19 +585,19 @@ val gleicht = any match { case 45.35 => "Double" case _ => "Unbekannt" } -``` + // und auf Objektgleichheit -``` + def matchPerson(person: Person): String = person match { case Person("George", nummer) => "George! Die Nummer ist " + number case Person("Kate", nummer) => "Kate! Die Nummer ist " + nummer case Person(name, nummer) => "Irgendjemand: " + name + ", Telefon: " + nummer } -``` + // Und viele mehr... -``` + val email = "(.*)@(.*)".r // regex def matchEverything(obj: Any): String = obj match { // Werte: @@ -600,18 +617,21 @@ def matchEverything(obj: Any): String = obj match { // Patterns kann man ineinander schachteln: case List(List((1, 2, "YAY"))) => "Got a list of list of tuple" } -``` + // Jedes Objekt mit einer "unapply" Methode kann per Pattern geprüft werden // Ganze Funktionen können Patterns sein -``` + val patternFunc: Person => String = { case Person("George", number) => s"George's number: $number" case Person(name, number) => s"Random person's number: $number" } -``` -# 7. Higher-order functions + +///////////////////////////////////////////////// +// 37. Higher-order functions +///////////////////////////////////////////////// + Scala erlaubt, das Methoden und Funktion wiederum Funtionen und Methoden als Aufrufparameter oder Return Wert verwenden. Diese Methoden heissen higher-order functions @@ -621,116 +641,117 @@ Nennenswerte sind: "filter", "map", "reduce", "foldLeft"/"foldRight", "exists", "forall" ## List -``` + def isGleichVier(a:Int) = a == 4 val list = List(1, 2, 3, 4) val resultExists4 = list.exists(isEqualToFour) -``` + ## map // map nimmt eine Funktion und führt sie auf jedem Element aus und erzeugt // eine neue Liste // Funktion erwartet ein Int und returned ein Int -``` + val add10: Int => Int = _ + 10 -``` + // add10 wird auf jedes Element angewendet -``` + List(1, 2, 3) map add10 // => List(11, 12, 13) -``` + // Anonyme Funktionen können anstatt definierter Funktionen verwendet werden -``` + List(1, 2, 3) map (x => x + 10) -``` + // Der Unterstrich wird anstelle eines Parameters einer anonymen Funktion // verwendet. Er wird an die Variable gebunden. -``` + List(1, 2, 3) map (_ + 10) -``` + // Wenn der anonyme Block und die Funtion beide EIN Argument erwarten, // kann sogar der Unterstrich weggelassen werden. -``` + List("Dom", "Bob", "Natalia") foreach println -``` -## filter + +// filter // filter nimmt ein Prädikat (eine Funktion von A -> Boolean) und findet // alle Elemente die auf das Prädikat passen -``` + List(1, 2, 3) filter (_ > 2) // => List(3) case class Person(name: String, age: Int) List( Person(name = "Dom", age = 23), Person(name = "Bob", age = 30) ).filter(_.age > 25) // List(Person("Bob", 30)) -``` -## reduce + +// reduce // reduce nimmt zwei Elemente und kombiniert sie zu einem Element, // und zwar solange bis nur noch ein Element da ist. -## foreach +// foreach // foreach gibt es für einige Collections -``` + val aListOfNumbers = List(1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 20, 100) aListOfNumbers foreach (x => println(x)) aListOfNumbers foreach println -``` -## For comprehensions + +// For comprehensions // Eine for-comprehension definiert eine Beziehung zwischen zwei Datensets. // Dies ist keine for-Schleife. -``` + for { n <- s } yield sq(n) val nSquared2 = for { n <- s } yield sq(n) for { n <- nSquared2 if n < 10 } yield n for { n <- s; nSquared = n * n if nSquared < 10} yield nSquared -``` + ///////////////////////////////////////////////// -# 8. Implicits +// 8. Implicits ///////////////////////////////////////////////// -**ACHTUNG:** -Implicits sind ein sehr mächtiges Sprachfeature von Scala. Es sehr einfach -sie falsch zu benutzen und Anfänger sollten sie mit Vorsicht oder am -besten erst dann benutzen, wenn man versteht wie sie funktionieren. -Dieses Tutorial enthält Implicits, da sie in Scala an jeder Stelle -vorkommen und man auch mit einer Lib die Implicits benutzt nichts sinnvolles -machen kann. -Hier soll ein Grundverständnis geschaffen werden, wie sie funktionieren. +// **ACHTUNG:** +// Implicits sind ein sehr mächtiges Sprachfeature von Scala. +// Es sehr einfach +// sie falsch zu benutzen und Anfänger sollten sie mit Vorsicht oder am +// besten erst dann benutzen, wenn man versteht wie sie funktionieren. +// Dieses Tutorial enthält Implicits, da sie in Scala an jeder Stelle +// vorkommen und man auch mit einer Lib die Implicits benutzt nichts sinnvolles +// machen kann. +// Hier soll ein Grundverständnis geschaffen werden, wie sie funktionieren. // Mit dem Schlüsselwort implicit können Methoden, Werte, Funktion, Objekte // zu "implicit Methods" werden. -``` + implicit val myImplicitInt = 100 implicit def myImplicitFunction(sorte: String) = new Hund("Golden " + sorte) -``` + // implicit ändert nicht das Verhalten eines Wertes oder einer Funktion -``` + myImplicitInt + 2 // => 102 myImplicitFunction("Pitbull").sorte // => "Golden Pitbull" -``` + // Der Unterschied ist, dass diese Werte ausgewählt werden können, wenn ein // anderer Codeteil einen implicit Wert benötigt, zum Beispiel innerhalb von // implicit Funktionsparametern // Diese Funktion hat zwei Parameter: einen normalen und einen implicit -``` + def sendGreetings(toWhom: String)(implicit howMany: Int) = s"Hello $toWhom, $howMany blessings to you and yours!" -``` + // Werden beide Parameter gefüllt, verhält sich die Funktion wie erwartet -``` + sendGreetings("John")(1000) // => "Hello John, 1000 blessings to you and yours!" -``` + // Wird der implicit Parameter jedoch weggelassen, wird ein anderer // implicit Wert vom gleichen Typ genommen. Der Compiler sucht im @@ -739,66 +760,69 @@ sendGreetings("John")(1000) // => "Hello John, 1000 blessings to you and yours! // geforderten Typ konvertieren kann. // Hier also: "myImplicitInt", da ein Int gesucht wird -``` + sendGreetings("Jane") // => "Hello Jane, 100 blessings to you and yours!" -``` + // bzw. "myImplicitFunction" // Der String wird erst mit Hilfe der Funktion in Hund konvertiert, und // dann wird die Methode aufgerufen -``` + "Retriever".sorte // => "Golden Retriever" -``` -# 9. Misc -## Importe -``` + +///////////////////////////////////////////////// +// 19. Misc +///////////////////////////////////////////////// +// Importe + import scala.collection.immutable.List -``` + // Importiere alle Unterpackages -``` + import scala.collection.immutable._ -``` + // Importiere verschiedene Klassen mit einem Statement -``` + import scala.collection.immutable.{List, Map} -``` + // Einen Import kann man mit '=>' umbenennen -``` + import scala.collection.immutable.{List => ImmutableList} -``` + // Importiere alle Klasses, mit Ausnahem von.... // Hier ohne: Map and Set: -``` + import scala.collection.immutable.{Map => _, Set => _, _} -``` -## Main -``` + +// Main + object Application { def main(args: Array[String]): Unit = { - // stuff goes here. + // Sachen kommen hierhin } } -``` -## I/O + +// I/O // Eine Datei Zeile für Zeile lesen -``` + import scala.io.Source for(line <- Source.fromFile("myfile.txt").getLines()) println(line) -``` + // Eine Datei schreiben -``` + val writer = new PrintWriter("myfile.txt") writer.write("Schreibe Zeile" + util.Properties.lineSeparator) writer.write("Und noch eine Zeile" + util.Properties.lineSeparator) writer.close() + ``` ## Weiterführende Hinweise diff --git a/de-de/tcl-de.html.markdown b/de-de/tcl-de.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4f3b8820 --- /dev/null +++ b/de-de/tcl-de.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,475 @@ +--- +language: Tcl +contributors: + - ["Poor Yorick", "http://pooryorick.com/"] +translators: + - ["Martin Schimandl", "https://github.com/Git-Jiro"] +filename: learntcl-de.tcl +lang: de-de +--- + +Tcl wurde kreiert von [John Ousterhout](http://wiki.tcl.tk/John Ousterout) als +eine wiederverwendbare Script-Sprache für Chip-Design Werkzeuge die er kreiert +hat. Im Jahre 1997 wurde er mit dem [ACM Software System +Award](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACM_Software_System_Award) für Tcl +ausgezeichnet. Tcl kann sowohl als eingebettete Scipt-Sprache als auch als +allgemeine Programmier-Sprache verwendet werden. Tcl kann auch als portable +C-Bibliothek verwendet werden. Sogar in Fällen in denen die Script-Fähigkeiten +nicht nötig sind. Denn Tcl stellt Daten-Strukturen wie dynamische Zeichenketten, +Listen und Hash-Tabellen bereit. Die C-Bilbiothek stellt auch portable +Funktionen zur Verfügung: Laden von dynamischen Bibliotheken, Zeichenketten +formatierung und Code Konversion, Dateisystem Operationen, Netzwerk Operationen +und mehr. + + +Verschiedenste herausragende Fähigkeiten von Tcl: + +* Praktische Cross-Platform Netzwerk-API + +* Vollständig virtualisiertes Dateisystem + +* Stapelbare I/O Kanäle + +* Asynchron bis zum Kern + +* Vollständige Ko-Routinen + +* Robustes und einfach zu verwendendes Thread-Modell + + +Wenn Lisp ein Listen-Prozessor ist, dann ist TCl ein Zeichenketten-Prozessor. +Alle Werte sind Zeichenketten. Eine Liste ist ein Zeichenketten-Format. Eine +Prozedur-Definition ist ein Zeichenketten-Format. Um leistungsfähig zu sein, +werden Tcl-intern diese Zeichenketten in Strukutierter-Form gepuffert. Ein +Beispiel: Der "list" Befehl arbeitet mit diesen internen gepufferten +Repräsentationen. Tcl kümmert sich selbständig darum die String-Repräsentationen +zu aktualisieren, falls dies im Skript benötigt werden sollten. Das Kopieren- +beim-Schreiben-Design von Tcl erlaubt es Skript-Authoren mit großen Daten- +Strukturen zu arbeiten ohne zuätzlichen Speicher-Overhead. Prozeduren werden +automatisch byte-kompiliert außer sie verwenden dynamsiche Befehle wie zum +Beispiel "uplevel", "upvar und "trace". + +Es ist eine freude in Tcl zu programmieren. Hacker-Typen werden gefallen daran +finden, wenn sie Lisp, Forth oder Smalltalk interessant finden. Tcl wird auch +Ingenieuren und Wissenshaftlern gefallen die nur den Job erledigen wollen, +und zwar mit Werkzeugen die sich ihrem Willen anpassen. Bei Tcl ist jegliche +funktionalität in Befehlen ausgeführt, selbst Dinge wie Schleifen und +Mathematische-Funktionen die bei anderen Sprachen normalerweise Teil der Syntax +sind. Das erlaubt Tcl in den Hintergrund von Domänen spezischen Sprachen zu +treten die das jeweilige Projekt gerade benötigt. Die Tcl-Syntax ist sehr +leichtgewichtig. Sie ist selbst leichtgewichtiger als die Syntax von Lisp. +Tcl steht dir einfach nicht im Weg. + + +```tcl +#! /bin/env tclsh + +################################################################################ +## 1. Richtlinien +################################################################################ + +# Tcl ist nicht Bash oder C! Das muss gesagt werden, denn standard Shell-Quoting +# funktioniert fast mit Tcl. Daher glauben viele sie können diese Syntax für +# Tcl übernehmen. Am Beginn funktioniert das meist, führt aber schnell zu +# Frustrationen wenn die Skripte komplexer werden. + +# Eckige-Klammern sind nur Quoting-Mechanismen, keine Code-Block-Konstruktoren +# und auch keine Listen-Konstruktoren. In Tcl gibt es diese beiden Dinge nicht. +# Eckige-Klammern werden verwendet um Spezial-Zeichen in Prozeduren zu escapen +# und in Zeichenketten die als Listen formattiert sind. + +################################################################################ +## 2. Syntax +################################################################################ + +# Jede Zeile ist ein Befehl. Das erste Wort ist der Name des Befehls, jedes +# weitere Wort ist ein Argument des Befehls. Wörter sind begrenzt durch +# Leerzeichen. Da jedes Wort auch ein String ist, sind keine speziellen +# auszeichnungen wie Anführungs-Zeichen, Klammern oder Backslashes nötig. +# Selbst wenn Anführungs-Zeichen verwendet werden, denn sie sind ja keine +# String-Konstruktoren, sondern nur Escape-Zeichen. + +set greeting1 Sal +set greeting2 ut +set greeting3 ations + + +# Strichpunkte begrenzen auch Befehle +set greeting1 Sal; set greeting2 ut; set greeting3 ations + + +# Das Dollar-Zeichen zeigt eine Variablen-Substitution an. +set greeting $greeting1$greeting2$greeting3 + + +# Eckige-Klammern zeigen Befehls-Substitionen an. Das Ergebnis des Befehls wird an +# Stelle des Klammern-Ausdrucks eingefügt. Wenn man dem "set" Befehl nur den +# Namen einer Variablen übergibt, gibt er den Wert der Variablen zurück. +set greeting $greeting1$greeting2[set greeting3] + + +# Befehls-Substitution sollte eigentlich Script-Substitution heißen, denn ein +# komplettes Script, und nicht nur ein Befehl, kann zwischen die Eckigen-Klammern +# geschrieben werden. Der "incr" Befehl erhöht den Wert einer Variable um 1 +# und gibt den neuen Wert der Variable zurück. +set greeting $greeting[ + incr i + incr i + incr i +] + + +# Der Backslash unterdrück die Bedeutung von Sonderzeichen +set amount \$16.42 + + +# Der Backslash macht bestimmte Zeichen zu Sonderzeichen +puts lots\nof\n\n\n\n\n\nnewlines + +# Ein Wort das in geschweiften Klammern eingeschlossen wurde ist von jeglichen +# speziellen Interpretationen ausgeschlossen. Eine Ausnahme bilden Backslashes +# vor geschweiften Klammern, hiermit wird die geschweifte Klammer von der Suche +# nach der schließenden geschweiften Klammer ausgeschlossen. +set somevar { + Das ist ein literales $ Zeichen, diese geschweifte Klammer \} wird nicht + als Ende interpretiert. +} + + +# Bei einem Wort das in doppelten Anführungszeichen steht verlieren Leerzeichen +# ihre spezielle Bedeutung. +set name Neo +set greeting "Hallo, $name" + + +#Variablen-Namen können irgend eine Zeichenkette sein. +set {first name} New + + +# Die Geschweifte-Klammern-Form der Variablen-Substitution kann sehr komplexe +# Variblen-Namen handhaben. +set greeting "Hello, ${first name}" + + +# Der "set" Befehl kann immer anstatt einer Variablen-Substition verwendet +# werden. +set greeting "Hello, [set {first name}]" + + +# Mit dem Expansions-Operator "{*}" werden Wörter innerhalb eines Wortes wieder +# individuell als Teile des aktuellen Befehls behandelt. +set {*}{name Neo} + +# Ist Äquivalent zu +set name Neo + + +# Ein Array ist eine spezielle Varible die also Kontainer für andere Variablen +# dient. +set person(name) Neo +set person(gender) male +set greeting "Hello, $person(name)" + + +# Ein Namensraum enthält Befehle und Variablen +namespace eval people { + namespace eval person1 { + variable name Neo + } +} + + +#Der volle Name einer Variablen beihaltet den/die umschließenden +# Namensraum/Namensräume begrenzt durch zwei Doppelpunkte. +set greeting "Hello $people::person1::name" +``` + +```tcl +################################################################################ +## 3. Einige Notizen +################################################################################ + +# Jede weitere Funktion ist über Befehle implementiert. Von nun an kommt keine +# neue Syntax hinzu. Alles weitere das es über Tcl zu lernen gibt ist das +# Verhalten individueller Befehle und die bedeutung ihrer Argumente. + + +# Um einen Interpreter zu bekommen mit dem man nichts mehr machen kann, lösche +# einfach den globalen Namensraum. Das ist nicht sehr sinnvoll, zeigt aber die +# Natur von Tcl. +namespace delete :: + + +# Wegen des Verhaltens der Namens-Auflösung ist es sicherer den "variable" +# Befehl zu verwenden um in einem Namensraum einen Wert zu deklarieren oder +# zuzuweisen. Wenn eine Variable mit dem namen "name" bereits im globalen +# Namensraum existiert, bewirkt der "set" Befehl das der globalen Variable ein +# Wert zugewiesen wird, anstatt eine Variable im lokalen Namensraum zu erzeugen +namespace eval people { + namespace eval person1 { + variable name Neo + } +} + + +# Es kann immer der vollständige Name einer Variable verwendet werden, falls +# gewünscht. +set people::person1::name Neo + + + +################################################################################ +## 4. Befehle +################################################################################ + +# Berechnungen werde mit dem "expr" Befehl durchgeführt. +set a 3 +set b 4 +set c [expr {$a + $b}] + +# Since "expr" performs variable substitution on its own, brace the expression +# to prevent Tcl from performing variable substitution first. See + +# Da der "expr" Befehl eigene Variablen-Substitutionen durchführt, setze den +# zu berechnenden Ausdruck in Eckige-Klammern. Das hindert Tcl daran Variablen- +# Substitutionen durchzuführen. Für Details siehe: +# "http://wiki.tcl.tk/Brace%20your%20#%20expr-essions" + + +# Der "expr" Befehl versteht Variablen- und Befehls-Substitutionen +set c [expr {$a + [set b]}] + + +# Der "expr" Befehl stellt Mathematische-Funktionen zur Verfügung. +set c [expr {pow($a,$b)}] + + +# Mathematische Operatoren sind als Befehle auch im Namensraum +# ::tcl::mathop verfügbar. +::tcl::mathop::+ 5 3 + +# Befehle können aus anderen Namensräumen importiert werden. +namespace import ::tcl::mathop::+ +set result [+ 5 3] + + +# Neu Befehle werden mit dem "proc" Befehl gebildet. +proc greet name { + return "Hello, $name!" +} + +#Es können mehrere Parameter spezifiziert werden. +proc greet {greeting name} { + return "$greeting, $name!" +} + + +# Wie bereits erwähnt, geschwungene Klammern erzeugen keinen Code-Block. +# Jeder Wert, sogar das dritte Argument für den "proc" Befehl ist eine +# Zeichenkette. Der vorherige Befehl kann daher auch ohne +# geschwungene Klammern geschrieben werden: +proc greet greeting\ name return\ \"Hello,\ \$name! + + + +# Wenn der letzte Parameter der literale Wert "args" ist, sammelt dieser Wert +# alle übrigen Argumente des Befehls ein wenn dieser aufgerufen wird. +proc fold {cmd args} { + set res 0 + foreach arg $args { + set res [$cmd $res $arg] + } +} +fold ::tcl::mathop::* 5 3 3 ;# -> 45 + + +# Bedingte Ausführung ist auch als Befehl implementiert +if {3 > 4} { + puts {This will never happen} +} elseif {4 > 4} { + puts {This will also never happen} +} else { + puts {This will always happen} +} + + +# Auch Schleifen sind Befehle. Das erste, zweite und dritte Argument des "for" +# Befehls wird als mathematischer Ausdruck behandelt. +for {set i 0} {$i < 10} {incr i} { + set res [expr {$res + $i}] +} + + +# Das erste Argument des "while" Befehls wird auch als mathematischer Ausdruck +# behandelt. +set i 0 +while {$i < 10} { + incr i 2 +} + + +# Eine Liste ist eine speziell formatierte Zeichenkette. Im einfachsten Fall +# genügen Leerzeichen als Trennzeichen zwischen den einzelnen Werten. +set amounts 10\ 33\ 18 +set amount [lindex $amounts 1] + + +# Geschwungene Klammern und Backslashes können verwendet werden um komplexe +# Werte in einer Liste zu formatieren. Eine Liste sieht aus wie ein Skript, +# allerdings verlieren verlieren Zeilenumbrüche und Doppelüunkte ihre +# besondere Bedeutung. Diese Funktionalität macht Tcl homoikonisch. Die +# folgende Liste enhtält drei Elemente. +set values { + + one\ two + + {three four} + + five\{six + +} + + +# Da Listen auch Zeichenketten sind, kann man Zeichenketten-Operationen auf +# ihnen anwenden. Allerdings mit dem Risiko die Formatierung der Liste zu +# beschädigen. +set values {one two three four} +set values [string map {two \{} $values] ;# $values is no-longer a \ + properly-formatted listwell-formed list + + +# Der sicherste Weg korrekt formatierte Liste zu erzeugen, ist den "list" +# Befehl zu verwenden. +set values [list one \{ three four] +lappend values { } ;# Ein Leerzeichen als Element der Liste hinzufügen + + +# Mit "eval" können Werte als Skripts evaluiert weden. +eval { + set name Neo + set greeting "Hello, $name" +} + + +# Eine Liste kann immer an "eval" übergeben werden, solange die Liste einen +# einzigen Befehl entält. +eval {set name Neo} +eval [list set greeting "Hello, $name"] + + +# Daher: Wenn "eval" verwendet wird, verwende [list] um den gewünschten Befehl +# aufzubauen. +set command {set name} +lappend command {Archibald Sorbisol} +eval $command + + +# Es ist ein häufiger Fehler die Listen funktionen beim Aufbauen von Listen +# nicht zu verwenden. +set command {set name} +append command { Archibald Sorbisol} +eval $command ;# Hier passiert eine Fehler, denn der "set" Befehl hat nun zu \ + viele Argumente {set name Archibald Sorbisol} + + +# Dieser Fehler kann auch leicht beim "subst" Befehl passieren. +set replacement {Archibald Sorbisol} +set command {set name $replacement} +set command [subst $command] +eval $command ;# The same error as before: too many arguments to "set" in \ + {set name Archibald Sorbisol} + + +# Die korrekte Vorgangsweise ist es den substituierten Wert mit dem "list" +# Befehl zu formatieren. +set replacement [list {Archibald Sorbisol}] +set command {set name $replacement} +set command [subst $command] +eval $command + + +# Der "list" Befehl wird sehr häufig verwendet um Werte zu formatieren die +# in Tcl Skript Vorlagen substituiert werden. Es gibt dazu viele Beispiele, +# siehe unterhalb. + + +# Der "apply" Befehl evaluiert eine Zeichenkette als Befehl. +set cmd {{greeting name} { + return "$greeting, $name!" +}} +apply $cmd Whaddup Neo + + +# Der "uplevel" Befehl evaluiert ein Skript in einem höher liegenden +Gültigkeitsbereich. +proc greet {} { + uplevel {puts "$greeting, $name"} +} + +proc set_double {varname value} { + if {[string is double $value]} { + uplevel [list variable $varname $value] + } else { + error [list {not a double} $value] + } +} + + +# Der "upvar" Befehl verknüpft eine Variable im aktuellen Gültigkeitsbereich +# mit einer Variable in einem höher liegenden Gültigkeitsbereich. +proc set_double {varname value} { + if {[string is double $value]} { + upvar 1 $varname var + set var $value + } else { + error [list {not a double} $value] + } +} + + +# Werde den eingebauten "while" Befehl los. +rename ::while {} + + +# Definieren einen neuen "while" Befehl mit hilfe des "proc" Befehls. +# Ausführlichere Fehler-Behandlung wird dem Leser als Übung überlassen. +proc while {condition script} { + if {[uplevel 1 [list expr $condition]]} { + uplevel 1 $script + tailcall [namespace which while] $condition $script + } +} + + +# Der "coroutine" Befehl erzeugt einen separaten Call-Stack, zusammen mit einem +# Befehl um diesem Call-Stack zu verwenden. Der "yield" Befehl unterbricht +# die Ausführung des aktuellen Call-Stacks. +proc countdown {} { + #send something back to the initial "coroutine" command + yield + + set count 3 + while {$count > 1} { + yield [incr count -1] + } + return 0 +} +coroutine countdown1 countdown +coroutine countdown2 countdown +puts [countdown 1] ;# -> 2 +puts [countdown 2] ;# -> 2 +puts [countdown 1] ;# -> 1 +puts [countdown 1] ;# -> 0 +puts [coundown 1] ;# -> invalid command name "countdown1" +puts [countdown 2] ;# -> 1 + + +``` + +## Referenzen + +[Official Tcl Documentation](http://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl/) + +[Tcl Wiki](http://wiki.tcl.tk) + +[Tcl Subreddit](http://www.reddit.com/r/Tcl) diff --git a/de-de/yaml-de.html.markdown b/de-de/yaml-de.html.markdown index 19ea9e87..a46c30f6 100644 --- a/de-de/yaml-de.html.markdown +++ b/de-de/yaml-de.html.markdown @@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ null_Wert: null Schlüssel mit Leerzeichen: value # Strings müssen nicht immer mit Anführungszeichen umgeben sein, können aber: jedoch: "Ein String in Anführungzeichen" -"Ein Schlüssel in Anführungszeichen": "Nützlich, wenn du einen Doppelpunkt im Schluessel haben willst." +"Ein Schlüssel in Anführungszeichen": "Nützlich, wenn du einen Doppelpunkt im Schlüssel haben willst." # Mehrzeilige Strings schreibst du am besten als 'literal block' (| gefolgt vom Text) # oder ein 'folded block' (> gefolgt vom text). @@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ eine_verschachtelte_map: hallo: hallo # Schlüssel müssen nicht immer String sein. -0.25: ein Float-Wert als Schluessel +0.25: ein Float-Wert als Schlüssel # Schlüssel können auch mehrzeilig sein, ? symbolisiert den Anfang des Schlüssels ? | diff --git a/edn.html.markdown b/edn.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ca04df89 --- /dev/null +++ b/edn.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,108 @@ +--- +language: edn +filename: learnedn.edn +contributors: + - ["Jason Yeo", "https://github.com/jsyeo"] +--- + +Extensible Data Notation (EDN) is a format for serializing data. + +The notation is used internally by Clojure to represent programs. It is also +used as a data transfer format like JSON. Though it is more commonly used in +Clojure, there are implementations of EDN for many other languages. + +The main benefit of EDN over JSON and YAML is that it is extensible. We +will see how it is extended later on. + +```clojure +; Comments start with a semicolon. +; Anything after the semicolon is ignored. + +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; +;;; Basic Types ;;; +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; + +nil ; also known in other languages as null + +; Booleans +true +false + +; Strings are enclosed in double quotes +"hungarian breakfast" +"farmer's cheesy omelette" + +; Characters are preceeded by backslashes +\g \r \a \c \e + +; Keywords start with a colon. They behave like enums. Kind of +; like symbols in Ruby. +:eggs +:cheese +:olives + +; Symbols are used to represent identifiers. They start with #. +; You can namespace symbols by using /. Whatever preceeds / is +; the namespace of the name. +#spoon +#kitchen/spoon ; not the same as #spoon +#kitchen/fork +#github/fork ; you can't eat with this + +; Integers and floats +42 +3.14159 + +; Lists are sequences of values +(:bun :beef-patty 9 "yum!") + +; Vectors allow random access +[:gelato 1 2 -2] + +; Maps are associative data structures that associate the key with its value +{:eggs 2 + :lemon-juice 3.5 + :butter 1} + +; You're not restricted to using keywords as keys +{[1 2 3 4] "tell the people what she wore", + [5 6 7 8] "the more you see the more you hate"} + +; You may use commas for readability. They are treated as whitespace. + +; Sets are collections that contain unique elements. +#{:a :b 88 "huat"} + +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; +;;; Tagged Elements ;;; +;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; + +; EDN can be extended by tagging elements with # symbols. + +#MyYelpClone/MenuItem {:name "eggs-benedict" :rating 10} + +; Let me explain this with a clojure example. Suppose I want to transform that +; piece of EDN into a MenuItem record. + +(defrecord MenuItem [name rating]) + +; To transform EDN to clojure values, I will need to use the built in EDN +; reader, edn/read-string + +(edn/read-string "{:eggs 2 :butter 1 :flour 5}") +; -> {:eggs 2 :butter 1 :flour 5} + +; To transform tagged elements, define the reader function and pass a map +; that maps tags to reader functions to edn/read-string like so + +(edn/read-string {:readers {'MyYelpClone/MenuItem map->menu-item}} + "#MyYelpClone/MenuItem {:name \"eggs-benedict\" :rating 10}") +; -> #user.MenuItem{:name "eggs-benedict", :rating 10} + +``` + +# References + +- [EDN spec](https://github.com/edn-format/edn) +- [Implementations](https://github.com/edn-format/edn/wiki/Implementations) +- [Tagged Elements](http://www.compoundtheory.com/clojure-edn-walkthrough/) diff --git a/elisp.html.markdown b/elisp.html.markdown index 3bed5d1c..da86cab3 100644 --- a/elisp.html.markdown +++ b/elisp.html.markdown @@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ language: elisp contributors: - ["Bastien Guerry", "http://bzg.fr"] + - ["Saurabh Sandav", "http://github.com/SaurabhSandav"] filename: learn-emacs-lisp.el --- @@ -26,7 +27,7 @@ filename: learn-emacs-lisp.el ;; ;; Going through this tutorial won't damage your computer unless ;; you get so angry that you throw it on the floor. In that case, -;; I hereby decline any responsability. Have fun! +;; I hereby decline any responsibility. Have fun! ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; ;; diff --git a/elixir.html.markdown b/elixir.html.markdown index eedeb227..eb708576 100644 --- a/elixir.html.markdown +++ b/elixir.html.markdown @@ -170,7 +170,7 @@ case {:one, :two} do {:four, :five} -> "This won't match" {:one, x} -> - "This will match and bind `x` to `:two`" + "This will match and bind `x` to `:two` in this clause" _ -> "This will match any value" end @@ -343,6 +343,7 @@ rescue RuntimeError -> "rescued a runtime error" _error -> "this will rescue any error" end +#=> "rescued a runtime error" # All exceptions have a message try do @@ -351,6 +352,7 @@ rescue x in [RuntimeError] -> x.message end +#=> "some error" ## --------------------------- ## -- Concurrency @@ -409,7 +411,7 @@ self() #=> #PID<0.27.0> ## References -* [Getting started guide](http://elixir-lang.org/getting_started/1.html) from [elixir webpage](http://elixir-lang.org) +* [Getting started guide](http://elixir-lang.org/getting-started/introduction.html) from the [Elixir website](http://elixir-lang.org) * [Elixir Documentation](http://elixir-lang.org/docs/master/) * ["Programming Elixir"](https://pragprog.com/book/elixir/programming-elixir) by Dave Thomas * [Elixir Cheat Sheet](http://media.pragprog.com/titles/elixir/ElixirCheat.pdf) diff --git a/elm.html.markdown b/elm.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..fa10671f --- /dev/null +++ b/elm.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,367 @@ +--- +language: Elm +contributors: + - ["Max Goldstein", "http://maxgoldste.in/"] +--- + +Elm is a functional reactive programming language that compiles to (client-side) +JavaScript. Elm is statically typed, meaning that the compiler catches most +errors immediately and provides a clear and understandable error message. Elm is +great for designing user interfaces and games for the web. + + +```haskell +-- Single line comments start with two dashes. +{- Multiline comments can be enclosed in a block like this. +{- They can be nested. -} +-} + +{-- The Basics --} + +-- Arithmetic +1 + 1 -- 2 +8 - 1 -- 7 +10 * 2 -- 20 + +-- Every number literal without a decimal point can be either an Int or a Float. +33 / 2 -- 16.5 with floating point division +33 // 2 -- 16 with integer division + +-- Exponents +5 ^ 2 -- 25 + +-- Booleans +not True -- False +not False -- True +1 == 1 -- True +1 /= 1 -- False +1 < 10 -- True + +-- Strings and characters +"This is a string because it uses double quotes." +'a' -- characters in single quotes + +-- Strings can be appended. +"Hello " ++ "world!" -- "Hello world!" + +{-- Lists, Tuples, and Records --} + +-- Every element in a list must have the same type. +["the", "quick", "brown", "fox"] +[1, 2, 3, 4, 5] +-- The second example can also be written with two dots. +[1..5] + +-- Append lists just like strings. +[1..5] ++ [6..10] == [1..10] -- True + +-- To add one item, use "cons". +0 :: [1..5] -- [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] + +-- The head and tail of a list are returned as a Maybe. Instead of checking +-- every value to see if it's null, you deal with missing values explicitly. +List.head [1..5] -- Just 1 +List.tail [1..5] -- Just [2, 3, 4, 5] +List.head [] -- Nothing +-- List.functionName means the function lives in the List module. + +-- Every element in a tuple can be a different type, but a tuple has a +-- fixed length. +("elm", 42) + +-- Access the elements of a pair with the first and second functions. +-- (This is a shortcut; we'll come to the "real way" in a bit.) +fst ("elm", 42) -- "elm" +snd ("elm", 42) -- 42 + +-- The empty tuple, or "unit", is sometimes used as a placeholder. +-- It is the only value of its type, also called "Unit". +() + +-- Records are like tuples but the fields have names. The order of fields +-- doesn't matter. Notice that record values use equals signs, not colons. +{ x = 3, y = 7 } + +-- Access a field with a dot and the field name. +{ x = 3, y = 7 }.x -- 3 + +-- Or with an accessor function, which is a dot and the field name on its own. +.y { x = 3, y = 7 } -- 7 + +-- Update the fields of a record. (It must have the fields already.) +{ person | + name = "George" } + +-- Update multiple fields at once, using the current values. +{ particle | + position = particle.position + particle.velocity, + velocity = particle.velocity + particle.acceleration } + +{-- Control Flow --} + +-- If statements always have an else, and the branches must be the same type. +if powerLevel > 9000 then + "WHOA!" +else + "meh" + +-- If statements can be chained. +if n < 0 then + "n is negative" +else if n > 0 then + "n is positive" +else + "n is zero" + +-- Use case statements to pattern match on different possibilities. +case aList of + [] -> "matches the empty list" + [x]-> "matches a list of exactly one item, " ++ toString x + x::xs -> "matches a list of at least one item whose head is " ++ toString x +-- Pattern matches go in order. If we put [x] last, it would never match because +-- x::xs also matches (xs would be the empty list). Matches do not "fall through". +-- The compiler will alert you to missing or extra cases. + +-- Pattern match on a Maybe. +case List.head aList of + Just x -> "The head is " ++ toString x + Nothing -> "The list was empty." + +{-- Functions --} + +-- Elm's syntax for functions is very minimal, relying mostly on whitespace +-- rather than parentheses and curly brackets. There is no "return" keyword. + +-- Define a function with its name, arguments, an equals sign, and the body. +multiply a b = + a * b + +-- Apply (call) a function by passing it arguments (no commas necessary). +multiply 7 6 -- 42 + +-- Partially apply a function by passing only some of its arguments. +-- Then give that function a new name. +double = + multiply 2 + +-- Constants are similar, except there are no arguments. +answer = + 42 + +-- Pass functions as arguments to other functions. +List.map double [1..4] -- [2, 4, 6, 8] + +-- Or write an anonymous function. +List.map (\a -> a * 2) [1..4] -- [2, 4, 6, 8] + +-- You can pattern match in function definitions when there's only one case. +-- This function takes one tuple rather than two arguments. +area (width, height) = + width * height + +area (6, 7) -- 42 + +-- Use curly brackets to pattern match record field names. +-- Use let to define intermediate values. +volume {width, height, depth} = + let + area = width * height + in + area * depth + +volume { width = 3, height = 2, depth = 7 } -- 42 + +-- Functions can be recursive. +fib n = + if n < 2 then + 1 + else + fib (n - 1) + fib (n - 2) + +List.map fib [0..8] -- [1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34] + +-- Another recursive function (use List.length in real code). +listLength aList = + case aList of + [] -> 0 + x::xs -> 1 + listLength xs + +-- Function calls happen before any infix operator. Parens indicate precedence. +cos (degrees 30) ^ 2 + sin (degrees 30) ^ 2 -- 1 +-- First degrees is applied to 30, then the result is passed to the trig +-- functions, which is then squared, and the addition happens last. + +{-- Types and Type Annotations --} + +-- The compiler will infer the type of every value in your program. +-- Types are always uppercase. Read x : T as "x has type T". +-- Some common types, which you might see in Elm's REPL. +5 : Int +6.7 : Float +"hello" : String +True : Bool + +-- Functions have types too. Read -> as "goes to". Think of the rightmost type +-- as the type of the return value, and the others as arguments. +not : Bool -> Bool +round : Float -> Int + +-- When you define a value, it's good practice to write its type above it. +-- The annotation is a form of documentation, which is verified by the compiler. +double : Int -> Int +double x = x * 2 + +-- Function arguments are passed in parentheses. +-- Lowercase types are type variables: they can be any type, as long as each +-- call is consistent. +List.map : (a -> b) -> List a -> List b +-- "List dot map has type a-goes-to-b, goes to list of a, goes to list of b." + +-- There are three special lowercase types: number, comparable, and appendable. +-- Numbers allow you to use arithmetic on Ints and Floats. +-- Comparable allows you to order numbers and strings, like a < b. +-- Appendable things can be combined with a ++ b. + +{-- Type Aliases and Union Types --} + +-- When you write a record or tuple, its type already exists. +-- (Notice that record types use colon and record values use equals.) +origin : { x : Float, y : Float, z : Float } +origin = + { x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 } + +-- You can give existing types a nice name with a type alias. +type alias Point3D = + { x : Float, y : Float, z : Float } + +-- If you alias a record, you can use the name as a constructor function. +otherOrigin : Point3D +otherOrigin = + Point3D 0 0 0 + +-- But it's still the same type, so you can equate them. +origin == otherOrigin -- True + +-- By contrast, defining a union type creates a type that didn't exist before. +-- A union type is so called because it can be one of many possibilities. +-- Each of the possibilities is represented as a "tag". +type Direction = + North | South | East | West + +-- Tags can carry other values of known type. This can work recursively. +type IntTree = + Leaf | Node Int IntTree IntTree +-- "Leaf" and "Node" are the tags. Everything following a tag is a type. + +-- Tags can be used as values or functions. +root : IntTree +root = + Node 7 Leaf Leaf + +-- Union types (and type aliases) can use type variables. +type Tree a = + Leaf | Node a (Tree a) (Tree a) +-- "The type tree-of-a is a leaf, or a node of a, tree-of-a, and tree-of-a." + +-- Pattern match union tags. The uppercase tags will be matched exactly. The +-- lowercase variables will match anything. Underscore also matches anything, +-- but signifies that you aren't using it. +leftmostElement : Tree a -> Maybe a +leftmostElement tree = + case tree of + Leaf -> Nothing + Node x Leaf _ -> Just x + Node _ subtree _ -> leftmostElement subtree + +-- That's pretty much it for the language itself. Now let's see how to organize +-- and run your code. + +{-- Modules and Imports --} + +-- The core libraries are organized into modules, as are any third-party +-- libraries you may use. For large projects, you can define your own modules. + +-- Put this at the top of the file. If omitted, you're in Main. +module Name where + +-- By default, everything is exported. You can specify exports explicity. +module Name (MyType, myValue) where + +-- One common pattern is to export a union type but not its tags. This is known +-- as an "opaque type", and is frequently used in libraries. + +-- Import code from other modules to use it in this one. +-- Places Dict in scope, so you can call Dict.insert. +import Dict + +-- Imports the Dict module and the Dict type, so your annotations don't have to +-- say Dict.Dict. You can still use Dict.insert. +import Dict exposing (Dict) + +-- Rename an import. +import Graphics.Collage as C + +{-- Ports --} + +-- A port indicates that you will be communicating with the outside world. +-- Ports are only allowed in the Main module. + +-- An incoming port is just a type signature. +port clientID : Int + +-- An outgoing port has a definition. +port clientOrders : List String +port clientOrders = ["Books", "Groceries", "Furniture"] + +-- We won't go into the details, but you set up callbacks in JavaScript to send +-- on incoming ports and receive on outgoing ports. + +{-- Command Line Tools --} + +-- Compile a file. +$ elm make MyFile.elm + +-- The first time you do this, Elm will install the core libraries and create +-- elm-package.json, where information about your project is kept. + +-- The reactor is a server that compiles and runs your files. +-- Click the wrench next to file names to enter the time-travelling debugger! +$ elm reactor + +-- Experiment with simple expressions in a Read-Eval-Print Loop. +$ elm repl + +-- Packages are identified by GitHub username and repo name. +-- Install a new package, and record it in elm-package.json. +$ elm package install evancz/elm-html + +-- See what changed between versions of a package. +$ elm package diff evancz/elm-html 3.0.0 4.0.2 +-- Elm's package manager enforces semantic versioning, so minor version bumps +-- will never break your build! +``` + +The Elm language is surprisingly small. You can now look through almost any Elm +source code and have a rough idea of what is going on. However, the possibilities +for error-resistant and easy-to-refactor code are endless! + +Here are some useful resources. + +* The [Elm website](http://elm-lang.org/). Includes: + * Links to the [installers](http://elm-lang.org/install) + * [Documentation guides](http://elm-lang.org/docs), including the [syntax reference](http://elm-lang.org/docs/syntax) + * Lots of helpful [examples](http://elm-lang.org/examples) + +* Documentation for [Elm's core libraries](http://package.elm-lang.org/packages/elm-lang/core/latest/). Take note of: + * [Basics](http://package.elm-lang.org/packages/elm-lang/core/latest/Basics), which is imported by default + * [Maybe](http://package.elm-lang.org/packages/elm-lang/core/latest/Maybe) and its cousin [Result](http://package.elm-lang.org/packages/elm-lang/core/latest/Result), commonly used for missing values or error handling + * Data structures like [List](http://package.elm-lang.org/packages/elm-lang/core/latest/List), [Array](http://package.elm-lang.org/packages/elm-lang/core/latest/Array), [Dict](http://package.elm-lang.org/packages/elm-lang/core/latest/Dict), and [Set](http://package.elm-lang.org/packages/elm-lang/core/latest/Set) + * JSON [encoding](http://package.elm-lang.org/packages/elm-lang/core/latest/Json-Encode) and [decoding](http://package.elm-lang.org/packages/elm-lang/core/latest/Json-Decode) + +* [The Elm Architecture](https://github.com/evancz/elm-architecture-tutorial#the-elm-architecture). An essay by Elm's creator with examples on how to organize code into components. + +* The [Elm mailing list](https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/elm-discuss). Everyone is friendly and helpful. + +* [Scope in Elm](https://github.com/elm-guides/elm-for-js/blob/master/Scope.md#scope-in-elm) and [How to Read a Type Annotation](https://github.com/elm-guides/elm-for-js/blob/master/How%20to%20Read%20a%20Type%20Annotation.md#how-to-read-a-type-annotation). More community guides on the basics of Elm, written for JavaScript developers. + +Go out and write some Elm! diff --git a/erlang.html.markdown b/erlang.html.markdown index d6ed7b86..a57f295f 100644 --- a/erlang.html.markdown +++ b/erlang.html.markdown @@ -177,7 +177,7 @@ is_dog(A) -> false. % A guard sequence is either a single guard or a series of guards, separated % by semicolons (`;`). The guard sequence `G1; G2; ...; Gn` is true if at % least one of the guards `G1`, `G2`, ..., `Gn` evaluates to `true`. -is_pet(A) when is_atom(A), (A =:= dog) or (A =:= cat) -> true; +is_pet(A) when is_atom(A), (A =:= dog);(A =:= cat) -> true; is_pet(A) -> false. % Warning: not all valid Erlang expressions can be used as guard expressions; diff --git a/es-es/brainfuck-es.html.markdown b/es-es/bf-es.html.markdown index e33d672d..c93b8c3a 100644 --- a/es-es/brainfuck-es.html.markdown +++ b/es-es/bf-es.html.markdown @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ --- -language: brainfuck +language: bf contributors: - ["Prajit Ramachandran", "http://prajitr.github.io/"] - ["Mathias Bynens", "http://mathiasbynens.be/"] @@ -9,8 +9,10 @@ lang: es-es --- Brainfuck (con mayúscula sólo al inicio de una oración) es un -lenguaje de programación mínimo, computacionalmente universal -en tamaño con sólo 8 comandos. +lenguaje de programación extremadamente pequeño, Turing completo con sólo 8 comandos. + +Puedes probar brainfuck en tu navegador con [brainfuck-visualizer](http://fatiherikli.github.io/brainfuck-visualizer/). + ``` @@ -18,7 +20,7 @@ Cualquier caracter que no sea "><+-.,[]" (sin incluir las comillas) será ignorado. Brainfuck es representado por un arreglo de 30,000 celdas inicializadas -en cero y un apuntador en la celda actual. +en cero y un puntero apuntando la celda actual. Existen ocho comandos: @@ -26,7 +28,7 @@ Existen ocho comandos: - : Decrementa 1 al valor de la celda actual. > : Mueve el apuntador a la siguiente celda. (a la derecha) < : Mueve el apuntador a la celda anterior. (a la izquierda) -. : Imprime el valor en ASCII de la celda actual (i.e. 65 = 'A') +. : Imprime el valor en ASCII de la celda actual (p.e. 65 = 'A') , : Lee un caracter como input y lo escribe en la celda actual. [ : Si el valor en la celda actual es cero mueve el apuntador hasta el primer ']' que encuentre. Si no es cero sigue a la @@ -37,7 +39,7 @@ Existen ocho comandos: [ y ] forman un while. Obviamente, deben estar balanceados. -Ahora unos ejemplos de programas escritos con brainfuck. +Estos son algunos ejemplos de programas escritos con brainfuck. ++++++ [ > ++++++++++ < - ] > +++++ . @@ -63,7 +65,7 @@ Esto continúa hasta que la celda #1 contenga un cero. Cuando #1 contenga un cero la celda #2 tendrá el valor inicial de #1. Como este ciclo siempre terminara en la celda #1 nos movemos a la celda #2 e imprimimos (.). -Ten en mente que los espacios son sólo para fines de legibilidad. +Ten en cuenta que los espacios son sólo para fines de legibilidad. Es lo mismo escribir el ejemplo de arriba que esto: ,[>+<-]>. @@ -81,7 +83,7 @@ hasta la próxima vez. Para resolver este problema también incrementamos la celda #4 y luego copiamos la celda #4 a la celda #2. La celda #3 contiene el resultado. ``` -Y eso es brainfuck. ¿No tan difícil o sí? Como diversión, puedes escribir +Y eso es brainfuck. No es tan difícil, ¿verdad? Como diversión, puedes escribir tu propio intérprete de brainfuck o tu propio programa en brainfuck. El intérprete es relativamente sencillo de hacer, pero si eres masoquista, -intenta construir tu proprio intérprete de brainfuck... en brainfuck. +puedes intentar construir tu propio intérprete de brainfuck... en brainfuck. diff --git a/es-es/forth-es.html.markdown b/es-es/forth-es.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..05dc0cc5 --- /dev/null +++ b/es-es/forth-es.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,226 @@ +--- +language: forth +contributors: + - ["Horse M.D.", "http://github.com/HorseMD/"] +translators: + - ["Zach Larsen", "http://zachariahlarsen.com/"] +lang: es-es +filename: learnforth-es.fs +--- + +Forth fue criado por Charles H. Moore en los 70s. Forth es un lenguaje imperativo, basado en pila y entorno de programación, siendo usado en proyectos como Open Firmware. También esta usado por NASA. + +Nota: Este articulo enfoca predominantemente en la Gforth implementación de Forth, pero casi todo +de lo que esta escrito aquí debe funcionar en otro sitio. + +``` +\ Este es un comentario +( Este es un comentario también pero solo esta usado cuando definiendo palabras. ) + +\ --------------------------------- Precursor ---------------------------------- + +\ Todo programación en Forth se hace manipulando el parámetro pila (mas +\ común se refiere como "el pila"). +5 2 3 56 76 23 65 \ ok + +\ estos números se añadieron al pila desde izquierda a derecho. +.s \ <7> 5 2 3 56 76 23 65 ok + +\ En Forth, todo es o una palabra o un numero. + +\ ------------------------------ Básico Aritmética ------------------------------ + +\ Aritmética (de hecho casi todas palabras que requieren datos) funciona manipulando datos +\ en el pila. +5 4 + \ ok + +\ `.` saca lo alto resulto desde el pila: +. \ 9 ok + +\ Mas ejemplos de aritmética: +6 7 * . \ 42 ok +1360 23 - . \ 1337 ok +12 12 / . \ 1 ok +13 2 mod . \ 1 ok + +99 negate . \ -99 ok +-99 abs . \ 99 ok +52 23 max . \ 52 ok +52 23 min . \ 23 ok + +\ ----------------------------- Pila Manipulación ----------------------------- + +\ Naturalmente, cuando trabajaremos con el pila, querremos algunos metidos útiles: + +3 dup - \ duplicar el primero articulo (1ra ahora igual a 2da): 3 - 3 +2 5 swap / \ intercambiar la primera con la segunda elemento: 5 / 2 +6 4 5 rot .s \ rotar los tres primero elementos: 4 5 6 +4 0 drop 2 / \ sacar el primero articulo (no imprima a la pantalla): 4 / 2 +1 2 3 nip .s \ sacar el segundo articulo (similar a drop): 1 3 + +\ ---------------------- Mas Avanzado Pila Manipulación ---------------------- + +1 2 3 4 tuck \ duplicar el primero articulo en el segundo hueco: 1 2 4 3 4 ok +1 2 3 4 over \ duplicar el segundo articulo a la primera del pila: 1 2 3 4 3 ok +1 2 3 4 2 roll \ *mover* el articulo en este posición a la primera del pila: 1 3 4 2 ok +1 2 3 4 2 pick \ *duplicar* el articulo en este posición a la primera del pila: 1 2 3 4 2 ok + +\ Cuando refiere a pila indices, ellos son basado en cero. + +\ ------------------------------ Creando Palabras -------------------------------- + +\ La `:` palabra hace que Forth entra modo de compilar hasta que se ve la `;` palabra. +: cuadrado ( n -- n ) dup * ; \ ok +5 cuadrado . \ 25 ok + +\ Podemos ver lo que hace una palabra también.: +see cuadrado \ : cuadrado dup * ; ok + +\ -------------------------------- Condicionales -------------------------------- + +\ -1 == cierto, 0 == falso. No obstante, valores que no son cero es usualmente tratado como +\ siendo cierto: +42 42 = \ -1 ok +12 53 = \ 0 ok + +\ `if` es una palabra que solamente compila. `if` <cosas para hacer> `then` <los de mas del programa>. +: ?>64 ( n -- n ) dup 64 > if ." Mas que 64!" then ; \ ok +100 ?>64 \ Mas que 64! ok + +\ Else: +: ?>64 ( n -- n ) dup 64 > if ." Mas que 64!" else ." Menos que 64!" then ; +100 ?>64 \ Mas que 64! ok +20 ?>64 \ Menos que 64! ok + +\ ------------------------------------ Loops ----------------------------------- + +\ `do` también es una palabra que solamente compila. +: miloop ( -- ) 5 0 do cr ." Hola!" loop ; \ ok +miloop +\ Hola! +\ Hola! +\ Hola! +\ Hola! +\ Hola! ok + +\ `do` espera dos números en el pila: el último numero y el primero numero. + +\ Podemos recibir el valor del indice mientras damos vuelta con `i`: +: uno-a-12 ( -- ) 12 0 do i . loop ; \ ok +uno-a-12 \ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ok + +\ `?do` funciona similarmente, pero salta el loop si el último y primero +\ números son iguales. +: cuadrados ( n -- ) 0 ?do i cuadrado . loop ; \ ok +10 cuadrado \ 0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 ok + +\ cambiar el "paso" con `+loop`: +: treces ( n n -- ) ?do i . 3 +loop ; \ ok +15 0 treces \ 0 3 6 9 12 ok + +\ Indefinido loops empiezan `begin` <cosas para hacer> <bandera> `until`: +: death ( -- ) begin ." Ya hemos llegado?" 0 until ; \ ok + +\ ---------------------------- Variables y Memoria ---------------------------- + +\ Use `variable` declarar `edad` ser un variable. +variable edad \ ok + +\ Ahora escribimos 21 a edad con la palabra `!`. +21 edad ! \ ok + +\ Por fin podemos imprimir nuestro variable usando la "leer" palabra `@`, que agregue el +\ valor a la pila, or usa `?` que lee y imprime todo juntos. +edad @ . \ 21 ok +edad ? \ 21 ok + +\ Constantes son muy similar, pero no nos importa los direcciones de memoria: +100 constant PUNTA-QUE-AQUA-HIERVA \ ok +PUNTA-QUE-AQUA-HIERVA . \ 100 ok + +\ ----------------------------------- Arrays ----------------------------------- + +\ Creando arrays es similar a variables, pero necesitamos alocar mas +\ memoria a ellos. + +\ Puede usar `2 cells allot` para crear un array que es sea 3 cédulas de tamaño: +variable minumeros 2 cells allot \ ok + +\ Inicializar todos los valores a 0 +minumeros 3 cells erase \ ok + +\ Alternativamente podemos usar `fill`: +minumeros 3 cells 0 fill + +\ o podemos saltar todo arriba y inicializar con valores específicos: +create minumeros 64 , 9001 , 1337 , \ ok (el último `,` es importante!) + +\ ...que es equivalente a: + +\ Manualmente escribiendo valores a cada indice: +64 minumeros 0 cells + ! \ ok +9001 minumeros 1 cells + ! \ ok +1337 minumeros 2 cells + ! \ ok + +\ Leyendo valores en particular array indices: +0 cells minumeros + ? \ 64 ok +1 cells minumeros + ? \ 9001 ok + +\ Podemos simplificar un poco cuando hacemos una palabra que ayuda cuando manipulando arrays: +: de-arr ( n n -- n ) cells + ; \ ok +minumeros 2 de-arr ? \ 1337 ok + +\ Que podemos usar cuando escribimos también: +20 minumeros 1 de-arr ! \ ok +minumeros 1 de-arr ? \ 20 ok + +\ ------------------------------ El Pila de Regreso ------------------------------ + +\ El pila de regreso se usa para retener punteros a cosas cuando palabras están +\ ejecutando otras palabras como loops. + +\ Ya hemos visto un uso de esto: `i`, que duplica el primero del pila +\ de regreso. `i` es equivalente a `r@`. +: miloop ( -- ) 5 0 do r@ . loop ; \ ok + +\ También como leyendo, podemos agregar al pila de regreso y sacarlo: +5 6 4 >r swap r> .s \ 6 5 4 ok + +\ NOTA: Porque Forth usa el pila de regreso por punteros de palabras, `>r` debe +\ siempre ser seguido por un `r>`. + +\ ------------------------- Flotante Punto Operaciones -------------------------- + +\ La mayoría Forths evitan el uso de flotante punto operaciones. +8.3e 0.8e f+ f. \ 9.1 ok + +\ Usualmente agregamos al frente palabras con 'f' cuando usando flotantes: +variable miflotantevar \ ok +4.4e miflotantevar f! \ ok +miflotantevar f@ f. \ 4.4 ok + +\ --------------------------------- Notas al Final -------------------------------- + +\ Usando una palabra que no existe vaciara el pila. No obstante, también hay una palabra +\ específicamente por esto: +clearstack + +\ vaciar la pantalla: +page + +\ Cargando Forth archivos: +\ s" archivodeforth.fs" included + +\ Puede listar cada palabra en el diccionario de Forth (pero es una lista gigante!): +\ words + +\ Terminando Gforth: +\ bye + +``` + +##Listo Para Mas? + +* [Starting Forth](http://www.forth.com/starting-forth/) +* [Simple Forth](http://www.murphywong.net/hello/simple.htm) +* [Thinking Forth](http://thinking-forth.sourceforge.net/) diff --git a/es-es/git-es.html.markdown b/es-es/git-es.html.markdown index 18b544b4..4e1e68ba 100644 --- a/es-es/git-es.html.markdown +++ b/es-es/git-es.html.markdown @@ -18,11 +18,11 @@ versionar y administrar nuestro código fuente. ## Versionamiento, conceptos. -### Qué es el control de versiones? +### ¿Qué es el control de versiones? El control de versiones es un sistema que guarda todos los cambios realizados en uno o varios archivos, a lo largo del tiempo. -### Versionamiento centralizado vs Versionamiento Distribuido. +### Versionamiento centralizado vs versionamiento distribuido. + El versionamiento centralizado se enfoca en sincronizar, rastrear, y respaldar archivos. @@ -33,9 +33,9 @@ uno o varios archivos, a lo largo del tiempo. [Información adicional](http://git-scm.com/book/es/Empezando-Acerca-del-control-de-versiones) -### Por qué usar Git? +### ¿Por qué usar Git? -* Se puede trabajar sin conexion. +* Se puede trabajar sin conexión. * ¡Colaborar con otros es sencillo!. * Derivar, crear ramas del proyecto (aka: Branching) es fácil. * Combinar (aka: Merging) @@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ uno o varios archivos, a lo largo del tiempo. ### Repositorio Un repositorio es un conjunto de archivos, directorios, registros, cambios (aka: -comits), y encabezados (aka: heads). Imagina que un repositorio es una clase, +commits), y encabezados (aka: heads). Imagina que un repositorio es una clase, y que sus atributos otorgan acceso al historial del elemento, además de otras cosas. @@ -62,12 +62,12 @@ y mas. ### Directorio de trabajo (componentes del repositorio) -Es basicamente los directorios y archivos dentro del repositorio. La mayoría de +Es básicamente los directorios y archivos dentro del repositorio. La mayoría de las veces se le llama "directorio de trabajo". ### Índice (componentes del directorio .git) -El índice es el área de inicio en git. Es basicamente la capa que separa el +El índice es el área de inicio en git. Es básicamente la capa que separa el directorio de trabajo del repositorio en git. Esto otorga a los desarrolladores más poder sobre lo que se envía y se recibe del repositorio. diff --git a/es-es/hack-es.html.markdown b/es-es/hack-es.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..1059117a --- /dev/null +++ b/es-es/hack-es.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,307 @@ +--- +language: Hack +contributors: + - ["Stephen Holdaway", "https://github.com/stecman"] + - ["David Lima", "https://github.com/davelima"] +translators: + - ["César Suárez", "https://github.com/csuarez"] +lang: es-es +filename: learnhack-es.hh +--- + +Hack es un superconjunto de PHP que se ejecuta en una máquina virtual llamada HHVM. Hack es casi totalmente compatible con código PHP ya existente y añade varias características típicas de los lenguajes de programación estáticamente tipados. + +En este artículo sólo se cubren las características específicas de Hack. Los detalles sobre la sintaxis de PHP están en el [artículo sobre PHP](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/php/) de esta misma web. + +```php +<?hh + +// La sintaxis de Hack sólo se habilita para los ficheros que comienzan con +// un marcador <?hh. Estos marcadores no pueden intercalarse con código HTML, +// tal como se puede hacer con <?php. Al usar el marcador "<?hh //strict" el +// comprobador de tipado en modo estricto se pone en modo estricto. + +// Indicando el tipo de parámetros escalares +function repeat(string $word, int $count) +{ + $word = trim($word); + return str_repeat($word . ' ', $count); +} + +// Indicando el tipo que devuelve una función +function add(...$numbers) : int +{ + return array_sum($numbers); +} + +// Las funciones que no devuelven nada usan el tipo "void" +function truncate(resource $handle) : void +{ + // ... +} + +// Al determinar un tipo, hay que indicar explícitamente si permite el valor +// NULL +function identity(?string $stringOrNull) : ?string +{ + return $stringOrNull; +} + +// Se puede especificar el tipo de las propiedades de una clase +class TypeHintedProperties +{ + public ?string $name; + + protected int $id; + + private float $score = 100.0; + + // El comprobador de tipos de Hack fuerza que las propiedades tipadas + // tengan un valor por defecto o que estén asignadas en el constructor + public function __construct(int $id) + { + $this->id = $id; + } +} + + +// Funciones anónimas concisas (lambdas) +$multiplier = 5; +array_map($y ==> $y * $multiplier, [1, 2, 3]); + + +// Genéricos +class Box<T> +{ + protected T $data; + + public function __construct(T $data) { + $this->data = $data; + } + + public function getData(): T { + return $this->data; + } +} + +function openBox(Box<int> $box) : int +{ + return $box->getData(); +} + + +// Shapes +// +// Hack añade el concepto de shape para definir estructuras similares a +// vectores, pero con un conjunto de claves garantizado y tipado +type Point2D = shape('x' => int, 'y' => int); + +function distance(Point2D $a, Point2D $b) : float +{ + return sqrt(pow($b['x'] - $a['x'], 2) + pow($b['y'] - $a['y'], 2)); +} + +distance( + shape('x' => -1, 'y' => 5), + shape('x' => 2, 'y' => 50) +); + + +// Alias de tipos +// +// Hack permite crear alias para hacer que los tipos complejos sean más legibles +newtype VectorArray = array<int, Vector<int>>; + +// Una tupla que contiene dos enteros +newtype Point = (int, int); + +function addPoints(Point $p1, Point $p2) : Point +{ + return tuple($p1[0] + $p2[0], $p1[1] + $p2[1]); +} + +addPoints( + tuple(1, 2), + tuple(5, 6) +); + + +// Enumerados de primera clase +enum RoadType : int +{ + Road = 0; + Street = 1; + Avenue = 2; + Boulevard = 3; +} + +function getRoadType() : RoadType +{ + return RoadType::Avenue; +} + + +// Promoción de argumentos en constructores +// +// Para evitar repetir una y otra vez la definición de constructores que +// sólo asignan propiedades, Hack añade una sintaxis concisa para definir +// propiedades junto al constructor. +class ArgumentPromotion +{ + public function __construct(public string $name, + protected int $age, + private bool $isAwesome) {} +} + +class WithoutArgumentPromotion +{ + public string $name; + + protected int $age; + + private bool $isAwesome; + + public function __construct(string $name, int $age, bool $isAwesome) + { + $this->name = $name; + $this->age = $age; + $this->isAwesome = $isAwesome; + } +} + + +// Multitarea cooperativa +// +// "async" y "await" son dos palabras claves nuevas para realizar multi-tarea. +// Esto no implica que se usen hilos, sólo permiten transferir el control de la +// ejecución. +{ + for ($i = $start; $i <= $end; $i++) { + echo "$i "; + + // Da a otras tareas la oportunidad de hacer algo + await RescheduleWaitHandle::create(RescheduleWaitHandle::QUEUE_DEFAULT, 0); + } +} + +// Esto imprime "1 4 7 2 5 8 3 6 9" +AwaitAllWaitHandle::fromArray([ + cooperativePrint(1, 3), + cooperativePrint(4, 6), + cooperativePrint(7, 9) +])->getWaitHandle()->join(); + + +// Atributos +// +// Los atributos son una especie de metadatos para funciones. Hack implementa +// algunos atributos especiales para introducir esta característica. + +// El atributo especial __Memoize hace que el resultado de la función se cacheé. +<<__Memoize>> +function doExpensiveTask() : ?string +{ + return file_get_contents('http://example.com'); +} + +// Esta función se va a ejecutar sólo una vez: +doExpensiveTask(); +doExpensiveTask(); + + +// El atributo __ConsistentConstruct indica al comprobador de tipos de Hack que +// asegure que la signatura de __construct sea la misma para todas las +// subclases. +<<__ConsistentConstruct>> +class ConsistentFoo +{ + public function __construct(int $x, float $y) + { + // ... + } + + public function someMethod() + { + // ... + } +} + +class ConsistentBar extends ConsistentFoo +{ + public function __construct(int $x, float $y) + { + // El comprobador de tipos de Hack fuerza que los constructores de + // los padres sean llamados. + parent::__construct($x, $y); + + // ... + } + + // La anotación __Override es un atributo opcional para que el comprobador + // de tipos fuerce que ese método esté sobrecargando un método de un padre + // o de un trait. Sino, fallará. + <<__Override>> + public function someMethod() + { + // ... + } +} + +class InvalidFooSubclass extends ConsistentFoo +{ + // Este constructor no coincide con el padre y causará el siguiente error: + // + // "This object is of type ConsistentBaz. It is incompatible with this + // object of type ConsistentFoo because some of their methods are + // incompatible" + public function __construct(float $x) + { + // ... + } + + // Usando la anotación __Override en un método que no sobrecarga nada se + // producirá el siguiente error: + // + // "InvalidFooSubclass::otherMethod() is marked as override; no non-private + // parent definition found or overridden parent is defined in non-<?hh + // code" + <<__Override>> + public function otherMethod() + { + // ... + } +} + + +// Los traits pueden implementar interfaces (PHP no soporta esto). +interface KittenInterface +{ + public function play() : void; +} + +trait CatTrait implements KittenInterface +{ + public function play() : void + { + // ... + } +} + +class Samuel +{ + use CatTrait; +} + + +$cat = new Samuel(); +$cat instanceof KittenInterface === true; // True + +``` + +## Más información + +Para obtener una explicación más detallada de las características que añade Hack a PHP visita la página de [referencia de Hack](http://docs.hhvm.com/manual/en/hacklangref.php) o la [página oficial de Hack](http://hacklang.org/) para información de caracter más general. + +Visita la [página oficial de HHVM](http://hhvm.com/) para ver las instrucciones de su instalación. + +También puedes visitar la [sección de características de PHP no soportadas por Hack](http://docs.hhvm.com/manual/en/hack.unsupported.php) para más detalles sobre la retrocompatibilidad entre Hack y PHP. diff --git a/es-es/javascript-es.html.markdown b/es-es/javascript-es.html.markdown index d475cf42..9ef0c63e 100644 --- a/es-es/javascript-es.html.markdown +++ b/es-es/javascript-es.html.markdown @@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ Aunque JavaScript no sólo se limita a los navegadores web: Node.js, Un proyecto // Cada sentencia puede ser terminada con punto y coma ; hazAlgo(); -// ... aunque no es necesario, ya que el punto y coma se agrega automaticamente +// ... aunque no es necesario, ya que el punto y coma se agrega automáticamente // cada que se detecta una nueva línea, a excepción de algunos casos. hazAlgo() @@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ null == undefined; // = true null === undefined; // false // Los Strings funcionan como arreglos de caracteres -// Puedes accesar a cada caracter con la función charAt() +// Puedes acceder a cada caracter con la función charAt() "Este es un String".charAt(0); // = 'E' // ...o puedes usar la función substring() para acceder a pedazos más grandes @@ -186,7 +186,7 @@ miObjeto.miLlave; // = "miValor" // agregar nuevas llaves. miObjeto.miTerceraLlave = true; -// Si intentas accesar con una llave que aún no está asignada tendrás undefined. +// Si intentas acceder con una llave que aún no está asignada tendrás undefined. miObjeto.miCuartaLlave; // = undefined /////////////////////////////////// @@ -301,7 +301,7 @@ i; // = 5 - en un lenguaje que da ámbitos por bloque esto sería undefined, per //inmediatamente", que preveé variables temporales de fugarse al ámbito global (function(){ var temporal = 5; - // Podemos accesar al ámbito global asignando al 'objeto global', el cual + // Podemos acceder al ámbito global asignando al 'objeto global', el cual // en un navegador siempre es 'window'. El objeto global puede tener // un nombre diferente en ambientes distintos, por ejemplo Node.js . window.permanente = 10; @@ -321,7 +321,7 @@ function decirHolaCadaCincoSegundos(nombre){ alert(texto); } setTimeout(interna, 5000); - // setTimeout es asíncrono, así que la funcion decirHolaCadaCincoSegundos + // setTimeout es asíncrono, así que la función decirHolaCadaCincoSegundos // terminará inmediatamente, y setTimeout llamará a interna() a los cinco segundos // Como interna está "cerrada dentro de" decirHolaCadaCindoSegundos, interna todavía tiene // acceso a la variable 'texto' cuando es llamada. @@ -339,7 +339,7 @@ var miObjeto = { }; miObjeto.miFuncion(); // = "¡Hola Mundo!" -// Cuando las funciones de un objeto son llamadas, pueden accesar a las variables +// Cuando las funciones de un objeto son llamadas, pueden acceder a las variables // del objeto con la palabra clave 'this'. miObjeto = { miString: "¡Hola Mundo!", @@ -401,11 +401,11 @@ var MiConstructor = function(){ miNuevoObjeto = new MiConstructor(); // = {miNumero: 5} miNuevoObjeto.miNumero; // = 5 -// Todos los objetos JavaScript tienen un 'prototipo'. Cuando vas a accesar a una +// Todos los objetos JavaScript tienen un 'prototipo'. Cuando vas a acceder a una // propiedad en un objeto que no existe en el objeto el intérprete buscará en // el prototipo. -// Algunas implementaciones de JavaScript te permiten accesar al prototipo de +// Algunas implementaciones de JavaScript te permiten acceder al prototipo de // un objeto con la propiedad __proto__. Mientras que esto es útil para explicar // prototipos, no es parte del estándar; veremos formas estándar de usar prototipos // más adelante. @@ -440,7 +440,7 @@ miPrototipo.sentidoDeLaVida = 43; miObjeto.sentidoDeLaVida; // = 43 // Mencionabamos anteriormente que __proto__ no está estandarizado, y que no -// existe una forma estándar de accesar al prototipo de un objeto. De todas formas. +// existe una forma estándar de acceder al prototipo de un objeto. De todas formas. // hay dos formas de crear un nuevo objeto con un prototipo dado. // El primer método es Object.create, el cual es una adición reciente a JavaScript, @@ -476,7 +476,7 @@ typeof miNumero; // = 'number' typeof miNumeroObjeto; // = 'object' miNumero === miNumeroObjeyo; // = false if (0){ - // Este código no se ejecutara porque 0 es false. + // Este código no se ejecutará porque 0 es false. } // Aún así, los objetos que envuelven y los prototipos por defecto comparten diff --git a/es-es/json-es.html.markdown b/es-es/json-es.html.markdown index fff678eb..c98049f9 100644 --- a/es-es/json-es.html.markdown +++ b/es-es/json-es.html.markdown @@ -21,22 +21,22 @@ JSON en su forma más pura no tiene comentarios, pero la mayoría de los parsead "llaves": "siempre debe estar entre comillas (ya sean dobles o simples)", "numeros": 0, "strings": "Høla, múndo. Todo el unicode está permitido, así como \"escapar\".", - "soporta booleanos?": true, - "vacios": null, + "¿soporta booleanos?": true, + "vacíos": null, "numero grande": 1.2e+100, "objetos": { - "comentario": "La mayoria de tu estructura vendra de objetos.", + "comentario": "La mayoría de tu estructura vendrá de objetos.", "arreglo": [0, 1, 2, 3, "Los arreglos pueden contener cualquier cosa.", 5], "otro objeto": { - "comentario": "Estas cosas pueden estar anidadas, muy util." + "comentario": "Estas cosas pueden estar anidadas, muy útil." } }, - "tonteria": [ + "tontería": [ { "fuentes de potasio": ["bananas"] }, @@ -50,10 +50,10 @@ JSON en su forma más pura no tiene comentarios, pero la mayoría de los parsead "estilo alternativo": { "comentario": "Mira esto!" - , "posicion de la coma": "no importa - mientras este antes del valor, entonces sera valido" - , "otro comentario": "que lindo" + , "posición de la coma": "no importa - mientras este antes del valor, entonces sera válido" + , "otro comentario": "qué lindo" }, - "eso fue rapido": "Y, estas listo. Ahora sabes todo lo que JSON tiene para ofrecer." + "eso fue rapido": "Y, estás listo. Ahora sabes todo lo que JSON tiene para ofrecer." } ``` diff --git a/es-es/latex-es.html.markdown b/es-es/latex-es.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..aff3c603 --- /dev/null +++ b/es-es/latex-es.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,213 @@ +--- +language: latex +lang: es-es +contributors: + - ["Chaitanya Krishna Ande", "http://icymist.github.io"] + - ["Colton Kohnke", "http://github.com/voltnor"] + - ["Sricharan Chiruvolu", "http://sricharan.xyz"] +translators: + - ["Mario Pérez", "https://github.com/MarioPerezEsteso"] +filename: learn-latex-es.tex +--- + +```tex +% Todas las líneas comentadas comienzan con % +% No existen los comentarios multilínea + +% LaTeX NO es un software de procesamiento de texto que cumple con +% "Lo que ves es lo que tienes" como MS Word u OpenOffice + +% Todos los comandos de LaTeX comienzan con una contrabarra (\) + +% Los documentos LaTeX comienzan definiendo el tipo de documento que se va a +% compilar. Algunos tipos de documentos son libros, informes, presentaciones, +% etc. Las opciones para el documento comienzan en los corchetes []. En este +% caso, se especifica que queremos utilizar una fuente de tamaño 12pt. +\documentclass[12pt]{article} + +% A continuación, definimos los paquetes que utilizará el documento. +% Si quieres incluir gráficos, texto coloreado o código fuente de otro lenguaje, +% debes extender las funciones de LaTeX. Esto se consigue añadiendo paquetes. +% A continuación se incluirán los paquetes float y caption para figuras. +\usepackage{caption} +\usepackage{float} + +% También podemos definir otras propiedades en el documento +\author{Chaitanya Krishna Ande, Colton Kohnke \& Sricharan Chiruvolu} +\date{\today} +\title{Learn LaTeX in Y Minutes!} + +% Ahora estamos preparados para comenzar el documento +% Todo lo que se encuentre antes de esta línea se llama "El Preámbulo" +\begin{document} +% Si especificamos el autor, fecha y título, LaTeX creará una página como título +% por nosotros +\maketitle + +% La mayoría de los artículos de investigación tienen un abstract. Es posible +% utilizar comandos predefinidos para ello. +% Esto debería aparecer en su orden lógico. Tras el título pero antes de las +% secciones principales del cuerpo. +% Este comando está disponible en los tipos de documentos article y report. +\begin{abstract} + Documentación de LaTex escrita en LaTex. +\end{abstract} + +% Los comandos de sección son intuitivos. +% Todos los títulos de secciones son añadidos automáticamente a la tabla de contenidos. +\section{Introducción} +Hola, mi nombre es Mario Pérez y estoy traduciendo este documento para aprender LaTex. + +\section{Otra sección} +Este es el texto de otra sección. Creo que necesitará una subsección. + +\subsection{Esto es una subsección} % Las subsecciones también son fáciles. +Creo que necesitamos otra más. + +\subsubsection{Pitágoras} +Mejor ahora. +\label{subsec:pitagoras} + +% Utilizando el asterisco podemos decirle a LaTeX que no ponga los números de secciones y subsecciones. +% Esto también funciona con otros comandos de LaTeX. +\section*{Esto es una sección no numerada} +¡No todas las secciones tienen que estar numeradas! + +\section{Algunas notas} +LaTeX es generalmente bastante bueno situando el texto donde debe ir. Si una lína \\ necesita \\ ser \\ rota \\ puedes poner \textbackslash\textbackslash en el código fuente. \\ + +\section{Listas} +Las listas son de las cosas más fáciles de crear en LaTeX. Necesito ir a comprar mañana, así que vamos a crear una lista de la compra. +\begin{enumerate} % Esto crea una lista numerada. + % \item crea un elemento + \item Ensalada. + \item 27 sandías. + \item Pescado. + % podemos incluso sobreescribir el número del ítem usando [] + \item[cuántos?] Plátanos. + + No es un ítem de la lista, pero sigue siendo parte de la enumeración. + +\end{enumerate} % Todos los contextos deben tener un final. + +\section{Matemáticas} + +Uno de los usos principales de LaTeX es la producción de artículos académicos o técnicos. Normalmente relacionados con la ciencia y las matemáticas. Debido a esto, necesitamos poder añadir símbolos especiales a nuestro artículo.\\ + +En matemáticas hay muchos símbolos. Más de los que podemos encontrar en un teclado. Flechas o letras por nombrar un par.\\ + +Algunos símbolos juegan un papel fundamental en muchos artículos de investigación matemática. Así es como se establece que todo Y pertenece a X: $\forall$ x $\in$ X. \\ +He necesitado añadir el signo $ antes de los símbolos. Esto se debe a que cuando escribimos, estamos en modo texto. Sin embargo, los símbolos solo pueden utilizarse en modo matemático, al cual se entra con el signo $. +% Lo opuesto también se cumple. Una variable también puede ser mostrada en modo matemático, al que también se puede entrar con \[\] + +\[a^2 + b^2 = c^2 \] + +Mi letra griega favorita es $\xi$. También me gustan $\beta$, $\gamma$ y $\sigma$. +Todavía no he encontrado una letra griega que LaTeX no conozca. + +Los operadores son también una parte esencial de un documento matemático: +funciones trigonométricas ($\sin$, $\cos$, $\tan$), logaritmos y exponenciales ($\log$, $\exp$), límites ($\lim$), etc. tienen comandos predefinidos en LaTeX. + +Vamos a escribir una ecuación para ver cómo se hace: \\ + +$\cos(2\theta) = \cos^{2}(\theta) - \sin^{2}(\theta)$ + +Las fracciones (numeradores-denominadores) pueden escribirse de la siguiente forma: + +% 10 / 7 +$^{10}/_{7}$ + +% Las fracciones relativamente complejas pueden escribirse como +% \frac{numerador}{denominador} +$\frac{n!}{k!(n - k)!}$ \\ + +También podemos insertar ecuaciones en un contexto de ecuación. + +% Mostrar matemáticas en el contexto de ecuaciones +\begin{equation} % entra en modo matemático + c^2 = a^2 + b^2. + \label{eq:pitagoras} % para referencias +\end{equation} % Todos los contextos deben tener un final. + +Podemos referenciar nuestra nueva ecuación. +Ecuación ~\ref{eq:pythagoras} también se conoce como el Teorema de Pitágoras, el cual también se encuentra en la sección ~\ref{subsec:pythagoras}. Muchas cosas pueden ser etiquetadas: figures, equations, sections, etc. + +Los sumatorios e integrales son escritor son los comandos sum e int: + +% Algunos compiladores de LaTeX se quejarán si hay líneas en blanco +% En un contexto de ecuación. +\begin{equation} + \sum_{i=0}^{5} f_{i} +\end{equation} +\begin{equation} + \int_{0}^{\infty} \mathrm{e}^{-x} \mathrm{d}x +\end{equation} + +\section{Figuras} + +Vamos a insertar una figura. Situarla puede ser algo complicado. + +\begin{figure}[H] % H aquí establece la situación de la figura. + \centering % centra la figura en la página + % Inserta una figura escalada por 0.8 el ancho de la página. + %\includegraphics[width=0.8\linewidth]{right-triangle.png} + % La línea anterior ha sido comentada para poder compilar este archivo. Por favor, usa tu imaginación. + \caption{Triángulo con lados $a$, $b$, $c$} + \label{fig:right-triangle} +\end{figure} + +\subsection{Tablas} +También podemos insertar tablas de la misma manera que las figuras. + +\begin{table}[H] + \caption{Título para la tabla.} + % los argumentos en {} describen cómo cada fila va a ser representada. + \begin{tabular}{c|cc} + Número & Nombre & Apellido \\ + \hline % una línea horizontal + 1 & Biggus & Dickus \\ + 2 & Monty & Python + \end{tabular} +\end{table} + +% \section{Hyperlinks} % En construcción + +\section{Haciendo que LaTeX no compile algo (por ejemplo, código fuente)} +Digamos que queremos incluir código fuente dentro de nuestro documento LaTex. En ese caso, debemos indicarle a LaTeX que no trate de compilarlo y simplemente lo muestre en el documento. Esto lo realizamos en el contexto verbatim. + +% Hay otros paquetes para esta misma tarea, pero verbatim es el más básico. +\begin{verbatim} + print("Hola Mundo!") + a%b; % Podemos usar los signos % en verbatim. + aleatorio = 4; # Número aleatorio +\end{verbatim} + +\section{Compilación} + +Ahora mismo te estarás preguntando cómo compilar este fabuloso documento y obtener un documento PDF.\\ +Para obtener el documento final utilizando LaTeX hay que seguir los siguientes pasos: + \begin{enumerate} + \item Escribe el documento en texto plano. + \item Compila el código para producir un PDF. + Los pasos de compilación serán algo parecido a esto (en Linux): \\ + \begin{verbatim} + $pdflatex learn-latex.tex learn-latex.pdf + \end{verbatim} + \end{enumerate} + +Un gran número de editores LaTeX combinan ambos pasos para que sea más sencillo obtener el documento. + +Escribe toda la información de formato en el paso 1 y con el paso 2 obtendrás el documento que has definido en el paso anterior. + +\section{End} + +Esto es todo por ahora. + +% fin del documento +\end{document} +``` + +## Más información sobre LaTeX + +* El wikilibro LaTeX: [https://es.wikibooks.org/wiki/Manual_de_LaTeX](https://es.wikibooks.org/wiki/Manual_de_LaTeX) +* Un tutorial real: [http://www.latex-tutorial.com/](http://www.latex-tutorial.com/) diff --git a/es-es/markdown-es.html.markdown b/es-es/markdown-es.html.markdown index d90e3eb5..0505b4cb 100644 --- a/es-es/markdown-es.html.markdown +++ b/es-es/markdown-es.html.markdown @@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ lang: es-es Markdown fue creado por John Gruber en 2004. Su propósito es ser una sintaxis fácil de leer y escribir que se convierta fácilmente a HTML (y, actualmente, otros formatos también). -¡Denme todo la retroalimentación que quieran! / ¡Sientanse en la libertad de hacer forks o pull requests! +¡Denme toda la retroalimentación que quieran! / ¡Sientanse en la libertad de hacer forks o pull requests! ```markdown @@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ Esto es un h2 ------------- <!-- Estilos para texto plano --> -<!-- El texto puede ser fácilmente estilizaedo con italicas, negritas o tachado +<!-- El texto puede ser fácilmente estilizado con italicas, negritas o tachado usando markdown --> *Este texto está en itálicas.* @@ -57,12 +57,12 @@ __Al igual que este texto.__ **_Al igual que este!_** *__¡Y este!__* -<!-- En Github Flavored Markdown, el cual es usado para mostrar archivos -Markdown en Github, también tenemos: --> +<!-- En GitHub Flavored Markdown, el cual es usado para mostrar archivos +Markdown en GitHub, también tenemos: --> ~~Este texto está tachado.~~ -<!-- Los párrafos son una o múltuples líneas de texto adyacentes separadas por +<!-- Los párrafos son una o múltiples líneas de texto adyacentes separadas por una o múltiples líneas en blanco--> Este es un párrafo. Estoy escribiendo un párrafo, ¿No es divertido? @@ -150,7 +150,7 @@ para indentar dentro del código --> ¡John no sabía lo que la función `go_to()` hacía! -<!-- Con Github Flavored Markdown, puedes usar una sintaxis especial para código --> +<!-- Con GitHub Flavored Markdown, puedes usar una sintaxis especial para código --> \`\`\`ruby <!-- quita esas comillas cuando lo hagas, deja sólo ```ruby ! --> def foobar @@ -158,7 +158,7 @@ def foobar end \`\`\` <!-- aquí también, sin comillas, sólo ``` --> -<!-- El texto de arriba no necesita indentación, aparte Github usará +<!-- El texto de arriba no necesita indentación, aparte GitHub usará resaltará la sintaxis del lenguaje que especifiques después de ``` --> <!-- Regla horizontal (<hr />) --> @@ -231,7 +231,7 @@ Quiero escribir *este texto rodeado por asteriscos* pero no quiero que esté en así que hago esto: \*Este texto está rodeado de asteriscos\*. <!-- Tablas --> -<!-- Las tablas sólo están disponibles en Github Flavored Markdown y son un poco pesadas, +<!-- Las tablas sólo están disponibles en GitHub Flavored Markdown y son un poco pesadas, pero si de verdad las quieres: --> | Col1 | Col2 | Col3 | diff --git a/es-es/php-es.html.markdown b/es-es/php-es.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..fa52353c --- /dev/null +++ b/es-es/php-es.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,825 @@ +--- +language: PHP +contributors: + - ["Malcolm Fell", "http://emarref.net/"] + - ["Trismegiste", "https://github.com/Trismegiste"] +translators: + - ["Mario Pérez", "https://github.com/MarioPerezEsteso"] +lang: es-es +filename: learnphp-es.php +--- + +Este documento explica el funcionamiento de PHP 5+. + +```php +<?php // El código PHP debe estar dentro de etiquetas <?php + +// Si tu fichero php solo contiene código php, es una buena práctica +// omitir la etiqueta de cierre php para prevenir salidas acidentales. + +// Dos barras comienzan un comentario de una línea. + +# También lo hará una almohadilla, pero // es más común + +/* + Escribir texto entre una barra-asterisco y asterisco-barra + crea un comentario multilínea. +*/ + +// Utiliza "echo" o "print" para imprimir por pantalla +print('Hola '); // Imprime "Hola " sin salto de línea + +// () son opcionales para print y echo +echo "Mundo\n"; // Imprime "Mundo" con un salto de línea +// (todas las sentencias deben finalizar con un punto y coma) + +// Cualquier cosa fuera de las etiquetas <?php se imprime automáticamente +?> +¡Hola Mundo de nuevo! +<?php + + +/************************************ + * Tipos y variables + */ + +// Las variables comienzan con el símbolo $. +// Una variable válida comienza con una letra o guión bajo, +// seguida de cualquier cantidad de letras, números o guiones bajos. + +// Las variables booleanas no distinguen entre mayúsculas o minúsculas +$boolean = true; // o TRUE o True +$boolean = false; // o FALSE o False + +// Enteros +$int1 = 12; // => 12 +$int2 = -12; // => -12 +$int3 = 012; // => 10 (un 0 al comienzo declara un número octal) +$int4 = 0x0F; // => 15 (un 0x al comienzo declara un hexadecimal) + +// Floats (también conocidos como doubles) +$float = 1.234; +$float = 1.2e3; +$float = 7E-10; + +// Eliminar variable +unset($int1); + +// Operaciones aritméticas +$suma = 1 + 1; // 2 +$diferencia = 2 - 1; // 1 +$producto = 2 * 2; // 4 +$cociente = 2 / 1; // 2 + +// Operaciones aritméticas de escritura rápida +$numero = 0; +$numero += 1; // Incrementa $numero en 1 +echo $numero++; // Imprime 1 (incremento después la evaluación) +echo ++$numero; // Imprime 3 (incremento antes de la evaluación) +$numero /= $float; // Divide y asigna el cociente a $numero + +// Las cadenas de caracteres deben declararse entre comillas simples +$sgl_quotes = '$String'; // => '$String' + +// Evita utilizar comillas dobles excepto para embeber otras variables +$dbl_quotes = "This is a $sgl_quotes."; // => 'This is a $String.' + +// Los caracteres especiales solo son válidos entre comillas dobles +$escaped = "Esto contiene \t un caracter tabulador."; +$unescaped = 'Esto solo contiene una barra y una t: \t'; + +// Rodea una variable entre corchetes si es necesario +$dinero = "Tengo $${numero} en el banco."; + +// Desde PHP 5.3, los nowdocs pueden ser utilizados para multilíneas no interpoladas +$nowdoc = <<<'END' +Multi line +string +END; + +// Heredocs interpola cadenas de caracteres +$heredoc = <<<END +Multi line +$sgl_quotes +END; + +// La concatenación de cadenas de caracteres se realiza con . +echo 'Esta cadena de caracteres ' . 'está concatenada'; + +// Las cadenas de caracteres pueden ser pasadas como parámetros en un echo +echo 'Multiples', 'Parametros', 'Validos'; // Devuelve 'MultiplesParametrosValidos' + + +/******************************** + * Constantes + */ + +// Una constante se define utilizando define() +// y nunca puede ser cambiada en tiempo de ejecución + +// un nombre válido para una constante debe comenzar con una letra o guión bajo, +// seguido por cualquier número de letras, números o guiones bajos. +define("FOO", "algo"); + +// el acceso a una constante se puede realizar llamando a la variable elegida sin un símbolo de $ +echo FOO; // Devuelve 'algo' +echo 'Esto imprime '.FOO; // Devuelve 'Esto imprime algo' + + + +/******************************** + * Arrays + */ + +// Todos los arrays en PHP son asociativos (hashmaps), + +// Los arrays asociativos son conocidos como hashmaps en algunos lenguajes. + +// Funciona con todas las versiones de php +$asociativo = array('Uno' => 1, 'Dos' => 2, 'Tres' => 3); + +// PHP 5.4 introdujo una nueva sintaxis +$asociativo = ['Uno' => 1, 'Dos' => 2, 'Tres' => 3]; + +echo $asociativo['Uno']; // imprime 1 + +// Lista literales implícitamente asignados con claves enteras +$array = ['Uno', 'Dos', 'Tres']; +echo $array[0]; // => "Uno" + +// Añadir un elemento al final de un array +$array[] = 'Cuatro'; +// o +array_push($array, 'Cinco'); + +// Eliminar un elemento de un array +unset($array[3]); + +/******************************** + * Salidas por pantalla + */ + +echo('¡Hola Mundo!'); +// Imprime ¡Hola Mundo! en stdout. +// Stdout es la página web si se está ejecutando en un navegador. + +print('!Hola Mundo!'); // Es lo mismo que echo + +// No es necesario el paréntesis en echo y print +echo '¡Hola Mundo!'; +print '¡Hola Mundo!'; + +$parrafo = 'parrafo'; + +echo 100; // Haz echo de escalares directamente +echo $parrafo; // o de variables + +// Si las etiquetas cortas estás configuradas y tu versión de PHP es +// la 5.4.0 o superior, puede utilizar la sintaxis abreviada de echo +?> +<p><?= $parrafo?></p> +<?php + +$x = 1; +$y = 2; +$x = $y; // $x ahora contiene el mismo valor que $y +$z = &$y; +// $z contiene ahora una referencia a $y. Un cambio en el valor de +// $z cambiará también el valor de $y, y viceversa. +// $x sin embargo, tendrá el valor original de $y + +echo $x; // => 2 +echo $z; // => 2 +$y = 0; +echo $x; // => 2 +echo $z; // => 0 + +// Dump muestra el tipo y valor de una variable en stdout +var_dump($z); // imprime int(0) + +// Para mostrar el valor de una variable en un formato legible para humanos +print_r($array); // imprime: Array ( [0] => Uno [1] => Dos [2] => Tres ) + +/******************************** + * Lógica + */ +$a = 0; +$b = '0'; +$c = '1'; +$d = '1'; + +// assert lanza una advertencia si su argumento no es verdadero + +// Estas comparaciones siempre serán verdaderas, incluso si los tipos no son los mismos. +assert($a == $b); // igualdad +assert($c != $a); // desigualdad +assert($c <> $a); // desigualdad alternativa +assert($a < $c); +assert($c > $b); +assert($a <= $b); +assert($c >= $d); + +// Los siguiente solo será verdadero si los valores coinciden y son del mismo tipo. +assert($c === $d); +assert($a !== $d); +assert(1 === '1'); +assert(1 !== '1'); + +// Operador 'Spaceship' (desde PHP 7) +// Devuelve 0 si ambos valores son iguales +// Devuelve 1 si el valor de la izquierda es mayor +// Devuelve -1 si el valor de la derecha es mayor + +$a = 100; +$b = 1000; + +echo $a <=> $a; // 0 porque son iguales +echo $a <=> $b; // -1 porque $a < $b +echo $b <=> $a; // 1 porque $b > $a + +// Las variables pueden ser convertidas entre tipos, dependiendo de su uso. + +$entero = 1; +echo $entero + $entero; // => 2 + +$string = '1'; +echo $string + $string; // => 2 (los strings son convertidos a enteros) + +$string = 'uno'; +echo $string + $string; // => 0 +// Muestra un 0 porque el operador + no puede convertir la cadena de caracteres 'uno' a un número + +// La conversión de tipos puede ser utilizada para tratar a una variable como otro tipo + +$boolean = (boolean) 1; // => true + +$cero = 0; +$boolean = (boolean) $cero; // => false + +// También hay funciones dedicadas a la conversión de tipos +$entero = 5; +$string = strval($entero); + +$var = null; // Valor nulo + + +/******************************** + * Estructuras de control + */ + +if (true) { + print 'He sido imprimido'; +} + +if (false) { + print 'Yo no'; +} else { + print 'He sido imprimido'; +} + +if (false) { + print 'No se imprime'; +} elseif(true) { + print 'Sí se imprime'; +} + +// operador ternario +print (false ? 'No se imprime' : 'Sí se imprime'); + +// atajo para el operador ternario desde PHP 5.3 +// equivalente de "$x ? $x : 'Sí'"" +$x = false; +print($x ?: 'Sí'); + +// operador 'no definido' desde php 7 +$a = null; +$b = 'Imprime'; +echo $a ?? 'a no está definido'; // imprime 'a no está definido' +echo $b ?? 'b no está definido'; // imprime 'Imprime' + + +$x = 0; +if ($x === '0') { + print 'No imprime'; +} elseif($x == '1') { + print 'No imprime'; +} else { + print 'Imprime'; +} + + + +// Esta sintaxis alternativa se utiliza para plantillas: +?> + +<?php if ($x): ?> +Esto se muestra si la evaluación es verdadera. +<?php else: ?> +En otro caso, se muestra esto. +<?php endif; ?> + +<?php + +// Utiliza el switch para tener algo más de lógica. +switch ($x) { + case '0': + print 'Switch does type coercion'; + break; // Debes incluir un break para no seguir con los casos 'Dos' y 'Tres' + case 'Dos': + case 'Tres': + // Hacer algo si la variables es 'Dos' o 'Tres' + break; + default: + // Hacer algo por defecto +} + +// Los bucles While, do...while y for te serán familiares +$i = 0; +while ($i < 5) { + echo $i++; +}; // Imprime "01234" + +echo "\n"; + +$i = 0; +do { + echo $i++; +} while ($i < 5); // Imprime "01234" + +echo "\n"; + +for ($x = 0; $x < 10; $x++) { + echo $x; +} // Imprime "0123456789" + +echo "\n"; + +$ruedas = ['bicicleta' => 2, 'coche' => 4]; + +// Los bucles foreach pueden iterar por arrays +foreach ($ruedas as $numero_ruedas) { + echo $numero_ruedas; +} // Imprime "24" + +echo "\n"; + +// También se puede iterar sobre las claves, así como sobre los valores +foreach ($ruedas as $vehiculo => $numero_ruedas) { + echo "Un $vehiculo tiene $numero_ruedas ruedas"; +} + +echo "\n"; + +$i = 0; +while ($i < 5) { + if ($i === 3) { + break; // Sale fuera del bucle while + } + echo $i++; +} // Imprime "012" + +for ($i = 0; $i < 5; $i++) { + if ($i === 3) { + continue; // Se salta esta iteración del bucle + } + echo $i; +} // Imprime "0124" + + +/******************************** + * Funciones + */ + +// Define una función con "function": +function mi_funcion () { + return 'Hola'; +} + +echo mi_funcion(); // => "Hola" + +// Un nombre válido de función comienza con una letra o guión bajo, seguido de cualquier +// número de letras, números o guiones bajos. + +function anadir ($x, $y = 1) { // $y es opcional y por defecto es 1 + $resultado = $x + $y; + return $resultado; +} + +echo anadir(4); // => 5 +echo anadir(4, 2); // => 6 + +// $resultado no es accesible fuera de la función +// print $resultado; // Devuelve una advertencia. + +// Desde PHP 5.3 se pueden declarar funciones anónimas +$inc = function ($x) { + return $x + 1; +}; + +echo $inc(2); // => 3 + +function foo ($x, $y, $z) { + echo "$x - $y - $z"; +} + +// Las funciones pueden devolver funciones +function bar ($x, $y) { + // Utiliza 'use' para meter variables de fuera de la función + return function ($z) use ($x, $y) { + foo($x, $y, $z); + }; +} + +$bar = bar('A', 'B'); +$bar('C'); // Imprime "A - B - C" + +// Puedes llamar a funciones utilizando cadenas de caracteres +$nombre_funcion = 'add'; +echo $nombre_funcion(1, 2); // => 3 +// Es útil para determinarl qué función ejecutar. +// O, utiliza call_user_func(callable $callback [, $parameter [, ... ]]); + + +// Puedes obtener todos los parámetros pasados a una función +function parametros() { + $numero_argumentos = func_num_args(); + if ($numero_argumentos > 0) { + echo func_get_arg(0) . ' | '; + } + $args_array = func_get_args(); + foreach ($args_array as $key => $arg) { + echo $key . ' - ' . $arg . ' | '; + } +} + +parametros('Hola', 'Mundo'); // Hola | 0 - Hola | 1 - Mundo | + +// Desde PHP 5.6 se puede obtener un número variable de argumentos +function variable($palabra, ...$lista) { + echo $palabra . " || "; + foreach ($lista as $item) { + echo $item . ' | '; + } +} + +variable("Separa", "Hola", "Mundo") // Separa || Hola | Mundo | + +/******************************** + * Includes + */ + +<?php +// Los ficheros PHP incluidos deben comenzar también con la etiqueta de <?php + +include 'mi-fichero.php'; +// El código de mi-fichero.php ya está disponible en el entorno actual. +// Si el fichero no puede ser incluido (por ejemplo porque no se ha encontrado), +// se muestra una advertencia. + +include_once 'mi-fichero.php'; +// Si el código del fichero mi-fichero.php ya ha sido incluido, ya no se +// incluirá de nuevo. Este previene errores por múltiples declaraciones. + +require 'mi-fichero.php'; +require_once 'mi-fichero.php'; +// Es lo mismo que el include(), pero require() causará un error fatal si el archivo +// no ha podido ser incluido. + +// Contenido de mi-include.php: +<?php + +return 'Cualquier cosa.'; +// acabar archivo + +// Los include y require también pueden devolver un valor. +$valor = include 'mi-include.php'; + +// Los archivos son incluidos en función de la ruta data o, si ninguna ruta es +// especificada se utilizará la directiva de configuración de include_path. Si el +// fichero no se encuentra en el include_path, include comprobará la ruta del código +// que lo llama antes de fallar. +/* */ + +/******************************** + * Clases + */ + +// Las clases son definidas con la palabra clave class + +class MiClase +{ + const MI_CONSTANTE = 'valor'; // Una constante + + static $staticVar = 'static'; + + // Las variables estáticas y su visibilidad + public static $publicStaticVar = 'publicStatic'; + // Accesible solo dentro de su clase + private static $privateStaticVar = 'privateStatic'; + // Accesible desde la clase y las subclases + protected static $protectedStaticVar = 'protectedStatic'; + + // Las propiedades deben declarar su visibilidad + public $propiedad = 'public'; + public $instanceProp; + protected $prot = 'protected'; // Accesible desde la clase y las subclases + private $priv = 'private'; // Accesible solo desde la clase + + // Crear un constructor con __construct + public function __construct($instanceProp) { + // Accede a las variables de la instancia con $this + $this->instanceProp = $instanceProp; + } + + // Los métodos son declarados como funciones dentro de una clase + public function miMetodo() + { + print 'MiClase'; + } + + // la palabra clave final hará una función no sobreescribible + final function noMePuedesSobreEscribir() + { + } + +/* + * Declarar propiedades de clase o métodos como estáticos los hace accesibles sin + * necesidad de instanciar la clase. Una propiedad declarada como estática no + * puede ser accedida mediante una instancia de la clase, pero sí mediante un + * método estático. + */ + + public static function miMetodoEstatico() + { + print 'Soy estático'; + } +} + +// Las constantes de una clase siempre pueden ser accedidas estáticamente +echo MiClase::MI_CONSTANTE; // Muestra 'valor'; + +echo MiClase::$staticVar; // Muestra 'static'; +MiClase::miMetodoEstatico(); // Muestra 'Soy estático'; + +// Instancia una clase usando new +$mi_clase = new MiClase('Una instancia'); +// Los paréntesis son opcionales si no se pasa ningún argumento. + +// Accede a los miembros de una clase utilizando -> +echo $mi_clase->propiedad; // => "public" +echo $mi_clase->instanceProp; // => "Una instancia" +$mi_clase->miMetodo(); // => "MiClase" + + +// Extender clases utilizando "extends" +class MiOtraClase extends MiClase +{ + function imprimePropiedadProtegida() + { + echo $this->prot; + } + + // Sobreescribe un método + function miMetodo() + { + parent::miMetodo(); + print ' > MiOtraClase'; + } +} + +$mi_otra_clase = new MiOtraClase('Propiedad de instancia'); +$mi_otra_clase->imprimePropiedadProtegida(); // => Imprime "protected" +$mi_otra_clase->miMetodo(); // Imprime "MiClase > MiOtraClase" + +final class NoMePuedesExtender +{ +} + +// Puedes utilizar "métodos mágicos" para crear los getters y setters +class MiClaseMapeada +{ + private $propiedad; + + public function __get($key) + { + return $this->$key; + } + + public function __set($key, $value) + { + $this->$key = $value; + } +} + +$x = new MiClaseMapeada(); +echo $x->propiedad; // Utilizará el método __get() +$x->propiedad = 'Algo'; // Utilizará el método __set() + +// Las clases pueden ser abstractas (utilizando la palabra clave abstract) o +// implementando interfaces (utilizando la palabra clave implements). +// Una interfaz puede ser declarada con la palabra clave interface. + +interface InterfazUno +{ + public function hazAlgo(); +} + +interface InterfazDos +{ + public function hazOtraCosa(); +} + +// las interfaces pueden ser extendidas +interface InterfazTres extends InterfazDos +{ + public function hazCualquierOtraCosa(); +} + +abstract class MiClaseAbstracta implements InterfazUno +{ + public $x = 'hazAlgo'; +} + +class MiOtraClase extends MiClaseAbstracta implements InterfazDos +{ + public function hazAlgo() + { + echo $x; + } + + public function hazOtraCosa() + { + echo 'hazOtraCosa'; + } +} + + +// Las clases pueden implementar más de una interfaz +class CualquierOtraClase implements InterfazUno, InterfazDos +{ + public function hazAlgo() + { + echo 'hazAlgo'; + } + + public function hazOtraCosa() + { + echo 'hazOtraCosa'; + } +} + + +/******************************** + * Traits + */ + +// Los traits están disponibles desde PHP 5.4.0 y son declarados utilizando "trait" + +trait MiTrait +{ + public function miMetodoTrait() + { + print 'Tengo trait'; + } +} + +class MiClaseTrait +{ + use MiTrait; +} + +$cls = new MiClaseTrait(); +$cls->miMetodoTrait(); // Imprime "Tengo trait" + + +/******************************** + * Namespaces + */ + +// Esta sección está separada porque una declaración de namespace debe +// ser la primera sentencia en un archivo. Vamos a suponer que no es el caso + +<?php + +// Por defecto, las clases existen en el namespace global y pueden ser llamadas +// explícitamente con una contrabarra. + +$cls = new \MiClase(); + + + +// Estableder el namespace para un archivo +namespace Mi\Namespace; + +class MiClase +{ +} + +// (de otro archivo) +$cls = new Mi\Namespace\MiClase; + +// O de otro namespace. +namespace Mi\Otro\Namespace; + +use Mi\Namespace\MiClase; + +$cls = new MiClase(); + +// O se puede asignar un ales al namespace + +namespace Mi\Otro\Namespace; + +use Mi\Namespace as OtroNamespace; + +$cls = new OtroNamespace\MiClase(); + + +/********************** +* Late Static Binding +* +*/ + +class ClasePadre { + public static function quien() { + echo "Soy una " . __CLASS__ . "\n"; + } + public static function test() { + // Auto referencia a la clase en la que el método está definido + self::quien(); + // Referencia estáticamente a la clase donde el método ha sido llamado + static::quien(); + } +} + +ClasePadre::test(); +/* +Soy una ClasePadre +Soy una ClasePadre +*/ + +class ClaseHija extends ClasePadre { + public static function quien() { + echo "Pero soy una " . __CLASS__ . "\n"; + } +} + +ClaseHija::test(); +/* +Soy una ClasePadre +Pero soy una ClaseHija +*/ + + +/********************** +* Manejo de errores +* +*/ + +// Una simple gestión de errores puede ser realizada con un bloque try catch + +try { + // Haz algo +} catch (Exception $e) { + // Maneja la excepción +} + +// Cuando se utilicen bloques try catch en un entorno con namespaces hay que +// usar lo siguiente + +try { + // Haz algo +} catch (\Exception $e) { + // Maneja la excepción +} + +// Excepciones personalizadas + +class MiExcepcion extends Exception {} + +try { + + $condicion = true; + + if ($condicion) { + throw new MiExcepcion('Ha pasado algo'); + } + +} catch (MiExcepcion $e) { + // Manejar la excepción +} + +``` + +## Más información + +Visita la [documentación oficial de PHP](http://www.php.net/manual/) para más referencias +y apoyo de la comunidad. + +Si estás interesado en buenas prácticas, visita +[PHP The Right Way](http://www.phptherightway.com/). + +Si vienes de un lenguaje con una buena gestión de paquetes, visita +[Composer](http://getcomposer.org/). + +Para estándares comunes, visita el PHP Framework Interoperability Group +[PSR standards](https://github.com/php-fig/fig-standards). diff --git a/es-es/python3-es.html.markdown b/es-es/python3-es.html.markdown index 1c69481a..05fd7065 100644 --- a/es-es/python3-es.html.markdown +++ b/es-es/python3-es.html.markdown @@ -97,7 +97,7 @@ not False # => True None # => None # No uses el símbolo de igualdad `==` para comparar objetos con None -# Usa `is` en lugar de +# Usa `is` en su lugar "etc" is None #=> False None is None #=> True @@ -383,7 +383,7 @@ def keyword_args(**kwargs): keyword_args(pie="grande", lago="ness") #=> {"pie": "grande", "lago": "ness"} -# You can do both at once, if you like# Puedes hacer ambas a la vez si quieres +# Puedes hacer ambas a la vez si quieres def todos_los_argumentos(*args, **kwargs): print args print kwargs @@ -478,7 +478,7 @@ Humano.roncar() #=> "*roncar*" # Puedes importar módulos import math -print(math.sqrt(16)) #=> 4 +print(math.sqrt(16)) #=> 4.0 # Puedes obtener funciones específicas desde un módulo from math import ceil, floor @@ -511,7 +511,7 @@ def duplicar_numeros(iterable): for i in iterable: yield i + i -# Un generador cera valores sobre la marcha. +# Un generador crea valores sobre la marcha. # En vez de generar y retornar todos los valores de una vez, crea uno en cada iteración. # Esto significa que valores más grandes que 15 no serán procesados en 'duplicar_numeros'. # Fíjate que 'range' es un generador. Crear una lista 1-900000000 tomaría mucho tiempo en crearse. diff --git a/es-es/ruby-es.html.markdown b/es-es/ruby-es.html.markdown index 66a5d0fe..e3e43c18 100644 --- a/es-es/ruby-es.html.markdown +++ b/es-es/ruby-es.html.markdown @@ -5,8 +5,18 @@ contributors: - ["David Underwood", "http://theflyingdeveloper.com"] - ["Joel Walden", "http://joelwalden.net"] - ["Luke Holder", "http://twitter.com/lukeholder"] + - ["Tristan Hume", "http://thume.ca/"] + - ["Nick LaMuro", "https://github.com/NickLaMuro"] + - ["Marcos Brizeno", "http://www.about.me/marcosbrizeno"] + - ["Ariel Krakowski", "http://www.learneroo.com"] + - ["Dzianis Dashkevich", "https://github.com/dskecse"] + - ["Levi Bostian", "https://github.com/levibostian"] + - ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"] + - ["Gabriel Halley", "https://github.com/ghalley"] + - ["Persa Zula", "http://persazula.com"] translators: - ["Camilo Garrido", "http://www.twitter.com/hirohope"] + - ["Erick Bernal", "http://www.twitter.com/billowkib"] lang: es-es --- @@ -19,7 +29,7 @@ Nadie los usa. Tu tampoco deberías =end -# Lo primero y principal: Todo es un objeto +# En primer lugar: Todo es un objeto # Los números son objetos @@ -33,6 +43,8 @@ Tu tampoco deberías 8 - 1 #=> 7 10 * 2 #=> 20 35 / 5 #=> 7 +2**5 #=> 32 +5 % 3 #=> 2 # La aritmética es sólo azúcar sintáctico # para llamar un método de un objeto @@ -55,8 +67,6 @@ false.class #=> FalseClass # Desigualdad 1 != 1 #=> false 2 != 1 #=> true -!true #=> false -!false #=> true # Además de 'false', 'nil' es otro valor falso @@ -70,14 +80,29 @@ false.class #=> FalseClass 2 <= 2 #=> true 2 >= 2 #=> true +# Operadores lógicos +true && false #=> false +true || false #=> true +!true #=> false + +# Existen versiones alternativas de los operadores lógicos con menor prioridad +# Estos son usados como constructores controladores de flujo que encadenan +# sentencias hasta que una de ellas retorne verdadero o falso + +# `has_otra_cosa` solo se llama si `has_algo` retorna verdadero. +has_algo() and has_otra_cosa() +# `registra_error` solo se llama si `has_algo` falla +has_algo() or registra_error() + + # Los strings son objetos 'Soy un string'.class #=> String "Soy un string también".class #=> String -referente = "usar interpolacion de strings" +referente = "usar interpolación de strings" "Yo puedo #{referente} usando strings de comillas dobles" -#=> "Yo puedo usar interpolacion de strings usando strings de comillas dobles" +#=> "Yo puedo usar interpolación de strings usando strings de comillas dobles" # Imprime a la salida estándar @@ -103,7 +128,7 @@ ruta = '/mal/nombre/' # Los símbolos (son objetos) # Los símbolos son inmutables, constantes reusables representadas internamente por un -# valor entero. Son usalmente usados en vez de strings para expresar eficientemente +# valor entero. Son normalmente usados en vez de strings para expresar eficientemente # valores específicos y significativos :pendiente.class #=> Symbol @@ -119,18 +144,19 @@ status == :aprovado #=> false # Arreglos # Esto es un arreglo -[1, 2, 3, 4, 5] #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] +arreglo = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] # Arreglos pueden contener elementos de distintos tipos -arreglo = [1, "hola", false] #=> => [1, "hola", false] +[1, "hola", false] #=> => [1, "hola", false] # Arreglos pueden ser indexados # Desde el frente arreglo[0] #=> 1 +arreglo.first #=> 1 arreglo[12] #=> nil -# Tal como la aritmética, el acceso como variable[índice] +# Al igual que en aritmética, el acceso como variable[índice] # es sólo azúcar sintáctica # para llamar el método [] de un objeto arreglo.[] 0 #=> 1 @@ -138,15 +164,25 @@ arreglo.[] 12 #=> nil # Desde el final arreglo[-1] #=> 5 +arreglo.last #=> 5 + +# Con un índice de inicio y longitud +arreglo[2, 3] #=> [3, 4, 5] -# Con un índice de inicio y final -arreglo[2, 4] #=> [3, 4, 5] +# Invertir un arreglo +a = [1, 2, 3] +a.reverse! #=> [3, 2, 1] # O con rango arreglo[1..3] #=> [2, 3, 4] # Añade elementos a un arreglo así arreglo << 6 #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] +# O así +arreglo.push(6) #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] + +#Verifica si un elemento ya existe en ese arreglo +arreglo.include?(1) #=> true # Hashes son los diccionarios principales de Ruby con pares llave/valor. # Hashes se denotan con llaves: @@ -161,17 +197,16 @@ hash['numero'] #=> 5 # Preguntarle a un hash por una llave que no existe retorna 'nil': hash['nada aqui'] #=> nil -# Itera sobre un hash con el método 'each': -hash.each do |k, v| - puts "#{k} is #{v}" -end - # Desde Ruby 1.9, hay una sintaxis especial cuando se usa un símbolo como llave: nuevo_hash = { defcon: 3, accion: true} nuevo_hash.keys #=> [:defcon, :accion] +# Verifica la existencia de llaves y valores en el hash +new_hash.has_key?(:defcon) #=> true +new_hash.has_value?(3) #=> true + # Tip: Tanto los arreglos como los hashes son Enumerable (enumerables) # Comparten muchos métodos útiles tales como 'each', 'map', 'count', y más @@ -194,9 +229,15 @@ end #=> iteracion 4 #=> iteracion 5 -# Aunque -# Nadie usa los ciclos `for` -# Usa `each`, así: +# SIN EMBARGO, nadie usa ciclos `for` +# En su lugar debes usar el método "each" y pasarle un block (bloque). +# Un bloque es un fragmento código que puedes pasar a métodos como `each`. +# Es símilar a las funciones lambda, funciones anónimas o `closures` en otros +# lenguajes de programación. +# +# El método `each` de un Range (rango) ejecuta el bloque una vez por cada elemento. +# Al bloque se le pasa un contador como parametro. +# Usar el método `each` con un bloque se ve así: (1..5).each do |contador| puts "iteracion #{contador}" @@ -207,10 +248,27 @@ end #=> iteracion 4 #=> iteracion 5 -counter = 1 -while counter <= 5 do - puts "iteracion #{counter}" - counter += 1 +# También puedes envolver el bloque entre llaves: +(1..5).each { |counter| puts "iteración #{contador}" } + +#El contenido de las estructuras de datos en ruby puede ser iterado usando `each`. +arreglo.each do |elemento| + puts "#{elemento} es parte del arreglo" +end +hash.each do |llave, valor| + puts "#{llave} es #{valor}" +end + +# Si aún necesitas un índice puedes usar "each_with_index" y definir una variable +# índice. +arreglo.each_with_index do |element, index| + puts "#{element} tiene la posición #{index} en el arreglo" +end + +contador = 1 +while contador <= 5 do + puts "iteracion #{contador}" + contador += 1 end #=> iteracion 1 #=> iteracion 2 @@ -218,6 +276,19 @@ end #=> iteracion 4 #=> iteracion 5 +# Hay una gran variedad de otras funciones iterativas útiles en Ruby, +# por ejemplo `map`, `reduce`, `inject`, entre otras. Map, por ejemplo, +# toma el arreglo sobre el cuál está iterando, le hace cambios +# definidos en el bloque, y retorna un arreglo completamente nuevo. +arreglo = [1,2,3,4,5] +duplicado = array.map do |elemento| + elemento * 2 +end +puts duplicado +#=> [2,4,6,8,10] +puts array +#=> [1,2,3,4,5] + nota = 'B' case nota @@ -234,6 +305,34 @@ when 'F' else puts "Sistema alternativo de notas, ¿eh?" end +#=> "Mejor suerte para la proxima" + +# Los casos también pueden usar rangos +nota = 82 + +case nota +when 90..100 + puts 'Excelente!' +when 80..100 + puts 'Buen trabajo' +else + puts '¡Reprobaste!' +end +#=> "Buen trabajo" + +# Manejo de excepciones +begin + # código que podría causar excepción + raise NoMemoryError, 'Se te acabó la memoria' +rescue NoMemoryError => variable_de_excepcion + puts 'El error NoMemoryError ocurrió', variable_de_excepcion +rescue RuntimeError => otra_variable_de_excepcion + puts 'El error RuntimeError ocurrió' +else + puts 'Esto se ejecuta si ningun error ocurrió' +ensure + puts 'Este código siempre se ejecuta, sin importar que' +end # Funciones @@ -244,7 +343,7 @@ end # Funciones (y todos los bloques) implícitamente retornan el valor de la última instrucción doble(2) #=> 4 -# Paréntesis son opcionales cuando el resultado es ambiguo +# Paréntesis son opcionales cuando el resultado no es ambiguo doble 3 #=> 6 doble doble 3 #=> 12 @@ -259,7 +358,7 @@ suma 3, 4 #=> 7 suma suma(3,4), 5 #=> 12 # yield -# Todos los métodos tienen un parámetro de bloqueo opcional e implícitp +# Todos los métodos tienen un parámetro bloque opcional e implícito # puede llamarse con la palabra clave 'yield' def alrededor @@ -274,6 +373,17 @@ alrededor { puts 'hola mundo' } # hola mundo # } +# Puedes pasar un bloque a una función +# '&' representa una referencia a un bloque +def visitantes(&bloque) + bloque.call +end + +# Puedes pasar una lista de argumentos, que serán convertidos en un arreglo +# Para eso sirve el operador ('*') +def visitantes(*arreglo) + arreglo.each { |visitante| puts visitante } +end # Define una clase con la palabra clave 'class' class Humano @@ -299,16 +409,26 @@ class Humano @nombre end + # La funcionalidad anterior puede ser encapsulada usando el método attr_accessor + # de la siguiente manera + + attr_accessor :name + + # Los métodos de tipo getter y setter también se pueden crear de manera individual + # de la siguiente manera + + attr_reader :name + attr_writer :name + # Un método de clase usa 'self' (sí mismo) para distinguirse de métodos de instancia. # Sólo puede ser llamado en la clase, no por una instancia. def self.decir(mensaje) - puts "#{mensaje}" + puts mensaje end def especie @@especie end - end @@ -328,6 +448,23 @@ dwight.nombre #=> "Dwight K. Schrute" # Llama el método de clase Humano.decir("Hi") #=> "Hi" +# El alcance de las variables es definido por la manera en que las nombramos. +# Las variables que inician con $ tienen un alcance global +$var = "Soy una variable global" +defined? $var #=> "global-variable" + +# Las variables que empiezan con @ tienen un alcance de instancia +@var = "Soy una variable de instancia" +defined? @var #=> "instance-variable" + +# Variables que empiezan con @@ tienen un alcance de clase +@@var = "Soy una variable de clase" +defined? @@var #=> "class variable" + +# Las variables que empiezan con letra mayuscula son constantes +Var = "Soy una constante" +defined? Var #=> "constant" + # Las clases también son un objeto en ruby. Por lo cual, las clases también pueden tener variables de instancia. # Variables de clase son compartidas a través de la clase y todos sus descendientes. @@ -371,7 +508,67 @@ end class Doctor < Humano end -Human.bar # 0 +Humano.bar # 0 Doctor.bar # nil +module ModuloEjemplo + def foo + 'foo' + end +end + +# Al incluir un módulo sus métodos se comparten con las instancias de la clase +# Al extender un módulo sus métodos se comparten con la clase misma + +class Persona + include ModuloEjemplo +end + +class Libro + extend ModuloEjemplo +end + +Persona.foo # => NoMethodError: undefined method `foo' for Persona:Class +Persona.new.foo # => 'foo' +Libro.foo # => 'foo' +Libro.new.foo # => NoMethodError: undefined method `foo' + +# Las llamadas de retorno (callbacks) son ejecutadas cuando se incluye o +# extiende un módulo +module EjemploConcern + def self.incluido(base) + base.extend(MetodosClase) + base.send(:include, MetodosInstancia) + end + + module MetodosClase + def bar + 'bar' + end + end + + module MetodosInstancia + def qux + 'qux' + end + end +end + +class Algo + include EjemploConcern +end + +Algo.bar #=> 'bar' +Algo.qux #=> NoMethodError: undefined method `qux' +Algo.new.bar # => NoMethodError: undefined method `bar' +Algo.new.qux # => 'qux' ``` + +## Recursos adicionales +- [Aprende Ruby Mediante Ejemplo con Ejercicios](http://www.learneroo.com/modules/61/nodes/338) - Una variante de +esta referencia con ejercicios en navegador. +- [Documentación Oficial](http://www.ruby-doc.org/core-2.1.1/) +- [Ruby desde otros lenguajes](https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/documentation/ruby-from-other-languages/) +- [Programando Ruby](http://www.amazon.com/Programming-Ruby-1-9-2-0-Programmers/dp/1937785491/) - Una +[edición antigua](http://ruby-doc.com/docs/ProgrammingRuby/) gratuita disponible en línea. +- [Guía de estilo de Ruby](https://github.com/bbatsov/ruby-style-guide) - Guía de estilo creada por la comunidad. diff --git a/es-es/rust-es.html.markdown b/es-es/rust-es.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..b43cb815 --- /dev/null +++ b/es-es/rust-es.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,324 @@ +--- +language: rust +contributors: + - ["P1start", "http://p1start.github.io/"] +translators: + - ["Razican", "https://www.razican.com/"] +filename: learnrust-es.rs +lang: es-es +--- + +Rust es un lenguaje de programación desarrollado por Mozzilla Research. Rust +combina el control del rendimiento a bajo nivel con la comodidad del alto nivel +y garantías de seguridad. + +Consigue cumplir estos objetivos sin necesidad de un recolector de basura o +runtime, haciendo posible usar las librerías de Rust como sustituto de C. + +La primera versión de Rust, la 0.1, fue lanzada en enero de 2012, y durante 3 +años el desarrollo fue tan rápido que hasta hace poco el uso de las versiones +estables no era recomendable, y se aconsejaba usar las compilaciones nocturnas. + +El 15 de mayo de 2015 se lanzó Rust 1.0, con una garantía completa de +retrocompatibilidad. A día de hoy los tiempos de compilación han mejorado mucho +desde ese lanzamiento, así como otros aspectos del lenguaje y el compilador. +Rust ha adoptado un modelo de desarrollo por series de publicaciones periódicas, +con lanzamientos cada 6 semanas. Junto con cada lanzamiento, se lanza la beta de +la siguiente versión. + +A pesar de que Rust es un lenguaje relativamente de bajo nivel, tiene conceptos +funcionales que generalmente se encuentran en lenguajes de más alto nivel. Esto +hace que Rust sea rápido y al mismo tiempo fácil y eficiente a la hora de +programar. + +```rust +// Esto es un comentario. Los comentarios de una sola línea se hacen así... +/* ...y los de múltiples líneas así */ + +////////////////////////// +// 1. Conceptos básicos // +////////////////////////// + +// Funciones +// `i32` es el tipo para enteros de 32 bits con signo +fn suma2(x: i32, y: i32) -> i32 { + // Retorno implícito (sin punto y coma) + x + y +} + +// Función principal +fn main() { + // N;umeros // + + // Bindings (variables) inmutables + let x: i32 = 1; + + // Sufijos para enteros / floats + let y: i32 = 13i32; + let f: f64 = 1.3f64; + + // Inferencia de tipos + // La mayor parte del tiempo, el compilador de Rust puede inferir el tipo de + // una variable, por lo que no necesitas escribir una anotación de tipo + // explícita. A lo largo de este tutorial, los tipos están anotados + // explícitamente en varios sitios, pero solo con propósito demostrativo. La + // inferencia de tipos puede manejar esto por ti la mayor parte del tiempo. + let x_implicita = 1; + let f_implicita = 1.3; + + // Aritmética + let sum = x + y + 13; + + // Variable mutable + let mut mutable = 1; + mutable = 4; + mutable += 2; + + // Strings (cadenas de caracteres) // + + // Strings literales + let x: &str = "hola mundo!"; + + // Impresión por consola + println!("{} {}", f, x); // 1.3 hola mundo! + + // Un `String` – una cadena en memoria dinámica (heap) + let s: String = "hola mundo".to_string(); + + // Una porión de cadena (slice) – una vista inmutable a otra cadena + // Esto es básicamente un puntero inmutable a un string string – en realidad + // no contiene los caracteres de la cadena, solo un puntero a algo que los + // tiene (en este caso, `s`) + let s_slice: &str = &s; + + println!("{} {}", s, s_slice); // hola mundo hola mundo + + // Vectores/arrays // + + // A fixed-size array + let cuatro_enteros: [i32; 4] = [1, 2, 3, 4]; + + // Un array dinámico (vector) + let mut vector: Vec<i32> = vec![1, 2, 3, 4]; + vector.push(5); + + // Una porción (slice) – una vista inmutable a un vector o array + // Esto es parecido a un slice de un string, pero para vectores + let slice: &[i32] = &vector; + + // Usa `{:?}` para imprimir algo en estilo debug + println!("{:?} {:?}", vector, slice); // [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] + + // Tuplas // + + // Una tupla es un conjunto de tamaño fijo de valores. Pueden ser de diferente tipo. + let x: (i32, &str, f64) = (1, "hola", 3.4); + + // Desestructurando `let` + let (a, b, c) = x; + println!("{} {} {}", a, b, c); // 1 hola 3.4 + + // Indexando + println!("{}", x.1); // hola + + ////////////// + // 2. Tipos // + ////////////// + + // Estructuras + struct Punto { + x: i32, + y: i32, + } + + let origen: Punto = Punto { x: 0, y: 0 }; + + // Una estructura con campos sin nombre, una ‘estructura de tupla’ + struct Punto2(i32, i32); + + let origen2 = Punto2(0, 0); + + // Enums básicos como en C + enum Direccion { + Izquierda, + Derecha, + Arriba, + Abajo, + } + + let arriba = Direccion::Arriba; + + // Enum con campos + enum OpcionalI32 { + UnI32(i32), + Nada, + } + + let dos: OpcionalI32 = OpcionalI32::UnI32(2); + let nada = OpcionalI32::Nada; + + // Genéricos // + + struct Foo<T> { bar: T } + + // Esto está definido en la librería estándar como `Option` + enum Opcional<T> { + AlgunVal(T), + SinVal, + } + + // Métodos // + + impl<T> Foo<T> { + // Los métodos reciben un parámetro explícito `self` + fn get_bar(self) -> T { + self.bar + } + } + + let un_foo = Foo { bar: 1 }; + println!("{}", un_foo.get_bar()); // 1 + + // Traits (conocidos como interfaces o typeclasses en otros lenguajes) // + + trait Frobnicate<T> { + fn frobnicate(self) -> Option<T>; + } + + impl<T> Frobnicate<T> for Foo<T> { + fn frobnicate(self) -> Option<T> { + Some(self.bar) + } + } + + let otro_foo = Foo { bar: 1 }; + println!("{:?}", otro_foo.frobnicate()); // Some(1) + + ///////////////////////////////// + // 3. Comparación con patrones // + ///////////////////////////////// + + let foo = OpcionalI32::UnI32(1); + match foo { + OpcionalI32::UnI32(n) => println!("es un i32: {}", n), + OpcionalI32::Nada => println!("no es nada!"), + } + + // comparación de patrones avanzada + struct FooBar { x: i32, y: OpcionalI32 } + let bar = FooBar { x: 15, y: OpcionalI32::UnI32(32) }; + + match bar { + FooBar { x: 0, y: OpcionalI32::UnI32(0) } => + println!("Los números son cero!"), + FooBar { x: n, y: OpcionalI32::UnI32(m) } if n == m => + println!("Los números son iguales"), + FooBar { x: n, y: OpcionalI32::UnI32(m) } => + println!("Números diferentes: {} {}", n, m), + FooBar { x: _, y: OpcionalI32::Nada } => + println!("El segudo número no es nada!"), + } + + ///////////////////////// + // 4. Flujo de control // + ///////////////////////// + + // bucles `for` + let array = [1, 2, 3]; + for i in array.iter() { + println!("{}", i); + } + + // Rangos + for i in 0u32..10 { + print!("{} ", i); + } + println!(""); + // imprime `0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ` + + // `if` + if 1 == 1 { + println!("Las matemáticas funcionan!"); + } else { + println!("Oh no..."); + } + + // `if` como una expresión + let valor = if true { + "bueno" + } else { + "malo" + }; + + // bucle `while` + while 1 == 1 { + println!("El universo está funcionando correctamente."); + } + + // Bucle infinito + loop { + println!("Hola!"); + } + + //////////////////////////////////////// + // 5. Seguridad de memoria y punteros // + //////////////////////////////////////// + + // Posesión de punteros – solo uno puede ‘poseer’ un puntero en cada momento + // Esto significa que cuando la `Box` queda fuera del ámbito, puede ser + // liberada automáticamente de manera segura. + let mut mio: Box<i32> = Box::new(3); + *mio = 5; // dereferenciar + // Aquí, `ahora_es_mio`, toma posesión de `mio`. En otras palabras, `mio` se + // mueve. + let mut ahora_es_mio = mio; + *ahora_es_mio += 2; + + println!("{}", ahora_es_mio); // 7 + // println!("{}", mio); // esto no compilaría, porque `now_its_mine` es el + // que posee el puntero + + // Referencia – un puntero inmutable que referencia a otro dato + // Cuando se crea una referencia a un valor, decimos que el valor ha sido + // ‘tomado prestado’. + // Mientras un valor está prestado como inmutable, no puede ser modificado o + // movido. + // Una prestación dura hasta el fin del ámbito en el que se creó. + let mut var = 4; + var = 3; + let ref_var: &i32 = &var; + + println!("{}", var); // A diferencia de `mio`, `var` se puede seguir usando + println!("{}", *ref_var); + // var = 5; // esto no compilaría, porque `var` está prestada + // *ref_var = 6; // esto tampoco, porque `ref_var` es una referencia + // inmutable + + // Referencia mutable + // Mientras que un valor está prestado como mutable, no puede ser accedido + // desde ningún otro sitio. + let mut var2 = 4; + let ref_var2: &mut i32 = &mut var2; + *ref_var2 += 2; // '*' se usa para apuntar al var2 prestado como mutable + + println!("{}", *ref_var2); // 6 , //var2 no compilaría. //ref_var2 es de + // tipo &mut i32, por lo que guarda una + // referencia a un i32 no el valor. + // var2 = 2; // esto no compilaría porque `var2` está prestado +} +``` + +## Lectura adicional + +Rust es mucho más que esto. Esto es solo lo más básico para que puedas entender +las cosas más importantes. Para aprender más sobre Rust, lee [The Rust +Programming Language](http://doc.rust-lang.org/book/index.html) y echa un +vistazo al subreddit [/r/rust](http://reddit.com/r/rust). Los compañeros en el +canal #rust en irc.mozilla.org también son muy buenos con los recien llegados. +También puedes acceder a [Rust users](https://users.rust-lang.org/) a pedir +ayuda o a [Rust internals](https://internals.rust-lang.org/) para aprender más +sobre el lenguaje y colaborar en su desarrollo. + +También puedes probar Rust con un compilador online en el oficial [Rust +playpen](http://play.rust-lang.org) o en la [web principal de +Rust](http://rust-lang.org). diff --git a/es-es/swift-es.html.markdown b/es-es/swift-es.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c04ab02b --- /dev/null +++ b/es-es/swift-es.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,596 @@ +--- +language: swift +contributors: + - ["Grant Timmerman", "http://github.com/grant"] + - ["Christopher Bess", "http://github.com/cbess"] + - ["Joey Huang", "http://github.com/kamidox"] + - ["Anthony Nguyen", "http://github.com/anthonyn60"] +translators: + - ["David Hsieh", "http://github.com/deivuh"] +lang: es-es +filename: learnswift-es.swift +--- + +Swift es un lenguaje de programación para el desarrollo en iOS y OS X creado +por Apple. Diseñado para coexistir con Objective-C y ser más resistente contra +el código erroneo, Swift fue introducido en el 2014 en el WWDC, la conferencia +de desarrolladores de Apple. + +Véase también la guía oficial de Apple, [getting started guide](https://developer.apple.com/library/prerelease/ios/referencelibrary/GettingStarted/DevelopiOSAppsSwift/), el cual tiene un completo tutorial de Swift. + + +```swift +// Importar un módulo +import UIKit + +// +// MARK: Básicos +// + +// XCode soporta referencias para anotar tu código y agregarlos a lista de la +// barra de saltos. +// MARK: Marca de sección +// TODO: Hacer algo pronto +// FIXME: Arreglar este código + +// En Swift 2, println y print fueron combinados en un solo método print. +// Print añade una nueva línea automáticamente. +print("Hola, mundo") // println ahora es print +print("Hola, mundo", appendNewLine: false) // print sin agregar nueva línea + +// Valores de variables (var) pueden cambiar después de ser asignados +// Valores de constrantes (let) no pueden cambiarse después de ser asignados + +var myVariable = 42 +let øπΩ = "value" // nombres de variable unicode +let π = 3.1415926 +let convenience = "keyword" // nombre de variable contextual +// Las declaraciones pueden ser separadas por punto y coma (;) +let weak = "keyword"; let override = "another keyword" +// Los acentos abiertos (``) permiten utilizar palabras clave como nombres de +// variable +let `class` = "keyword" +let explicitDouble: Double = 70 +let intValue = 0007 // 7 +let largeIntValue = 77_000 // 77000 +let label = "some text " + String(myVariable) // Conversión (casting) +let piText = "Pi = \(π), Pi 2 = \(π * 2)" // Interpolación de string + +// Valores específicos de la compilación (build) +// utiliza la configuración -D +#if false + print("No impreso") + let buildValue = 3 +#else + let buildValue = 7 +#endif +print("Build value: \(buildValue)") // Build value: 7 + +/* + Las opcionales son un aspecto del lenguaje Swift que permite el + almacenamiento de un valor `Some` (algo) o `None` (nada). + + Debido a que Swift requiere que cada propiedad tenga un valor, + hasta un valor 'nil' debe de ser explicitamente almacenado como un + valor opcional. + + Optional<T> es un enum. +*/ +var someOptionalString: String? = "opcional" // Puede ser nil +// Al igual que lo anterior, pero ? es un operador postfix (sufijo) +var someOptionalString2: Optional<String> = "opcional" + +if someOptionalString != nil { + // No soy nil + if someOptionalString!.hasPrefix("opt") { + print("Tiene el prefijo") + } + + let empty = someOptionalString?.isEmpty +} +someOptionalString = nil + +// Opcional implícitamente desenvuelto +var unwrappedString: String! = "Un valor esperado." +// Al igual que lo anterior, pero ! es un operador postfix (sufijo) +var unwrappedString2: ImplicitlyUnwrappedOptional<String> = "Un valor esperado." + +if let someOptionalStringConstant = someOptionalString { + // tiene valor `Some` (algo), no nil + if !someOptionalStringConstant.hasPrefix("ok") { + // No tiene el prefijo + } +} + +// Swift tiene soporte de almacenamiento para cualquier tipo de valor. +// AnyObject == id +// A diferencia de Objective-C `id`, AnyObject funciona con cualquier +// valor (Class, Int, struct, etc) +var anyObjectVar: AnyObject = 7 +anyObjectVar = "Cambiado a un valor string, no es buena práctica, pero posible." + +/* + Comentar aquí + + /* + Comentarios anidados también son soportados + */ +*/ + +// +// MARK: Colecciones +// + +/* + Tipos Array (arreglo) y Dictionary (diccionario) son structs (estructuras). + Así que `let` y `var` también indican si son mudables (var) o + inmutables (let) durante la declaración de sus tipos. +*/ + +// Array (arreglo) +var shoppingList = ["catfish", "water", "lemons"] +shoppingList[1] = "bottle of water" +let emptyArray = [String]() // let == inmutable +let emptyArray2 = Array<String>() // igual que lo anterior +var emptyMutableArray = [String]() // var == mudable + + +// Dictionary (diccionario) +var occupations = [ + "Malcolm": "Captain", + "kaylee": "Mechanic" +] +occupations["Jayne"] = "Public Relations" +let emptyDictionary = [String: Float]() // let == inmutable +let emptyDictionary2 = Dictionary<String, Float>() // igual que lo anterior +var emptyMutableDictionary = [String: Float]() // var == mudable + + +// +// MARK: Flujo de control +// + +// Ciclo for (array) +let myArray = [1, 1, 2, 3, 5] +for value in myArray { + if value == 1 { + print("Uno!") + } else { + print("No es uno!") + } +} + +// Ciclo for (dictionary) +var dict = ["uno": 1, "dos": 2] +for (key, value) in dict { + print("\(key): \(value)") +} + +// Ciclo for (range) +for i in -1...shoppingList.count { + print(i) +} +shoppingList[1...2] = ["steak", "peacons"] +// Utilizar ..< para excluir el último valor + +// Ciclo while +var i = 1 +while i < 1000 { + i *= 2 +} + +// Ciclo do-while +do { + print("Hola") +} while 1 == 2 + +// Switch +// Muy potente, se puede pensar como declaraciones `if` con _azúcar sintáctico_ +// Soportan String, instancias de objetos, y primitivos (Int, Double, etc) +let vegetable = "red pepper" +switch vegetable { +case "celery": + let vegetableComment = "Add some raisins and make ants on a log." +case "cucumber", "watercress": + let vegetableComment = "That would make a good tea sandwich." +case let localScopeValue where localScopeValue.hasSuffix("pepper"): + let vegetableComment = "Is it a spicy \(localScopeValue)?" +default: // obligatorio (se debe cumplir con todos los posibles valores de entrada) + let vegetableComment = "Everything tastes good in soup." +} + + +// +// MARK: Funciones +// + +// Funciones son un tipo de primera-clase, quiere decir que pueden ser anidados +// en funciones y pueden ser pasados como parámetros + +// Función en documentación de cabeceras Swift (formato reStructedText) + +/** + Una operación de saludo + + - Una viñeta en la documentación + - Otra viñeta en la documentación + + :param: name Un nombre + :param: day Un día + :returns: Un string que contiene el valor de name y day +*/ +func greet(name: String, day: String) -> String { + return "Hola \(name), hoy es \(day)." +} +greet("Bob", "Martes") + +// Similar a lo anterior, a excepción del compartamiento de los parámetros +// de la función +func greet2(requiredName: String, externalParamName localParamName: String) -> String { + return "Hola \(requiredName), hoy es el día \(localParamName)" +} +greet2(requiredName:"John", externalParamName: "Domingo") + +// Función que devuelve múltiples valores en una tupla +func getGasPrices() -> (Double, Double, Double) { + return (3.59, 3.69, 3.79) +} +let pricesTuple = getGasPrices() +let price = pricesTuple.2 // 3.79 +// Ignorar tupla (u otros) valores utilizando _ (guión bajo) +let (_, price1, _) = pricesTuple // price1 == 3.69 +print(price1 == pricesTuple.1) // true +print("Gas price: \(price)") + +// Cantidad variable de argumentos +func setup(numbers: Int...) { + // Es un arreglo + let number = numbers[0] + let argCount = numbers.count +} + +// Pasando y devolviendo funciones +func makeIncrementer() -> (Int -> Int) { + func addOne(number: Int) -> Int { + return 1 + number + } + return addOne +} +var increment = makeIncrementer() +increment(7) + +// Pasando como referencia +func swapTwoInts(inout a: Int, inout b: Int) { + let tempA = a + a = b + b = tempA +} +var someIntA = 7 +var someIntB = 3 +swapTwoInts(&someIntA, &someIntB) +print(someIntB) // 7 + + +// +// MARK: Closures (Clausuras) +// +var numbers = [1, 2, 6] + +// Las funciones son un caso especial de closure ({}) + +// Ejemplo de closure. +// `->` Separa los argumentos del tipo de retorno +// `in` Separa la cabecera del cuerpo del closure +numbers.map({ + (number: Int) -> Int in + let result = 3 * number + return result +}) + +// Cuando se conoce el tipo, como en lo anterior, se puede hacer esto +numbers = numbers.map({ number in 3 * number }) +// o esto +//numbers = numbers.map({ $0 * 3 }) + +print(numbers) // [3, 6, 18] + +// Closure restante +numbers = sorted(numbers) { $0 > $1 } + +print(numbers) // [18, 6, 3] + +// Bastante corto, debido a que el operador < infiere los tipos + +numbers = sorted(numbers, < ) + +print(numbers) // [3, 6, 18] + +// +// MARK: Estructuras +// + +// Las estructuras y las clases tienen capacidades similares +struct NamesTable { + let names = [String]() + + // Subscript personalizado + subscript(index: Int) -> String { + return names[index] + } +} + +// Las estructuras tienen un inicializador designado autogenerado (implícitamente) +let namesTable = NamesTable(names: ["Me", "Them"]) +let name = namesTable[1] +print("Name is \(name)") // Name is Them + +// +// MARK: Clases +// + +// Las clases, las estructuras y sus miembros tienen tres niveles de control de acceso +// Éstos son: internal (predeterminado), public, private + +public class Shape { + public func getArea() -> Int { + return 0; + } +} + +// Todos los métodos y las propiedades de una clase son public (públicas) +// Si solo necesitas almacenar datos en un objecto estructurado, +// debes de utilizar `struct` + +internal class Rect: Shape { + var sideLength: Int = 1 + + // Getter y setter personalizado + private var perimeter: Int { + get { + return 4 * sideLength + } + set { + // `newValue` es una variable implícita disponible para los setters + sideLength = newValue / 4 + } + } + + // Lazily loading (inicialización bajo demanda) a una propiedad + // subShape queda como nil (sin inicializar) hasta que getter es llamado + lazy var subShape = Rect(sideLength: 4) + + // Si no necesitas un getter y setter personalizado + // pero aún quieres ejecutar código antes y después de hacer get o set + // a una propiedad, puedes utilizar `willSet` y `didSet` + var identifier: String = "defaultID" { + // El argumento `willSet` será el nombre de variable para el nuevo valor + willSet(someIdentifier) { + print(someIdentifier) + } + } + + init(sideLength: Int) { + self.sideLength = sideLength + // Siempre poner super.init de último al momento de inicializar propiedades + // personalizadas + super.init() + } + + func shrink() { + if sideLength > 0 { + --sideLength + } + } + + override func getArea() -> Int { + return sideLength * sideLength + } +} + +// Una clase simple `Square` que extiende de `Rect` +class Square: Rect { + convenience init() { + self.init(sideLength: 5) + } +} + +var mySquare = Square() +print(mySquare.getArea()) // 25 +mySquare.shrink() +print(mySquare.sideLength) // 4 + +// Conversión de tipo de instancia +let aShape = mySquare as Shape + +// Comparar instancias, no es igual a == que compara objetos (equal to) +if mySquare === mySquare { + print("Yep, it's mySquare") +} + +// Inicialización (init) opcional +class Circle: Shape { + var radius: Int + override func getArea() -> Int { + return 3 * radius * radius + } + + // Un signo de interrogación como sufijo después de `init` es un init opcional + // que puede devolver nil + init?(radius: Int) { + self.radius = radius + super.init() + + if radius <= 0 { + return nil + } + } +} + +var myCircle = Circle(radius: 1) +print(myCircle?.getArea()) // Optional(3) +print(myCircle!.getArea()) // 3 +var myEmptyCircle = Circle(radius: -1) +print(myEmptyCircle?.getArea()) // "nil" +if let circle = myEmptyCircle { + // no será ejecutado debido a que myEmptyCircle es nil + print("circle is not nil") +} + + +// +// MARK: Enums +// + + +// Los enums pueden ser opcionalmente de un tipo específico o de su propio tipo +// Al igual que las clases, pueden contener métodos + +enum Suit { + case Spades, Hearts, Diamonds, Clubs + func getIcon() -> String { + switch self { + case .Spades: return "♤" + case .Hearts: return "♡" + case .Diamonds: return "♢" + case .Clubs: return "♧" + } + } +} + +// Los valores de enum permite la sintaxis corta, sin necesidad de poner +// el tipo del enum cuando la variable es declarada de manera explícita +var suitValue: Suit = .Hearts + +// Enums de tipo no-entero requiere asignaciones de valores crudas directas +enum BookName: String { + case John = "John" + case Luke = "Luke" +} +print("Name: \(BookName.John.rawValue)") + +// Enum con valores asociados +enum Furniture { + // Asociación con Int + case Desk(height: Int) + // Asociación con String e Int + case Chair(String, Int) + + func description() -> String { + switch self { + case .Desk(let height): + return "Desk with \(height) cm" + case .Chair(let brand, let height): + return "Chair of \(brand) with \(height) cm" + } + } +} + +var desk: Furniture = .Desk(height: 80) +print(desk.description()) // "Desk with 80 cm" +var chair = Furniture.Chair("Foo", 40) +print(chair.description()) // "Chair of Foo with 40 cm" + + +// +// MARK: Protocolos +// + +// `protocol` puede requerir que los tipos tengan propiedades +// de instancia específicas, métodos de instancia, métodos de tipo, +// operadores, y subscripts + + +protocol ShapeGenerator { + var enabled: Bool { get set } + func buildShape() -> Shape +} + +// Protocolos declarados con @objc permiten funciones opcionales, +// que te permite evaluar conformidad +@objc protocol TransformShape { + optional func reshaped() + optional func canReshape() -> Bool +} + +class MyShape: Rect { + var delegate: TransformShape? + + func grow() { + sideLength += 2 + + // Pon un signo de interrogación después de la propiedad opcional, + // método, o subscript para ignorar un valor nil y devolver nil + // en lugar de tirar un error de tiempo de ejecución + // ("optional chaining") + if let allow = self.delegate?.canReshape?() { + // test for delegate then for method + self.delegate?.reshaped?() + } + } +} + + +// +// MARK: Otros +// + +// `extension`: Agrega funcionalidades a tipos existentes + +// Square ahora se "conforma" al protocolo `Printable` +extension Square: Printable { + var description: String { + return "Area: \(self.getArea()) - ID: \(self.identifier)" + } +} + +print("Square: \(mySquare)") + +// También puedes hacer extend a tipos prefabricados (built-in) +extension Int { + var customProperty: String { + return "This is \(self)" + } + + func multiplyBy(num: Int) -> Int { + return num * self + } +} + +print(7.customProperty) // "This is 7" +print(14.multiplyBy(3)) // 42 + +// Generics: Similar Java y C#. Utiliza la palabra clave `where` para +// especificar los requerimientos de los genéricos. + +func findIndex<T: Equatable>(array: [T], valueToFind: T) -> Int? { + for (index, value) in enumerate(array) { + if value == valueToFind { + return index + } + } + return nil +} +let foundAtIndex = findIndex([1, 2, 3, 4], 3) +print(foundAtIndex == 2) // true + +// Operadores: +// Operadores personalizados puede empezar con los siguientes caracteres: +// / = - + * % < > ! & | ^ . ~ +// o +// Caracteres unicode: math, symbol, arrow, dingbat, y line/box. +prefix operator !!! {} + +// Un operador prefix que triplica la longitud del lado cuando es utilizado +prefix func !!! (inout shape: Square) -> Square { + shape.sideLength *= 3 + return shape +} + +// Valor actual +print(mySquare.sideLength) // 4 + +// Cambiar la longitud del lado utilizando el operador !!!, +// incrementa el tamaño por 3 +!!!mySquare +print(mySquare.sideLength) // 12 +``` diff --git a/es-es/yaml-es.html.markdown b/es-es/yaml-es.html.markdown index a5157b5d..cd3143fb 100644 --- a/es-es/yaml-es.html.markdown +++ b/es-es/yaml-es.html.markdown @@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ lang: es-es filename: learnyaml-es.yaml contributors: - ["Adam Brenecki", "https://github.com/adambrenecki"] + - ["Everardo Medina","https://github.com/everblut"] translators: - ["Daniel Zendejas","https://github.com/DanielZendejas"] --- @@ -14,7 +15,7 @@ leído y escrito por humanos. Basa su funcionalidad en JSON, con la adición de líneas nuevas e indentación inspirada en Python. A diferencia de Python, YAML -no permite tabs literales. +no permite tabulaciones literales. ```yaml # Los comentarios en YAML se ven así. @@ -38,97 +39,177 @@ llave con espacios: valor llave: "Un string, entre comillas." "Las llaves tambien pueden estar entre comillas.": "valor entre comillas" -# Los strings de líneas múltiples pueden ser escritos +# Los strings de líneas múltiples pueden ser escritos # como un 'bloque literal' (usando pipes |) # o como un 'bloque doblado' (usando >) bloque_literal: | Este bloque completo de texto será preservado como el valor de la llave 'bloque_literal', incluyendo los saltos de línea. - - Se continúa guardando la literal hasta que se cese la indentación. + + Se continúa guardando la literal hasta que se cese la indentación. Cualquier línea que tenga más indentación, mantendrá los espacios dados (por ejemplo, estas líneas se guardarán con cuatro espacios) -nloque_doblado: > +bloque_doblado: > De la misma forma que el valor de 'bloque_literal', todas estas líneas se guardarán como una sola literal, pero en esta ocasión todos los saltos de línea serán reemplazados por espacio. - Las líneas en blanco, como la anterior, son convertidos a un salto de línea. + Las líneas en blanco, como la anterior, son convertidas a un salto de línea. Las líneas con mayor indentación guardan sus saltos de línea. Esta literal ocuparán dos líneas. -######################## -# TIPOS DE COLECCIONES # -######################## - -# La indentación se usa para anidar. +# La indentación se usa para anidar elementos un_mapa_indentado: llave: valor otra_llave: otro valor otro_mapa_indentado: llave_interna: valor_interno -# Las llaves de los mapas no deben ser strings necesariamente +# Las llaves de los mapas no requieren ser strings necesariamente 0.25: una llave numérica -# Las llaves también pueden ser objetos de multi línea, usando ? para indicar -# el inicio de una llave +# Las llaves también pueden ser objetos de multiples líneas, +# usando ? para indicar el inicio de una llave ? | Esto es una llave que tiene múltiples líneas : y este es su valor -# YAML tambien permite colecciones como llaves, pero muchos lenguajes de +######################## +# TIPOS DE COLECCIONES # +######################## + +# Las colecciones en YAML usan la indentación para delimitar el alcance +# y cada elemento de la colección inicia en su propia línea. +# YAML tambien permite colecciones como llaves, pero muchos lenguajes de # programación se quejarán. # Las secuencias (equivalentes a listas o arreglos) se ven así: -una_secuencia: - - Item 1 - - Item 2 - - 0.5 # las secuencias pueden tener distintos tipos en su contenido. - - Item 4 - - llave: valor - otra_llave: otro_valor +- Amarillo +- Verde +- Azul + +# Se puede usar una secuencia como valor para una llave. +secuencia: + - Elemento 1 + - Elemento 2 + - Elemento 3 + - Elemento 4 + +# Las secuencias pueden contener secuencias como elementos. +- [Uno, Dos, Tres] +- [Domingo, Lunes, Martes] +- [Luna, Marte, Tierra] + +# Las secuencias pueden tener distintos tipos en su contenido. +secuencia_combinada: + - texto + - 5 + - 0.6 + - llave: valor # se convierte en un json dentro de la secuencia - - Esta es una secuencia - ...dentro de otra secuencia -# Dado que todo JSON está incluído dentro de YAML, también puedes escribir -# mapas con la sintaxis de JSON y secuencias: -mapa_de_json: {"llave": "valor"} -secuencia_de_json: [3, 2, 1, "despegue"] +# Dado que todo JSON está incluído dentro de YAML, también puedes escribir +# mapas con la sintaxis de JSON y secuencias: +mapa_de_json_1: {"llave": "valor"} +mapa_de_json_2: + llave: valor + +# Las secuencias tambien se pueden escribir como un arreglo al estilo JSON +secuencia_de_json_1: [3, 2, 1, "despegue"] +secuencia_de_json_2: + - 3 + - 2 + - 1 + - "despegue" + +# YAML también soporta conjuntos usando el simbolo ? +# y se ven de la siguiente forma: +set: + ? item1 + ? item2 + ? item3 + +# Se puede usar el tag !!set +# Al igual que Python, los conjuntos sólo son mapas con valores nulos. +# El ejemplo de arriba es equivalente a: +set2: + item1: null + item2: null + item3: null ################################## # CARACTERÍSTICAS EXTRAS DE YAML # ################################## +# YAML usa tres guiones (---) para diferenciar entre directivas +# y contenido del documento. +# Por otra parte, tres puntos (...) se utilizan para indicar +# el final del documento en casos especiales. + # YAML tiene funciones útiles llamadas 'anchors' (anclas), que te permiten -# duplicar fácilmente contenido a lo largo de tu documento. En el ejemplo -# a continuación, ambas llaves tendrán el mismo valor: -contenido_anclado: &nombre_del_ancla Este string será el valor de las llaves -otra_ancla: *nombre_del_ancla - -# YAML también tiene tags, que puedes usar para declarar tipos explícitamente. -string_explícito: !!str 0.5 -# Algunos parseadores implementar tags específicas del lenguaje, como el +# duplicar fácilmente contenido a lo largo de tu documento. +# El ampersand indica la declaración del ancla, +declara_ancla: &texto texto de la llave +# el asterisco indica el uso de dicha ancla. +usa_ancla: *texto # tendrá el valor "texto de la llave" + +################ +# TAGS EN YAML # +################ + +# En YAML, los nodos que no tienen un tag obtienen su tipo +# según la aplicación que los use, al usar un tag +# se pueden declarar tipos explícitamente. +string_explicito: !!str 0.5 # !!str para declarar un string +integer_explicito: !!int 5 # !!int para declarar un integer +float_explicito: !!float 1.2 # !!float para declarar un float +conjunto_explicito: !!set # !!set para declarar un conjunto + ? Uno + ? Dos + ? Tres +mapa_ordenado_explicito: !!omap # !!omap para declarar un mapa ordenado +- Primero: 1 +- Segundo: 2 +- Tercero: 3 +- Cuarto: 4 + +# Tags para los numeros enteros +llave_canonica: 5222 +llave_decimal: +5222 +llave_octal: 010 +llave_hexadecimal: 0xC + +#Tags para los numeros flotantes +llave_canonica: 1.215e+3 +llave_exponencial: 12.3555e+02 +llave_fija: 12.15 +llave_negativa_infinita: -.inf +llave_numero_invalido: .NaN + +# Tags para las fechas y horas +llave_canonica: 2001-12-15T02:59:43.1Z +llave_iso8601: 2001-12-14t21:59:43.10-05:00 +llave_con_espacios: 2001-12-14 21:59:43.10 -5 +llave_fecha: 2002-12-14 + +# Además existen tags para +null: #valor nulo +booleans: [ true, false ] # Valores booleanos +string: '012345' # Valor en string + + +# Algunos parseadores implementan tags específicas del lenguaje, como el # que se muestra a continuación, encargado de manejar números complejos en # Python: numero_complejo_python: !!python/complex 1+2j -######################## -# TIPOS EXTRAS EN YAML # -######################## - -# Stirngs y números no son los únicos escalares que YAML puede entener. -# YAML también puede parsear fechas en formato ISO . -fechaHora: 2001-12-15T02:59:43.1Z -fechaHora_con_espacios: 2001-12-14 21:59:43.10 -5 -fecha: 2002-12-14 - -# La tag !!binary indica que un string es, en realidad, un blob +# El tag !!binary indica que un string es en realidad un blob # representado en base-64. archivo_gif: !!binary | R0lGODlhDAAMAIQAAP//9/X17unp5WZmZgAAAOfn515eXvPz7Y6OjuDg4J+fn5 @@ -136,16 +217,10 @@ archivo_gif: !!binary | +f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++SH+Dk1hZGUgd2l0aCBHSU1QACwAAAAADAAMAAAFLC AgjoEwnuNAFOhpEMTRiggcz4BNJHrv/zCFcLiwMWYNG84BwwEeECcgggoBADs= -# YAML también tiene un tipo set, que se ve de la siguiente forma: -set: - ? item1 - ? item2 - ? item3 - -# Al igual que Python, los sets sólo son mapas con valores nulos. -# El ejemplo de arriba es equivalente a: -set2: - item1: null - item2: null - item3: null ``` + +### Recursos adicionales + ++ [Sitio oficial de YAML](http://yaml.org/) ++ [Parser en línea de de YAML](http://yaml-online-parser.appspot.com/) ++ [Validador en línea de YAML](http://codebeautify.org/yaml-validator) diff --git a/fa-ir/brainfuck.html.markdown b/fa-ir/bf-fa.html.markdown index ef2bcba3..bc5d8dc4 100644 --- a/fa-ir/brainfuck.html.markdown +++ b/fa-ir/bf-fa.html.markdown @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ --- -language: brainfuck +language: bf contributors: - ["Mohammad Valipour", "https://github.com/mvalipour"] lang: fa-ir diff --git a/fa-ir/javascript.html.markdown b/fa-ir/javascript-fa.html.markdown index fe3555af..fe3555af 100644 --- a/fa-ir/javascript.html.markdown +++ b/fa-ir/javascript-fa.html.markdown diff --git a/factor.html.markdown b/factor.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..79596d83 --- /dev/null +++ b/factor.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,182 @@ +--- +language: factor +contributors: + - ["hyphz", "http://github.com/hyphz/"] +filename: learnfactor.factor +--- + +Factor is a modern stack-based language, based on Forth, created by Slava Pestov. + +Code in this file can be typed into Factor, but not directly imported because the vocabulary and import header would make the beginning thoroughly confusing. + +``` +! This is a comment + +! Like Forth, all programming is done by manipulating the stack. +! Stating a literal value pushes it onto the stack. +5 2 3 56 76 23 65 ! No output, but stack is printed out in interactive mode + +! Those numbers get added to the stack, from left to right. +! .s prints out the stack non-destructively. +.s ! 5 2 3 56 76 23 65 + +! Arithmetic works by manipulating data on the stack. +5 4 + ! No output + +! `.` pops the top result from the stack and prints it. +. ! 9 + +! More examples of arithmetic: +6 7 * . ! 42 +1360 23 - . ! 1337 +12 12 / . ! 1 +13 2 mod . ! 1 + +99 neg . ! -99 +-99 abs . ! 99 +52 23 max . ! 52 +52 23 min . ! 23 + +! A number of words are provided to manipulate the stack, collectively known as shuffle words. + +3 dup - ! duplicate the top item (1st now equals 2nd): 3 - 3 +2 5 swap / ! swap the top with the second element: 5 / 2 +4 0 drop 2 / ! remove the top item (don't print to screen): 4 / 2 +1 2 3 nip .s ! remove the second item (similar to drop): 1 3 +1 2 clear .s ! wipe out the entire stack +1 2 3 4 over .s ! duplicate the second item to the top: 1 2 3 4 3 +1 2 3 4 2 pick .s ! duplicate the third item to the top: 1 2 3 4 2 3 + +! Creating Words +! The `:` word sets Factor into compile mode until it sees the `;` word. +: square ( n -- n ) dup * ; ! No output +5 square . ! 25 + +! We can view what a word does too. +! \ suppresses evaluation of a word and pushes its identifier on the stack instead. +\ square see ! : square ( n -- n ) dup * ; + +! After the name of the word to create, the declaration between brackets gives the stack effect. +! We can use whatever names we like inside the declaration: +: weirdsquare ( camel -- llama ) dup * ; + +! Provided their count matches the word's stack effect: +: doubledup ( a -- b ) dup dup ; ! Error: Stack effect declaration is wrong +: doubledup ( a -- a a a ) dup dup ; ! Ok +: weirddoubledup ( i -- am a fish ) dup dup ; ! Also Ok + +! Where Factor differs from Forth is in the use of quotations. +! A quotation is a block of code that is pushed on the stack as a value. +! [ starts quotation mode; ] ends it. +[ 2 + ] ! Quotation that adds 2 is left on the stack +4 swap call . ! 6 + +! And thus, higher order words. TONS of higher order words. +2 3 [ 2 + ] dip .s ! Pop top stack value, run quotation, push it back: 4 3 +3 4 [ + ] keep .s ! Copy top stack value, run quotation, push the copy: 7 4 +1 [ 2 + ] [ 3 + ] bi .s ! Run each quotation on the top value, push both results: 3 4 +4 3 1 [ + ] [ + ] bi .s ! Quotations in a bi can pull values from deeper on the stack: 4 5 ( 1+3 1+4 ) +1 2 [ 2 + ] bi@ .s ! Run the quotation on first and second values +2 [ + ] curry ! Inject the given value at the start of the quotation: [ 2 + ] is left on the stack + +! Conditionals +! Any value is true except the built-in value f. +! A built-in value t does exist, but its use isn't essential. +! Conditionals are higher order words as with the combinators above. + +5 [ "Five is true" . ] when ! Five is true +0 [ "Zero is true" . ] when ! Zero is true +f [ "F is true" . ] when ! No output +f [ "F is false" . ] unless ! F is false +2 [ "Two is true" . ] [ "Two is false" . ] if ! Two is true + +! By default the conditionals consume the value under test, but starred variants +! leave it alone if it's true: + +5 [ . ] when* ! 5 +f [ . ] when* ! No output, empty stack, f is consumed because it's false + + +! Loops +! You've guessed it.. these are higher order words too. + +5 [ . ] each-integer ! 0 1 2 3 4 +4 3 2 1 0 5 [ + . ] each-integer ! 0 2 4 6 8 +5 [ "Hello" . ] times ! Hello Hello Hello Hello Hello + +! Here's a list: +{ 2 4 6 8 } ! Goes on the stack as one item + +! Loop through the list: +{ 2 4 6 8 } [ 1 + . ] each ! Prints 3 5 7 9 +{ 2 4 6 8 } [ 1 + ] map ! Leaves { 3 5 7 9 } on stack + +! Loop reducing or building lists: +{ 1 2 3 4 5 } [ 2 mod 0 = ] filter ! Keeps only list members for which quotation yields true: { 2 4 } +{ 2 4 6 8 } 0 [ + ] reduce . ! Like "fold" in functional languages: prints 20 (0+2+4+6+8) +{ 2 4 6 8 } 0 [ + ] accumulate . . ! Like reduce but keeps the intermediate values in a list: prints { 0 2 6 12 } then 20 +1 5 [ 2 * dup ] replicate . ! Loops the quotation 5 times and collects the results in a list: { 2 4 8 16 32 } +1 [ dup 100 < ] [ 2 * dup ] produce ! Loops the second quotation until the first returns false and collects the results: { 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 } + +! If all else fails, a general purpose while loop: +1 [ dup 10 < ] [ "Hello" . 1 + ] while ! Prints "Hello" 10 times + ! Yes, it's hard to read + ! That's what all those variant loops are for + +! Variables +! Usually Factor programs are expected to keep all data on the stack. +! Using named variables makes refactoring harder (and it's called Factor for a reason) +! Global variables, if you must: + +SYMBOL: name ! Creates name as an identifying word +"Bob" name set-global ! No output +name get-global . ! "Bob" + +! Named local variables are considered an extension but are available +! In a quotation.. +[| m n ! Quotation captures top two stack values into m and n + | m n + ] ! Read them + +! Or in a word.. +:: lword ( -- ) ! Note double colon to invoke lexical variable extension + 2 :> c ! Declares immutable variable c to hold 2 + c . ; ! Print it out + +! In a word declared this way, the input side of the stack declaration +! becomes meaningful and gives the variable names stack values are captured into +:: double ( a -- result ) a 2 * ; + +! Variables are declared mutable by ending their name with a shriek +:: mword2 ( a! -- x y ) ! Capture top of stack in mutable variable a + a ! Push a + a 2 * a! ! Multiply a by 2 and store result back in a + a ; ! Push new value of a +5 mword2 ! Stack: 5 10 + +! Lists and Sequences +! We saw above how to push a list onto the stack + +0 { 1 2 3 4 } nth ! Access a particular member of a list: 1 +10 { 1 2 3 4 } nth ! Error: sequence index out of bounds +1 { 1 2 3 4 } ?nth ! Same as nth if index is in bounds: 2 +10 { 1 2 3 4 } ?nth ! No error if out of bounds: f + +{ "at" "the" "beginning" } "Append" prefix ! { "Append" "at" "the" "beginning" } +{ "Append" "at" "the" } "end" suffix ! { "Append" "at" "the" "end" } +"in" 1 { "Insert" "the" "middle" } insert-nth ! { "Insert" "in" "the" "middle" } +"Concat" "enate" append ! "Concatenate" - strings are sequences too +"Concatenate" "Reverse " prepend ! "Reverse Concatenate" +{ "Concatenate " "seq " "of " "seqs" } concat ! "Concatenate seq of seqs" +{ "Connect" "subseqs" "with" "separators" } " " join ! "Connect subseqs with separators" + +! And if you want to get meta, quotations are sequences and can be dismantled.. +0 [ 2 + ] nth ! 2 +1 [ 2 + ] nth ! + +[ 2 + ] \ - suffix ! Quotation [ 2 + - ] + + +``` + +##Ready For More? + +* [Factor Documentation](http://docs.factorcode.org/content/article-help.home.html) diff --git a/fi-fi/go-fi.html.markdown b/fi-fi/go-fi.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..9ed4e0d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/fi-fi/go-fi.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,441 @@ +--- +name: Go +category: language +language: Go +filename: learngo-fi.go +contributors: + - ["Sonia Keys", "https://github.com/soniakeys"] + - ["Christopher Bess", "https://github.com/cbess"] + - ["Jesse Johnson", "https://github.com/holocronweaver"] + - ["Quint Guvernator", "https://github.com/qguv"] + - ["Jose Donizetti", "https://github.com/josedonizetti"] + - ["Alexej Friesen", "https://github.com/heyalexej"] + - ["Clayton Walker", "https://github.com/cwalk"] +translators: + - ["Timo Virkkunen", "https://github.com/ComSecNinja"] +lang: fi-fi +--- + +Go luotiin työn tekemistä varten. Se ei ole tietojenkäsittelyn uusin trendi, +mutta se on uusin nopein tapa ratkaista oikean maailman ongelmia. + +Sillä on staattisesti tyypitetyistä imperatiivisista kielistä tuttuja +konsepteja. Se kääntyy ja suorittuu nopeasti, lisää helposti käsitettävän +samanaikaisten komentojen suorittamisen nykyaikaisten moniytimisten +prosessoreiden hyödyntämiseksi ja antaa käyttäjälle ominaisuuksia suurten +projektien käsittelemiseksi. + +Go tuo mukanaan loistavan oletuskirjaston sekä innokkaan yhteisön. + +```go +// Yhden rivin kommentti +/* Useamman + rivin kommentti */ + +// Package -lausekkeella aloitetaan jokainen lähdekooditiedosto. +// Main on erityinen nimi joka ilmoittaa +// suoritettavan tiedoston kirjaston sijasta. +package main + +// Import -lauseke ilmoittaa tässä tiedostossa käytetyt kirjastot. +import ( + "fmt" // Paketti Go:n oletuskirjastosta. + "io/ioutil" // Implementoi hyödyllisiä I/O -funktioita. + m "math" // Matematiikkakirjasto jolla on paikallinen nimi m. + "net/http" // Kyllä, web-palvelin! + "strconv" // Kirjainjonojen muuntajia. +) + +// Funktion määrittelijä. Main on erityinen: se on ohjelman suorittamisen +// aloittamisen alkupiste. Rakasta tai vihaa sitä, Go käyttää aaltosulkeita. +func main() { + // Println tulostaa rivin stdoutiin. + // Se tulee paketin fmt mukana, joten paketin nimi on mainittava. + fmt.Println("Hei maailma!") + + // Kutsu toista funktiota tämän paketin sisällä. + beyondHello() +} + +// Funktioilla voi olla parametrejä sulkeissa. +// Vaikkei parametrejä olisikaan, sulkeet ovat silti pakolliset. +func beyondHello() { + var x int // Muuttujan ilmoittaminen: ne täytyy ilmoittaa ennen käyttöä. + x = 3 // Arvon antaminen muuttujalle. + // "Lyhyet" ilmoitukset käyttävät := joka päättelee tyypin, ilmoittaa + // sekä antaa arvon muuttujalle. + y := 4 + sum, prod := learnMultiple(x, y) // Funktio palauttaa kaksi arvoa. + fmt.Println("summa:", sum, "tulo:", prod) // Yksinkertainen tuloste. + learnTypes() // < y minuuttia, opi lisää! +} + +/* <- usean rivin kommentti +Funktioilla voi olla parametrejä ja (useita!) palautusarvoja. +Tässä `x`, `y` ovat argumenttejä ja `sum`, `prod` ovat ne, mitä palautetaan. +Huomaa että `x` ja `sum` saavat tyyin `int`. +*/ +func learnMultiple(x, y int) (sum, prod int) { + return x + y, x * y // Palauta kaksi arvoa. +} + +// Sisäänrakennettuja tyyppejä ja todellisarvoja. +func learnTypes() { + // Lyhyt ilmoitus antaa yleensä haluamasi. + str := "Opi Go!" // merkkijonotyyppi. + + s2 := `"raaka" todellisarvoinen merrkijono +voi sisältää rivinvaihtoja.` // Sama merkkijonotyyppi. + + // Ei-ASCII todellisarvo. Go-lähdekoodi on UTF-8. + g := 'Σ' // riimutyyppi, lempinimi int32:lle, sisältää unicode-koodipisteen. + + f := 3.14195 //float64, IEEE-754 64-bittinen liukuluku. + c := 3 + 4i // complex128, sisäisesti ilmaistu kahdella float64:lla. + + // var -syntaksi alkuarvoilla. + var u uint = 7 // Etumerkitön, toteutus riippuvainen koosta kuten int. + var pi float32 = 22. / 7 + + // Muuntosyntaksi lyhyellä ilmoituksella. + n := byte('\n') // byte on leminimi uint8:lle. + + // Listoilla on kiinteä koko kääntöhetkellä. + var a4 [4]int // 4 int:in lista, alkiot ovat alustettu nolliksi. + a3 := [...]int{3, 1, 5} // Listan alustaja jonka kiinteäksi kooksi tulee 3 + // alkiota, jotka saavat arvot 3, 1, ja 5. + + // Siivuilla on muuttuva koko. Sekä listoilla että siivuilla on puolensa, + // mutta siivut ovat yleisempiä käyttötapojensa vuoksi. + s3 := []int{4, 5, 9} // Vertaa a3: ei sananheittoa (...). + s4 := make([]int, 4) // Varaa 4 int:n siivun, alkiot alustettu nolliksi. + var d2 [][]float64 // Vain ilmoitus, muistia ei varata. + bs := []byte("a slice") // Tyypinmuuntosyntaksi. + + // Koska siivut ovat dynaamisia, niitä voidaan yhdistellä sellaisinaan. + // Lisätäksesi alkioita siivuun, käytä sisäänrakennettua append()-funktiota. + // Ensimmäinen argumentti on siivu, johon alkoita lisätään. + s := []int{1, 2, 3} // Tuloksena on kolmen alkion pituinen lista. + s = append(s, 4, 5, 6) // Lisätty kolme alkiota. Siivun pituudeksi tulee 6. + fmt.Println(s) // Päivitetty siivu on nyt [1 2 3 4 5 6] + + // Lisätäksesi siivun toiseen voit antaa append-funktiolle referenssin + // siivuun tai todellisarvoiseen siivuun lisäämällä sanaheiton argumentin + // perään. Tämä tapa purkaa siivun alkiot ja lisää ne siivuun s. + s = append(s, []int{7, 8, 9}...) // 2. argumentti on todellisarvoinen siivu. + fmt.Println(s) // Päivitetty siivu on nyt [1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9] + + p, q := learnMemory() // Ilmoittaa p ja q olevan tyyppiä osoittaja int:iin. + fmt.Println(*p, *q) // * seuraa osoittajaa. Tämä tulostaa kaksi int:ä. + + // Kartat ovat dynaamisesti kasvavia assosiatiivisia listoja, kuten hash tai + // dictionary toisissa kielissä. + m := map[string]int{"three": 3, "four": 4} + m["one"] = 1 + + // Käyttämättömät muuttujat ovat virheitä Go:ssa. + // Alaviiva antaa sinun "käyttää" muuttujan mutta hylätä sen arvon. + _, _, _, _, _, _, _, _, _, _ = str, s2, g, f, u, pi, n, a3, s4, bs + // Tulostaminen tietysti lasketaan muuttujan käyttämiseksi. + fmt.Println(s, c, a4, s3, d2, m) + + learnFlowControl() // Takaisin flowiin. +} + +// Go:ssa on useista muista kielistä poiketen mahdollista käyttää nimettyjä +// palautusarvoja. +// Nimen antaminen palautettavan arvon tyypille funktion ilmoitusrivillä +// mahdollistaa helpon palaamisen useasta eri funktion suorituskohdasta sekä +// pelkän return-lausekkeen käytön ilman muita mainintoja. +func learnNamedReturns(x, y int) (z int) { + z = x * y + return // z on epäsuorasti tässä, koska nimesimme sen aiemmin. +} + +// Go kerää kaikki roskansa. Siinä on osoittajia mutta ei niiden laskentoa. +// Voit tehdä virheen mitättömällä osoittajalla, mutta et +// kasvattamalla osoittajaa. +func learnMemory() (p, q *int) { + // Nimetyillä palautusarvoilla p ja q on tyyppi osoittaja int:iin. + p = new(int) // Sisäänrakennettu funktio new varaa muistia. + // Varattu int on alustettu nollaksi, p ei ole enää mitätön. + s := make([]int, 20) // Varaa 20 int:ä yhteen kohtaan muistissa. + s[3] = 7 // Anna yhdelle niistä arvo. + r := -2 // Ilmoita toinen paikallinen muuttuja. + return &s[3], &r // & ottaa asian osoitteen muistissa. +} + +func expensiveComputation() float64 { + return m.Exp(10) +} + +func learnFlowControl() { + // If -lausekkeet vaativat aaltosulkeet mutta ei tavallisia sulkeita. + if true { + fmt.Println("mitä mä sanoin") + } + // Muotoilu on standardoitu käyttämällä komentorivin komentoa "go fmt". + if false { + // Nyrpistys. + } else { + // Nautinto. + } + // Käytä switch -lauseketta ketjutettujen if -lausekkeiden sijasta. + x := 42.0 + switch x { + case 0: + case 1: + case 42: + // Tapaukset eivät "tipu läpi". + /* + Kuitenkin meillä on erikseen `fallthrough` -avainsana. Katso: + https://github.com/golang/go/wiki/Switch#fall-through + */ + case 43: + // Saavuttamaton. + default: + // Oletustapaus (default) on valinnainen. + } + // Kuten if, for -lauseke ei myöskään käytä tavallisia sulkeita. + // for- ja if- lausekkeissa ilmoitetut muuttujat ovat paikallisia niiden + // piireissä. + for x := 0; x < 3; x++ { // ++ on lauseke. Sama kuin "x = x + 1". + fmt.Println("iteraatio", x) + } + // x == 42 tässä. + + // For on kielen ainoa silmukkalauseke mutta sillä on vaihtoehtosia muotoja. + for { // Päättymätön silmukka. + break // Kunhan vitsailin. + continue // Saavuttamaton. + } + + // Voit käyttää range -lauseketta iteroidaksesi listojen, siivujen, merkki- + // jonojen, karttojen tai kanavien läpi. range palauttaa yhden (kanava) tai + // kaksi arvoa (lista, siivu, merkkijono ja kartta). + for key, value := range map[string]int{"yksi": 1, "kaksi": 2, "kolme": 3} { + // jokaista kartan paria kohden, tulosta avain ja arvo + fmt.Printf("avain=%s, arvo=%d\n", key, value) + } + + // Kuten for -lausekkeessa := if -lausekkeessa tarkoittaa ilmoittamista ja + // arvon asettamista. + // Aseta ensin y, sitten testaa onko y > x. + if y := expensiveComputation(); y > x { + x = y + } + // Todellisarvoiset funktiot ovat sulkeumia. + xBig := func() bool { + return x > 10000 // Viittaa ylempänä ilmoitettuun x:ään. + } + fmt.Println("xBig:", xBig()) // tosi (viimeisin arvo on e^10). + x = 1.3e3 // Tämä tekee x == 1300 + fmt.Println("xBig:", xBig()) // epätosi nyt. + + // Lisäksi todellisarvoiset funktiot voidaan samalla sekä ilmoittaa että + // kutsua, jolloin niitä voidaan käyttää funtioiden argumentteina kunhan: + // a) todellisarvoinen funktio kutsutaan välittömästi (), + // b) palautettu tyyppi vastaa odotettua argumentin tyyppiä. + fmt.Println("Lisää ja tuplaa kaksi numeroa: ", + func(a, b int) int { + return (a + b) * 2 + }(10, 2)) // Kutsuttu argumenteilla 10 ja 2 + // => Lisää ja tuplaa kaksi numeroa: 24 + + // Kun tarvitset sitä, rakastat sitä. + goto love +love: + + learnFunctionFactory() // Funktioita palauttavat funktiot + learnDefer() // Nopea kiertoreitti tärkeään avainsanaan. + learnInterfaces() // Hyvää kamaa tulossa! +} + +func learnFunctionFactory() { + // Seuraavat kaksi ovat vastaavia, mutta toinen on käytännöllisempi + fmt.Println(sentenceFactory("kesä")("Kaunis", "päivä!")) + + d := sentenceFactory("kesä") + fmt.Println(d("Kaunis", "päivä!")) + fmt.Println(d("Laiska", "iltapäivä!")) +} + +// Somisteet ovat yleisiä toisissa kielissä. Sama saavutetaan Go:ssa käyttämällä +// todellisarvoisia funktioita jotka ottavat vastaan argumentteja. +func sentenceFactory(mystring string) func(before, after string) string { + return func(before, after string) string { + return fmt.Sprintf("%s %s %s", before, mystring, after) // uusi jono + } +} + +func learnDefer() (ok bool) { + // Lykätyt lausekkeet suoritetaan juuri ennen funktiosta palaamista. + defer fmt.Println("lykätyt lausekkeet suorittuvat") + defer fmt.Println("käänteisessä järjestyksessä (LIFO).") + defer fmt.Println("\nTämä rivi tulostuu ensin, koska") + // Defer -lauseketta käytetään yleisesti tiedoston sulkemiseksi, jotta + // tiedoston sulkeva funktio pysyy lähellä sen avannutta funktiota. + return true +} + +// Määrittele Stringer rajapintatyypiksi jolla on +// yksi jäsenfunktio eli metodi, String. +type Stringer interface { + String() string +} + +// Määrittele pair rakenteeksi jossa on kaksi kenttää, x ja y tyyppiä int. +type pair struct { + x, y int +} + +// Määrittele jäsenfunktio pair:lle. Pair tyydyttää nyt Stringer -rajapinnan. +func (p pair) String() string { // p:tä kutsutaan nimellä "receiver" + // Sprintf on toinen julkinen funktio paketissa fmt. + // Pistesyntaksilla viitataan P:n kenttiin. + return fmt.Sprintf("(%d, %d)", p.x, p.y) +} + +func learnInterfaces() { + // Aaltosuljesyntaksi on "todellisarvoinen rakenne". Se todentuu alustetuksi + // rakenteeksi. := -syntaksi ilmoittaa ja alustaa p:n täksi rakenteeksi. + p := pair{3, 4} + fmt.Println(p.String()) // Kutsu p:n (tyyppiä pair) jäsenfunktiota String. + var i Stringer // Ilmoita i Stringer-rajapintatyypiksi. + i = p // Pätevä koska pair tyydyttää rajapinnan Stringer. + // Kutsu i:n (Stringer) jäsenfunktiota String. Tuloste on sama kuin yllä. + fmt.Println(i.String()) + + // Funktiot fmt-paketissa kutsuvat argumenttien String-jäsenfunktiota + // selvittääkseen onko niistä saatavilla tulostettavaa vastinetta. + fmt.Println(p) // Tuloste on sama kuin yllä. Println kutsuu String-metodia. + fmt.Println(i) // Tuloste on sama kuin yllä. + + learnVariadicParams("loistavaa", "oppimista", "täällä!") +} + +// Funktioilla voi olla muuttuva eli variteettinen +// määrä argumentteja eli parametrejä. +func learnVariadicParams(myStrings ...interface{}) { + // Iteroi jokaisen argumentin läpi. + // Tässä alaviivalla sivuutetaan argumenttilistan kunkin kohdan indeksi. + for _, param := range myStrings { + fmt.Println("param:", param) + } + + // Luovuta variteettinen arvo variteettisena parametrinä. + fmt.Println("params:", fmt.Sprintln(myStrings...)) + + learnErrorHandling() +} + +func learnErrorHandling() { + // "; ok" -muotoa käytetään selvittääksemme toimiko jokin vai ei. + m := map[int]string{3: "kolme", 4: "neljä"} + if x, ok := m[1]; !ok { // ok on epätosi koska 1 ei ole kartassa. + fmt.Println("ei ketään täällä") + } else { + fmt.Print(x) // x olisi arvo jos se olisi kartassa. + } + // Virhearvo voi kertoa muutakin ongelmasta. + if _, err := strconv.Atoi("ei-luku"); err != nil { // _ sivuuttaa arvon + // tulostaa strconv.ParseInt: parsing "ei-luku": invalid syntax + fmt.Println(err) + } + // Palaamme rajapintoihin hieman myöhemmin. Sillä välin, + learnConcurrency() +} + +// c on kanava, samanaikaisturvallinen viestintäolio. +func inc(i int, c chan int) { + c <- i + 1 // <- on "lähetysoperaattori" kun kanava on siitä vasemmalla. +} + +// Käytämme inc -funktiota samanaikaiseen lukujen lisäämiseen. +func learnConcurrency() { + // Sama make -funktio jota käytimme aikaisemmin siivun luomiseksi. Make + // varaa muistin ja alustaa siivut, kartat ja kanavat. + c := make(chan int) + // Aloita kolme samanaikaista gorutiinia (goroutine). Luvut kasvavat + // samanaikaisesti ja ehkäpä rinnakkain jos laite on kykenevä ja oikein + // määritelty. Kaikki kolme lähettävät samalle kanavalle. + go inc(0, c) // go -lauseke aloittaa uuden gorutiinin. + go inc(10, c) + go inc(-805, c) + // Lue kolme palautusarvoa kanavalta ja tulosta ne. + // Niiden saapumisjärjestystä ei voida taata! + // <- on "vastaanotto-operaattori" jos kanava on oikealla + fmt.Println(<-c, <-c, <-c) + + cs := make(chan string) // Toinen kanava joka käsittelee merkkijonoja. + ccs := make(chan chan string) // Kanava joka käsittelee merkkijonokanavia. + go func() { c <- 84 }() // Aloita uusi gorutiini arvon lähettämiseksi. + go func() { cs <- "sanaa" }() // Uudestaan, mutta cs -kanava tällä kertaa. + // Select -lausekkeella on syntaksi kuten switch -lausekkeella mutta + // jokainen tapaus sisältää kanavaoperaation. Se valitsee satunnaisen + // tapauksen niistä kanavista, jotka ovat kommunikaatiovalmiita + select { + case i := <-c: // Vastaanotettu arvo voidaan antaa muuttujalle + fmt.Printf("se on %T", i) + case <-cs: // tai vastaanotettu arvo voidaan sivuuttaa. + fmt.Println("se on merkkijono") + case <-ccs: // Tyhjä kanava; ei valmis kommunikaatioon. + fmt.Println("ei tapahtunut.") + } + // Tässä vaiheessa arvo oli otettu joko c:ltä tai cs:ltä. Yksi kahdesta + // ylempänä aloitetusta gorutiinista on valmistunut, toinen pysyy tukossa. + + learnWebProgramming() // Go tekee sitä. Sinäkin haluat tehdä sitä. +} + +// Yksittäinen funktio http -paketista aloittaa web-palvelimen. +func learnWebProgramming() { + + // ListenAndServe:n ensimmäinen parametri on TCP-osoite, jota kuunnellaan. + // Toinen parametri on rajapinta, http.Handler. + go func() { + err := http.ListenAndServe(":8080", pair{}) + fmt.Println(err) // älä sivuuta virheitä. + }() + + requestServer() +} + +// Tee pair:sta http.Handler implementoimalla sen ainoa metodi, ServeHTTP. +func (p pair) ServeHTTP(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) { + // Tarjoa dataa metodilla http.ResponseWriter. + w.Write([]byte("Opit Go:n Y minuutissa!")) +} + +func requestServer() { + resp, err := http.Get("http://localhost:8080") + fmt.Println(err) + defer resp.Body.Close() + body, err := ioutil.ReadAll(resp.Body) + fmt.Printf("\nWeb-palvelin sanoo: `%s`", string(body)) +} +``` + +## Lisää luettavaa + +Go-tietämyksen alku ja juuri on sen [virallinen verkkosivu]()(http://golang.org/). +Siellä voit seurata oppitunteja, askarrella vuorovaikutteisesti sekä lukea paljon. +Kierroksen lisäksi [dokumentaatio](https://golang.org/doc/) pitää sisällään tietoa +siistin Go-koodin kirjoittamisesta, pakettien ja komentojen käytöstä sekä julkaisuhistoriasta. + +Kielen määritelmä itsessään on suuresti suositeltavissa. Se on helppolukuinen ja +yllättävän lyhyt (niissä määrin kuin kielimääritelmät nykypäivänä ovat.) + +Voit askarrella parissa kanssa [Go playgroundissa](https://play.golang.org/p/tnWMjr16Mm). +Muuttele sitä ja aja se selaimestasi! Huomaa, että voit käyttää [https://play.golang.org](https://play.golang.org) +[REPL:na](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-eval-print_loop) testataksesi ja koodataksesi selaimessasi, ilman Go:n asentamista. + +Go:n opiskelijoiden lukulistalla on [oletuskirjaston lähdekoodi](http://golang.org/src/pkg/). +Kattavasti dokumentoituna se antaa parhaan kuvan helppolukuisesta ja ymmärrettävästä Go-koodista, +-tyylistä ja -tavoista. Voit klikata funktion nimeä [doukumentaatiossa](http://golang.org/pkg/) ja +lähdekoodi tulee esille! + +Toinen loistava paikka oppia on [Go by example](https://gobyexample.com/). + +Go Mobile lisää tuen mobiilialustoille (Android ja iOS). Voit kirjoittaa pelkällä Go:lla natiiveja applikaatioita tai tehdä kirjaston joka sisältää sidoksia +Go-paketista, jotka puolestaan voidaan kutsua Javasta (Android) ja Objective-C:stä (iOS). Katso [lisätietoja](https://github.com/golang/go/wiki/Mobile). diff --git a/fi-fi/markdown-fi.html.markdown b/fi-fi/markdown-fi.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c5ee52b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/fi-fi/markdown-fi.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,259 @@ +--- +language: markdown +filename: markdown-fi.md +contributors: + - ["Dan Turkel", "http://danturkel.com/"] +translators: + - ["Timo Virkkunen", "https://github.com/ComSecNinja"] +lang: fi-fi +--- + +John Gruber loi Markdownin vuona 2004. Sen tarkoitus on olla helposti luettava ja kirjoitettava syntaksi joka muuntuu helposti HTML:ksi (ja nyt myös moneksi muuksi formaatiksi). + +```markdown +<!-- Jokainen HTML-tiedosto on pätevää Markdownia. Tämä tarkoittaa että voimme +käyttää HTML-elementtejä Markdownissa, kuten kommentteja, ilman että markdown +-jäsennin vaikuttaa niihin. Tästä johtuen et voi kuitenkaan käyttää markdownia +HTML-elementtien sisällä jos luot sellaisen markdown-tiedostoon. --> + +<!-- Markdownin toteutus vaihtelee jäsentimestä toiseen. Tämä opas yrittää +selventää mitkä ominaisuudet ovat yleisiä ja mitkä ovat eritysesti tiettyjen +jäsentimien ominaisuuksia. --> + +<!-- Otsikot --> +<!-- Voit luoda HTML-elementtejä <h1> - <h6> helposti aloittamalla rivin +haluamallasi määrällä ristikkomerkkejä (#). --> +# Tämä on <h1> +## Tämä on <h2> +### Tämä on <h3> +#### Tämä on <h4> +##### Tämä on <h5> +###### Tämä on <h6> + +<!-- Markdownissa on myös vaihtoehtoisia tapoja ilmaista h1 ja h2. --> +Tämä on h1 +============= + +Tämä on h2 +------------- + +<!-- Yksinkertaiset tekstimuotoilut --> +<!-- Tekstin voi helposti muotoilla kursiiviksi tai lihavoiduksi. --> + +*Tämä teksti on kursivoitua.* +_Kuten on myös tämä teksti._ + +**Tämä teksti on lihavoitua.** +__Kuten on tämäkin teksti.__ + +***Tämä teksti on molempia.*** +**_Kuten tämäkin!_** +*__Kuten tämäkin!__* + +<!-- GitHub-tyylisessä Markdownissa, jota käytetään tiedostojen esittämiseksi +GitHubissa, meillä on käytössämme myös yliviivaus: --> + +~~Tämä teksti on yliviivattua.~~ + +<!-- Kappaleet ovat yhdellä tai useammalla peräkkäisellä tekstirivillä jotka +erotellaan yhdellä tai useammalla tyhjällä rivillä --> + +Tämä on kappala. Kirjoittelen kappaleeseen, eikö tämä olekin hauskaa? + +Nyt olen kappaleessa 2. +Olen edelleen toisessa kappaleessa! + + +Olen kolmannessa kappaleessa! + +<!-- Jos haluat lisätä <br /> HTML-elementin, päätä kappale kahdella tai +useammalla välilyönnillä ja aloita sitten uusi kappale --> + +Päätän tämän kahteen välilyöntiin (maalaa minut nähdäksesi ne). + +There's a <br /> above me! + +<!-- Lainaukset ovat helppoja ja ne tehdään >-merkillä --> + +> Tämä on lainaus. Voit joko +> manuaalisesti rivittää tekstisi ja laittaa >-merkin jokaisen rivin eteen tai antaa jäsentimen rivittää pitkät tekstirivit. +> Sillä ei ole merkitystä kunhan rivit alkavat >-merkillä. + +> Voit myös käyttää useampaa +>> sisennystasoa +> Kuinka hienoa se on? + +<!-- Listat --> +<!-- Järjestämättömät listat tehdään asteriskilla, plussalla tai viivalla --> + +* Kohta +* Kohta +* Kolmas kohta + +tai + ++ Kohta ++ Kohta ++ Kolmas kohta + +tai + +- Kohta +- Kohta +- Kolmas kohta + +<!-- Järjestetyt listat tehdään järjestysluvuilla. --> + +1. Kohta yksi +2. Kohta kaksi +3. Kohta kolme + +<!-- Sinun ei tarvitse edes merkitä kohtia oikein ja silti markdown näyttää +oikean järjestyksen, mutta se ei välttämättä ole hyvä idea. --> + +1. Kohta yksi +1. Kohta kaksi +1. Kohta kolme +<!-- (Tämä korjaantuu samanlaiseksi kuin yllä oleva esimerkki) --> + +<!-- Voit myös käyttää alalistoja. --> + +1. Kohta yksi +2. Kohta kaksi +3. Kohta kolme + * Alakohta + * Alakohta +4. Kohta neljä + +<!-- Myös tehtävälistoja on olemassa. Tämä tekee HTML-valintaruutuja. --> + +Alla olevat ruudut ilman x-merkkiä ovat merkitsemättömiä HTML-valintaruutuja. +- [ ] Ensimmäinen suoritettava tehtävä. +- [ ] Toinen tehtävä joka täytyy tehdä +Tämä alla oleva ruutu on merkitty HTML-valintaruutu. +- [x] Tämä tehtävä on suoritettu + +<!-- Koodiosiot --> +<!-- Voit merkitä koodiosion (jaka käyttää <code> -elementtiä) sisentämällä +rivin neljällä välilyönnillä tai tabulaattorilla. --> + + Tämä on koodia + Kuten tämäkin + +<!-- Voit myös sisentää koodia samalla tavalla. --> + + my_array.each do |item| + puts item + end + +<!-- Muun tekstin seassa oleva koodi merkitään kahden `-merkin väliin --> + +John ei tiennyt edes mitä `go_to()` -funktio teki! + +<!-- GitHubin Markdownissa voit käyttää erityissyntaksia koodille. --> + +\`\`\`ruby <!-- paitsi että poista nuo kenoviivat, vain ```ruby ! --> +def foobar + puts "Hello world!" +end +\`\`\` <!-- tästä myös, ei kenoviivoja, vain ``` --> + +<!-- Yllä oleva teksti ei vaadi sisennystä. Lisäksi GitHub käyttää ``` jälkeen +mainitsemasi kielen syntaksin korostusta --> + +<!-- Vaakaviiva (<hr />) --> +<!-- Vaakaviivojen lisääminen käy näppärästi kolmella tai useammalla +asteriskilla taikka viivalla, välilyönneillä tai ilman --> + +*** +--- +- - - +**************** + +<!-- Linkit --> +<!-- yksi markdownin parhaita ominaisuuksia on yksinkertaiset hyperlinkit. Laita +näytettävä teksti hakasulkuihin [] ja URL-osoite perään sulkeissa (). --> + +[Klikkaa tästä!](http://example.com/) + +<!-- Voit myös lisätä linkin otsikon heittomerkeissä osoitteen perään. --> + +[Klikkaa tästä!](http://example.com/ "Linkki Example.com:iin") + +<!-- Suhteelliset polut toimivat myös. --> + +[Musiikkia](/musiikki/). + +<!-- Markdown tukee myös viittaustyylisiä linkkejä. --> + +[Klikkaa tätä linkkiä][link1] saadaksesi lisätietoja! +[Katso myös tämä linkki][foobar] jos haluat. + +[link1]: http://example.com/ "Siistii!" +[foobar]: http://foobar.biz/ "Selkis!" + +<!-- Otsikko voi olla myös ykittäisissä heittomerkeissä tai sulkeissa, tai +ohitettu kokonaan. Viittaukset voivat olla missä tahansa kohdassa dokumenttia ja +viittausten ID:t voivat olla mitä tahansa kunhan ne ovat uniikkeja. --> + +<!-- Voit myös käyttää linkin tekstiä ID:nä näin: --> + +[This][] is a link. + +[this]: http://tämäonlinkki.com/ + +<!-- Mutta tämä tapa ei ole yleinen. --> + +<!-- Kuvat --> +<!-- Kuvat tehdään samalla tavalla kuin linkitkin, mutta huutomerkki edessä! --> + + + +<!-- Ja viittaukset toimivat odotetusti. --> + +![Tämä on se alt-attribuutti][munkuva] + +[munkuva]: suhteellinen/polku/siitii/kuva.jpg "otsikko tähän tarvittaessa" + +<!-- Sekalaista --> +<!-- Automaattiset linkit --> + +<http://testwebsite.com/> on sama kuin +[http://testwebsite.com/](http://testwebsite.com/) + +<!-- Automaattiset sähköpostilinkit --> + +<foo@bar.com> + +<!-- Varattujen merkkien käyttö --> + +haluan kirjoittaa *tämän tekstin jonka ympärillä on asteriskit* mutta en halua +sen kursivoituvan, joten teen näin: \*tämän tekstin ympärillä on asteriskit\*. + +<!-- Näppäimistön näppäimet --> +<!-- GitHubin Markdownissa, voit käyttää <kbd> -tagia esittämään näppäimiä --> + +Tietokoneesi kaatui? Kokeile painaa +<kbd>Ctrl</kbd>+<kbd>Alt</kbd>+<kbd>Del</kbd> + +<!-- Taulukot --> +<!-- Taulukot ovat saatavilla vain GitHubin markdownissa ja ne ovat melko +vaivalloisia käyttää, mutta jos todella haluat: --> + +| Kolumni1 | Kolumni2 | Kolumni3 | +| :----------- | :------: | ------------: | +| Vasemmalle | Keskelle | Oikealle | +| blaa | blaa | blaa | + +<!-- vaihtoehtoisesti, sama tulos --> + +Kolumni 1 | Kolumni 2 | Kolumni 3 +:-- | :-: | --: +Hyi tämä on ruma | saa se | loppumaan + +<!-- Loppu! --> + +``` + +Lisää tietoa löydät John Gruberin [virallisesta julkaisusta](http://daringfireball.net/projects/markdown/syntax) +ja Adam Pritchardin loistavasta [lunttilapusta](https://github.com/adam-p/markdown-here/wiki/Markdown-Cheatsheet). diff --git a/fi-fi/ruby-fi.html.markdown b/fi-fi/ruby-fi.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..52c60182 --- /dev/null +++ b/fi-fi/ruby-fi.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,608 @@ +--- +language: ruby +filename: learnruby-fi.rb +contributors: + - ["David Underwood", "http://theflyingdeveloper.com"] + - ["Joel Walden", "http://joelwalden.net"] + - ["Luke Holder", "http://twitter.com/lukeholder"] + - ["Tristan Hume", "http://thume.ca/"] + - ["Nick LaMuro", "https://github.com/NickLaMuro"] + - ["Marcos Brizeno", "http://www.about.me/marcosbrizeno"] + - ["Ariel Krakowski", "http://www.learneroo.com"] + - ["Dzianis Dashkevich", "https://github.com/dskecse"] + - ["Levi Bostian", "https://github.com/levibostian"] + - ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"] + - ["Gabriel Halley", "https://github.com/ghalley"] + - ["Persa Zula", "http://persazula.com"] + - ["Jake Faris", "https://github.com/farisj"] +translators: + - ["Oliver Vartiainen", "https://github.com/firoxer"] +lang: fi-fi +--- + +```ruby +# Tässä yhden rivin kommentti + +=begin +Tässä usean rivin kommentti +Näitä ei kylläkään käytetä +Joten käytetään vastedes vain yksirivisiä +=end + +# Tärkeintä on muistaa, että Rubyssa kaikki pohjautuu olioihin. + +# Luvutkin ovat olioita: + +3.class #=> Fixnum + +3.to_s #=> "3" + +# Peruslaskutoimituksia: +1 + 1 #=> 2 +8 - 1 #=> 7 +10 * 2 #=> 20 +35 / 5 #=> 7 +2**5 #=> 32 +5 % 3 #=> 2 + +# Bittioperaatioita: +3 & 5 #=> 1 +3 | 5 #=> 7 +3 ^ 5 #=> 6 + +# Laskutoimitukset ovat vain syntaksisokeria lukuolion laskumetodin kutsulle: +1.+(3) #=> 4 +10.* 5 #=> 50 + +# Erityisarvotkin ovat olioita: + +nil # vastaa joidenkin kielten "null"-arvoa +true # tosi +false # epätosi + +nil.class #=> NilClass +true.class #=> TrueClass +false.class #=> FalseClass + +# Samanvertaisuuden testaus: +1 == 1 #=> true +2 == 1 #=> false + +# ...ja sama eriarvoisuudelle: +1 != 1 #=> false +2 != 1 #=> true + +# "nil" ja "false" ovat ainoat epätodet arvot; kaikki muu ymmärretään todeksi: +!nil #=> true +!false #=> true +!0 #=> false + +# Lisää vertailuoperaatioita: +1 < 10 #=> true +1 > 10 #=> false +2 <= 2 #=> true +2 >= 2 #=> true + +# Kahdensuuntainen vertailuoperaattori: +1 <=> 10 #=> -1 +10 <=> 1 #=> 1 +1 <=> 1 #=> 0 + +# Logiikkaoperaattorit: +true && false #=> false +true || false #=> true +!true #=> false + +# Merkkipohjaisten logiikkaoperaattorien vaihtoehtona on sanalliset muodot, +# joilla on hyvin matala presedenssi. Niillä voi muokata ohjelman kulkua +# esimerkiksi väitelausekkeita ketjuttaen. + +# Metodia `do_something_else` kutsutaan vain, jos `do_something` onnistuu: +do_something() and do_something_else() +# Metodia `log_error` kutsutaan vain, jos `do_something` epäonnistuu: +do_something() or log_error() + +# Merkkijonot ovat olioita: + +'Tässä on merkkijono'.class #=> String +"Rajaavat lainausmerkit voivat olla yksin- tai kaksinkertaisia".class #=> String + +täyte = 'sisällyttää muita merkkijonoja' +"Kaksinkertaisilla lainausmerkeillä voi #{täyte}" +#=> "Kaksinkertaisilla lainausmerkeillä voi sisällyttää muita merkkijonoja" + +# Yksinkertaisia lainausmerkkejä kannattaa silti suosia, sillä kaksinkertaiset +# merkit saattavat aiheuttaa turhia kielensisäisiä tarkistuksia. + +# Merkkijonoja voi yhdistellä toisiinsa: +'hello ' + 'world' #=> "hello world" + +# ...mutta luvut vaativat ensin tyyppimuunnoksen: +'hello ' + 3 #=> TypeError: can't convert Fixnum into String +'hello ' + 3.to_s #=> "hello 3" + +# Merkkijonoja voi soveltaa laskutoimituksiin... odotettavin seurauksin: +'hello ' * 3 #=> "hello hello hello " + +# Merkkijonoa voi jatkaa toisella: +'hello' << ' world' #=> "hello world" + +# Tulosteen luonti kera rivinvaihdon: +puts "I'm printing!" +#=> I'm printing! +#=> nil + +# ...ja ilman rivinvaihtoa: +print "I'm printing!" +#=> I'm printing! => nil + +# Muuttujien määrittely: +x = 25 #=> 25 +x #=> 25 + +# Arvon asettaminen palauttaa arvon itsensä, joten usean muuttujan arvon +# yhtäaikainen määrittely käy vaivatta: +x = y = 10 #=> 10 +x #=> 10 +y #=> 10 + +# Muuttujien sanaerottimena käytetään alaviivaa: +snake_case = true + +# Lisäksi Rubyssa suositaan ytimekkäitä nimiä: +path_to_project_root = '/good/name/' +path = '/bad/name/' + +# Symbolit + +# Symbolit ovat muuttumattomia, uudelleenkäytettäviä vakioita. +# Niitä käytetään merkkijonojen sijaan, kun tarkoitus on viitata arvoon, +# jolla on tietty, pysyvä merkitys: + +:pending.class #=> Symbol + +status = :pending + +status == :pending #=> true + +status == 'pending' #=> false + +status == :approved #=> false + +# Taulukot + +# Tässä taulukko: +array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] + +# Taulukko saa koostua erityyppisistä arvoista: +[1, 'hello', false] #=> [1, "hello", false] + +# Taulukon alkioihin voi viitata järjestysnumerolla nollasta alkaen: +array[0] #=> 1 +array.first #=> 1 +array[12] #=> nil + +# Kuten laskutoimituksissa nähty syntaksisokeri on myös taulukon alkioiden haku +# pohjimmiltaan vain taulukko-olioon kuuluvan "[]"-metodin kutsu: +array.[] 0 #=> 1 +array.[] 12 #=> nil + +# Haku käy myös lopustapäin: +array[-1] #=> 5 +array.last #=> 5 + +# Alitaulukon haku käy indeksiparilla... +array[2, 3] #=> [3, 4, 5] + +# ...tai määrittelemällä väli: +array[1..3] #=> [2, 3, 4] + +# Taulukon voi kääntää: +a=[1,2,3] +a.reverse! #=> [3,2,1] + +# Ja sitä voi jatkaa näin... +array << 6 #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] + +# ...tai näin: +array.push(6) #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] + +# Alkion olemassaolon tarkistus: +array.include?(1) #=> true + +# Hashit eli assosiaatiotaulut ovat Rubyn tärkein avain-/arvoparirakenne. +# Hash luodaan aaltosulkeilla: +hash = { 'color' => 'green', 'number' => 5 } + +hash.keys #=> ['color', 'number'] + +# Hash toimii erityisen nopeasti, kun haetaan arvoa avaimen perusteella: +hash['color'] #=> 'green' +hash['number'] #=> 5 + +# Jos hashistä ei löyty avainta vastaavaa arvoa, palautetaan nil-arvo: +hash['nothing here'] #=> nil + +# Symbolihashin määrittelylle on oma syntaksinsa (alkaen Rubyn versiosta 1.9): +new_hash = { defcon: 3, action: true } +new_hash.keys #=> [:defcon, :action] + +# Hashin avaimen ja arvon olemassaolon tarkistus: +new_hash.key?(:defcon) #=> true +new_hash.value?(3) #=> true + +# Vinkki! Sekä taulukot että hashit sisältävät Enumerable-moduulin, +# johon kuuluu useita hyödyllisiä iterointimetodeja kuten .each, .map, +# .reduce ja .count + +# Rakenteita + +if true + 'if statement' +elsif false + 'else if, optional' +else + 'else, also optional' +end + +for counter in 1..5 + puts "iteration #{counter}" +end +#=> iteration 1 +#=> iteration 2 +#=> iteration 3 +#=> iteration 4 +#=> iteration 5 + +# HUOMAA, että for-rakennetta kannattaa välttää, sillä Rubyssa suosittu +# each-metodi ajaa saman asian idiomaattisemmin. Each-metodi ottaa ainoana +# argumenttinaan lohkon. Lohkot toimivat pitkälti samoin kuin muiden kielten +# anonyymit funktiot, lambdat tai sulkeumat. + +# Lukuvälit vastaavat each-metodiin, jolloin sille annettu lohko ajetaan +# kerran jokaiselle välin kokonaisluvulle. +# Lukuvälin each-rakenne lohkoineen näyttää tältä: + +(1..5).each do |counter| + puts "iteration #{counter}" +end +#=> iteration 1 +#=> iteration 2 +#=> iteration 3 +#=> iteration 4 +#=> iteration 5 + +# Lohkoa ympäröivät do/end-avainsanat voi korvata myös aaltosulkeilla: +(1..5).each { |counter| puts "iteration #{counter}" } + +# Lukuvälien lisäksi myös tietorakenteita voidaan iteroida each-metodilla: +array.each do |element| + puts "#{element} is part of the array" +end +hash.each do |key, value| + puts "#{key} is #{value}" +end + +# Taulukoita voi iteroida metodilla each_with_index, jolloin lohko saa +# argumenteikseen sekä alkion että indeksin: +array.each_with_index do |element, index| + puts "#{element} is number #{index} in the array" +end + +counter = 1 +while counter <= 5 do + puts "iteration #{counter}" + counter += 1 +end +#=> iteration 1 +#=> iteration 2 +#=> iteration 3 +#=> iteration 4 +#=> iteration 5 + +# Each-metodin lisäksi Rubyssa on useita muita iterointimetodeja kuten +# "map" ja "reduce". Näistä "map" kutsuttuna taulukolla ottaa argumentikseen +# lohkon, suorittaa sen kerran jokaiselle rakenteen jäsenelle, ja lopuksi +# palauttaa uuden taulukon, jonka jäsenet ovat lohkon suorituksen tuloksia. + +array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] +doubled = array.map do |element| + element * 2 +end +puts doubled +#=> [2,4,6,8,10] +puts array +#=> [1,2,3,4,5] + +# Case-rakenne siirtää ohjelman kulun yhdelle monista määritellyistä poluista: + +grade = 'B' + +case grade +when 'A' + puts 'Way to go kiddo' +when 'B' + puts 'Better luck next time' +when 'C' + puts 'You can do better' +when 'D' + puts 'Scraping through' +when 'F' + puts 'You failed!' +else + puts 'Alternative grading system, eh?' +end +#=> "Better luck next time" + +# Case-rakenteessa voidaan hyödyntää lukuvälejä: +grade = 82 +case grade +when 90..100 + puts 'Hooray!' +when 80...90 + puts 'OK job' +else + puts 'You failed!' +end +#=> "OK job" + +# Virheidenkäsittely: +begin + # Seuraava koodinpätkä aiheuttaa NoMemoryError-poikkeuksen + raise NoMemoryError, 'You ran out of memory.' +rescue NoMemoryError => exception_variable + puts 'NoMemoryError was raised', exception_variable +rescue RuntimeError => other_exception_variable + puts 'RuntimeError was raised now' +else + puts 'This runs if no exceptions were thrown at all' +ensure + puts 'This code always runs no matter what' +end + +# Ylimmän näkyvyysalueen metodi näyttää itsenäiseltä funktiolta: +def double(x) + x * 2 +end + +# Funktiot (ja lohkot) palauttavat implisiittisesti +# viimeiseksi ajamansa lausekkeen arvon: +double(2) #=> 4 + +# Metodikutsun argumentteja ympäröivät kaarisulkeet voi jättää pois, +# kunhan koodi ei muutu monitulkintaiseksi: + +double 3 #=> 6 + +double double 3 #=> 12 + +def sum(x, y) + x + y +end + +# Argumentit erotetaan pilkuilla: + +sum 3, 4 #=> 7 + +sum sum(3, 4), 5 #=> 12 + +# Kaikilla metodeilla on implisiittinen lohkoparametri, +# joka voidaan suorittaa yield-avainsanalla: + +def surround + puts '{' + yield + puts '}' +end + +surround { puts 'hello world' } + +# { +# hello world +# } + +# Metodille annetun lohkon voi nimetä parametrilistassa &-merkin avulla, +# minkä jälkeen se suoritetaan call-metodilla: +def guests(&block) + block.call 'some_argument' +end + +# Metodille voi antaa vaihtelevan määrän muuttujia. Ne siirretään taulukkoon, +# jolle annetaan parametrilistassa nimi \*-merkin avulla +def guests(*array) + array.each { |guest| puts guest } +end + +# Luokan määritys aloitetaan class-avainsanalla: + +class Human + + # Tässä luokkamuuttuja, joka on yhteinen kaikille luokan olioille: + @@species = 'H. sapiens' + + # Alustusmetodin määrittely: + def initialize(name, age = 0) + # name-oliomuuttujan arvon asetus metodille annetun name-muuttujan mukaan: + @name = name + + # Jos tätä metodia kutsuessa jätetään toinen argumentti (age) antamatta, + # saa se parametriluettelossa määritetyn arvon 0: + @age = age + end + + # Tyypillinen oliomuuttujan arvon asettava metodi: + def name=(name) + @name = name + end + + # Tyypillinen oliomuuttujan arvon palauttava metodi: + def name + @name + end + + # Edelliset kaksi metodia voi ilmaista idiomaattisemmin myös näin: + attr_accessor :name + + # Lisäksi arvon palauttavan ja asettavan metodin voi määritellä erikseen: + attr_reader :name + attr_writer :name + + # Luokkametodeissa käytetään avainsanaa self erotuksena oliometodeista. + # Luokkametodia voi kutsua vain luokalla itsellään, ei olioilla: + def self.say(msg) + puts msg + end + + def species + @@species + end +end + +# Olion luonti: + +jim = Human.new('Jim Halpert') + +dwight = Human.new('Dwight K. Schrute') + +# Olion metodien kutsuja: +jim.species #=> "H. sapiens" +jim.name #=> "Jim Halpert" +jim.name = "Jim Halpert II" #=> "Jim Halpert II" +jim.name #=> "Jim Halpert II" +dwight.species #=> "H. sapiens" +dwight.name #=> "Dwight K. Schrute" + +# Luokkametodin kutsu: +Human.say('Hi') #=> "Hi" + +# Muuttujan näkyvyysalueen voi määritellä etuliitteellä. + +# $-alkuiset muuttujat ovat globaaleja: +$var = "I'm a global var" +defined? $var #=> "global-variable" + +# @-alkuiset muuttujat kuuluvat oliolle, +# jonka näkyvyysalueella määrittely tehdään: +@var = "I'm an instance var" +defined? @var #=> "instance-variable" + +# @@-alkuiset muuttujat kuuluvat vastaavasti näkyvyysalueensa luokalle: +@@var = "I'm a class var" +defined? @@var #=> "class variable" + +# Isolla alkukirjaimella nimetyt muuttujat ovatkin vakioita: +Var = "I'm a constant" +defined? Var #=> "constant" + +# Kuten odottaa saattaa, myös luokat itsessään ovat olioita. +# Siksi niille voi määritellä muuttujia, jotka ovat yhteisiä kaikille +# luokan ilmentymille ja perillisille. + +# Tavallisen luokan määrittely: + +class Human + @@foo = 0 + + def self.foo + @@foo + end + + def self.foo=(value) + @@foo = value + end +end + +# Perillisluokan määrittely: + +class Worker < Human +end + +Human.foo # 0 +Worker.foo # 0 + +Human.foo = 2 # 2 +Worker.foo # 2 + +# Oliomuuttuja on kuitenkin olion oma eikä periydy: + +class Human + @bar = 0 + + def self.bar + @bar + end + + def self.bar=(value) + @bar = value + end +end + +class Doctor < Human +end + +Human.bar # 0 +Doctor.bar # nil + +module ModuleExample + def foo + 'foo' + end +end + +# Moduulien lisääminen luokkaan "include"-avainsanalla siirtää moduulin metodit +# luokan ilmentymille, kun taas "extend" avainsana siirtää metodit +# luokalle itselleen: + +class Person + include ModuleExample +end + +class Book + extend ModuleExample +end + +Person.foo # => NoMethodError: undefined method `foo' for Person:Class +Person.new.foo # => 'foo' +Book.foo # => 'foo' +Book.new.foo # => NoMethodError: undefined method `foo' + +# Callback-tyyppiset metodit suoritetaan moduulia sisällyttäessä: + +module ConcernExample + def self.included(base) + base.extend(ClassMethods) + base.send(:include, InstanceMethods) + end + + module ClassMethods + def bar + 'bar' + end + end + + module InstanceMethods + def qux + 'qux' + end + end +end + +class Something + include ConcernExample +end + +Something.bar # => 'bar' +Something.qux # => NoMethodError: undefined method `qux' +Something.new.bar # => NoMethodError: undefined method `bar' +Something.new.qux # => 'qux' +``` + +## Lisämateriaalia englanniksi + +- [Learn Ruby by Example with Challenges](http://www.learneroo.com/modules/61/nodes/338) - Selaimessa tehtäviä harjoituksia tämän dokumentin hengessä +- [An Interactive Tutorial for Ruby](https://rubymonk.com/) +- [Official Documentation](http://www.ruby-doc.org/core-2.1.1/) - Virallinen dokumentaatio +- [Ruby from other languages](https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/documentation/ruby-from-other-languages/) +- [Programming Ruby](http://www.amazon.com/Programming-Ruby-1-9-2-0-Programmers/dp/1937785491/) - Vanhempi, mutta [ilmainen painos](http://ruby-doc.com/docs/ProgrammingRuby/) on luettavissa netissä +- [Ruby Style Guide](https://github.com/bbatsov/ruby-style-guide) - Yhteisön luoma Ruby-tyyliopas +- [Try Ruby](http://tryruby.org) - Rubyn perusteet interaktiivisesti diff --git a/fr-fr/HTML-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/HTML-fr.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4d2da921 --- /dev/null +++ b/fr-fr/HTML-fr.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,116 @@ +--- +language: html +filename: learnhtml-fr.html +contributors: + - ["Christophe THOMAS", "https://github.com/WinChris"] +lang: fr-fr +--- + +HTML signifie HyperText Markup Language. +C'est un langage (format de fichiers) qui permet d'écrire des pages internet. +C’est un langage de balisage, il nous permet d'écrire des pages HTML au moyen de balises (Markup, en anglais). +Les fichiers HTML sont en réalité de simple fichier texte. +Qu'est-ce que le balisage ? C'est une façon de hiérarchiser ses données en les entourant par une balise ouvrante et une balise fermante. +Ce balisage sert à donner une signification au texte ainsi entouré. +Comme tous les autres langages, HTML a plusieurs versions. Ici, nous allons parlons de HTML5. + +**NOTE :** Vous pouvez tester les différentes balises que nous allons voir au fur et à mesure du tutoriel sur des sites comme [codepen](http://codepen.io/pen/) afin de voir les résultats, comprendre, et vous familiariser avec le langage. +Cet article porte principalement sur la syntaxe et quelques astuces. + + +```html +<!-- Les commentaires sont entouré comme cette ligne! --> + +<!-- #################### Les balises #################### --> + +<!-- Voici un exemple de fichier HTML que nous allons analyser --> +<!-- Venez voir ce que ça donne --> + +<!doctype html> + <html> + <head> + <title>Mon Site</title> + </head> + <body> + <h1>Hello, world!</h1> + <a href = "http://codepen.io/anon/pen/xwjLbZ">Venez voir ce que ça donne</a> + <p>Ceci est un paragraphe</p> + <p>Ceci est un autre paragraphe</p> + <ul> + <li>Ceci est un item d'une liste non ordonnée (liste à puces)</li> + <li>Ceci est un autre item</li> + <li>Et ceci est le dernier item de la liste</li> + </ul> + </body> + </html> + +<!-- Un fichier HTML débute toujours par indiquer au navigateur que notre page est faite en HTML --> + +<!doctype html> + +<!-- Après ça on commence par ouvrir une balise <html> --> +<html> +</html> +<!-- Et puis on la referme à la fin du fichier avec </html> --> +<!-- après cette balise de fin, plus rien ne doit apparaître. --> + +<!-- À l'intérieur (entre la balise ouvrant et fermante <html></html>), on trouve : --> + +<!-- Un entête (<head> en anglais ; il faut le refermer avec </head>) --> +<!-- L'entête contient des descriptions et informations annexes qui ne sont pas affichées : se sont les métadonnées --> + +<head> + <title>Mon Site</title><!-- La balise <title> permet d'indiquer au navigateur le titre à afficher dans la barre de l'onglet de la fenêtre --> +</head> + +<!-- Après la balise <head>, on trouve la balise <body> --> +<!-- Pour le moment, rien n'est encore affiché dans la fenêtre du navigateur. --> +<!-- Il faut ensuite remplir le corps (balise <body>) avec du contenu --> + +<body> + <h1>Hello, world!</h1> <!-- La balise h1 permet de structurer le texte, c'est un titre --> + <!-- Il exite différents sous-titres à <h1> qui sont hiérarchisés du plus important (h2) au plus précis (h6) --> + <a href = "http://codepen.io/anon/pen/xwjLbZ">Venez voir ce que ça donne</a> <!-- Lien vers la source cible indiqué dans href="" --> + <p>Ceci est un paragraphe </p> <!-- La balise <p> permet d'inclure du texte à la page html --> + <p>Ceci est un autre paragraphe</p> + <ul> <!-- La balise <ul> permet d'introduire une liste à puces --> + <!-- Si on souhaite une liste ordonnée : <ol> liste numérotée, 1. pour le premier élément, 2. pour le second, etc --> + <li>Ceci est un item d'une liste non ordonnée (liste à puces)</li> + <li>Ceci est un autre item</li> + <li>Et ceci est le dernier item de la liste</li> + </ul> +</body> + +<!-- Voilà comment créer un fichier HTML simple --> + +<!-- Mais il est possible d'ajouter encore des balises plus spécifiques --> + +<!-- Pour insérer une image --> +<img src="http://i.imgur.com/XWG0O.gif"/> <!-- On indique la source de l'image dans src="" --> +<!-- La source peut-être un URL ou encore la destination d'un fichier de votre ordinateur --> + +<!-- Il est possible de réaliser des tableaux également --> + +<table> <!-- On ouvre la balise <table> --> + <tr> <!-- <tr> permet de créer une ligne --> + <th>First Header</th> <!-- <th> permet de créer un titre au tableau --> + <th>Second Header</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Première ligne, première cellule</td> <!-- <td> permet de créer une cellule --> + <td>Première ligne, deuxième cellule</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Deuxième ligne, première cellule</td> + <td>Deuxième ligne, deuxième cellule</td> + </tr> +</table> + +## Utilisation + +Le HTML s'écrit dans des fichiers `.html`. + +## En savoir plus + +* [Tutoriel HTML](http://slaout.linux62.org/html_css/html.html) +* [W3School](http://www.w3schools.com/html/html_intro.asp) diff --git a/fr-fr/brainfuck-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/bf-fr.html.markdown index 545e407e..0fae6032 100644 --- a/fr-fr/brainfuck-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/bf-fr.html.markdown @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ --- -language: brainfuck +language: bf filename: learnbrainfuck-fr.bf contributors: - ["Prajit Ramachandran", "http://prajitr.github.io/"] diff --git a/fr-fr/css-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/css-fr.html.markdown index bdab9715..35673c47 100644 --- a/fr-fr/css-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/css-fr.html.markdown @@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ translators: lang: fr-fr --- -Au début du web, il n'y avait pas d'élements visuels, simplement du texte pure. Mais avec le dévelopement des navigateurs, +Au début du web, il n'y avait pas d'élements visuels, simplement du texte pur. Mais avec le dévelopement des navigateurs, des pages avec du contenu visuel sont arrivées. CSS est le langage standard qui existe et permet de garder une séparation entre le contenu (HTML) et le style d'une page web. @@ -16,8 +16,8 @@ le contenu (HTML) et le style d'une page web. En résumé, CSS fournit une syntaxe qui vous permet de cibler des élements présents sur une page HTML afin de leur donner des propriétés visuelles différentes. -Comme tous les autres langages, CSS a plusieurs versions. Ici, nous allons parlons de CSS2.0 -qui n'est pas le plus récent, mais qui reste le plus utilisé et le plus compatible avec les différents navigateur. +Comme tous les autres langages, CSS a plusieurs versions. Ici, nous allons parler de CSS2.0 +qui n'est pas le plus récent, mais qui reste le plus utilisé et le plus compatible avec les différents navigateurs. **NOTE :** Vous pouvez tester les effets visuels que vous ajoutez au fur et à mesure du tutoriel sur des sites comme [dabblet](http://dabblet.com/) afin de voir les résultats, comprendre, et vous familiariser avec le langage. Cet article porte principalement sur la syntaxe et quelques astuces. @@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ Cet article porte principalement sur la syntaxe et quelques astuces. /* Généralement, la première déclaration en CSS est très simple */ selecteur { propriete: valeur; /* autres proprietés...*/ } -/* Le sélécteur sert à cibler un élément du HTML +/* Le sélecteur sert à cibler un élément du HTML Vous pouvez cibler tous les éléments d'une page! */ * { color:red; } diff --git a/fr-fr/d.html.markdown b/fr-fr/d.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..bfb9f2ce --- /dev/null +++ b/fr-fr/d.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,264 @@ +--- +language: D +filename: learnd-fr.d +contributors: + - ["Nick Papanastasiou", "www.nickpapanastasiou.github.io"] +translators: + - ["Quentin Ladeveze", "aceawan.eu"] +lang: fr-fr +--- + +```c +// Commençons par un classique +module hello; + +import std.stdio; + +// args n'est pas obligatoire +void main(string[] args) { + writeln("Bonjour le monde !"); +} +``` + +Si vous êtes comme moi et que vous passez beaucoup trop de temps sur internet, il y a +de grandes chances pour que vous ayez déjà entendu parler du [D](http://dlang.org/). +D est un langage de programmation moderne, généraliste, multi-paradigmes qui contient +des fonctionnalités aussi bien de bas niveau que de haut niveau. + +D est activement développé par de nombreuses personnes très intelligents, guidées par +[Walter Bright](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Bright))) et +[Andrei Alexandrescu](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Alexandrescu). +Après cette petite introduction, jetons un coup d'oeil à quelques exemples. + +```c +import std.stdio; + +void main() { + //Les conditions et les boucles sont classiques. + for(int i = 0; i < 10000; i++) { + writeln(i); + } + + // On peut utiliser auto pour inférer automatiquement le + // type d'une variable. + auto n = 1; + + // On peut faciliter la lecture des valeurs numériques + // en y insérant des `_`. + while(n < 10_000) { + n += n; + } + + do { + n -= (n / 2); + } while(n > 0); + + // For et while sont très utiles, mais en D, on préfère foreach. + // Les deux points : '..', créent un intervalle continue de valeurs + // incluant la première mais excluant la dernière. + foreach(i; 1..1_000_000) { + if(n % 2 == 0) + writeln(i); + } + + // On peut également utiliser foreach_reverse pour itérer à l'envers. + foreach_reverse(i; 1..int.max) { + if(n % 2 == 1) { + writeln(i); + } else { + writeln("Non !"); + } + } +} +``` +On peut définir de nouveaux types avec les mots-clés `struct`, `class`, +`union` et `enum`. Ces types sont passés au fonction par valeur (ils sont copiés) +De plus, on peut utiliser les templates pour rendre toutes ces abstractions génériques. + +```c +// Ici, 'T' est un paramètre de type. Il est similaire au <T> de C++/C#/Java. +struct LinkedList(T) { + T data = null; + + // Utilisez '!' pour instancier un type paramétré. + // Encore une fois semblable à '<T>' + LinkedList!(T)* next; +} + +class BinTree(T) { + T data = null; + + // Si il n'y a qu'un seul paramètre de template, + // on peut s'abstenir de mettre des parenthèses. + BinTree!T left; + BinTree!T right; +} + +enum Day { + Sunday, + Monday, + Tuesday, + Wednesday, + Thursday, + Friday, + Saturday, +} + +// Utilisez alias pour créer des abreviations pour les types. +alias IntList = LinkedList!int; +alias NumTree = BinTree!double; + +// On peut tout aussi bien créer des templates de function ! +T max(T)(T a, T b) { + if(a < b) + return b; + + return a; +} + +// On peut utiliser le mot-clé ref pour s'assurer que quelque chose est passé +// par référence, et ceci, même si a et b sont d'ordinaire passés par valeur. +// Ici ils seront toujours passés par référence à 'swap()'. +void swap(T)(ref T a, ref T b) { + auto temp = a; + + a = b; + b = temp; +} + +// Avec les templates, on peut également passer des valeurs en paramètres. +class Matrix(uint m, uint n, T = int) { + T[m] rows; + T[n] columns; +} + +auto mat = new Matrix!(3, 3); // T est 'int' par défaut + +``` +À propos de classes, parlons des propriétés. Une propriété est, en gros, +une méthode qui peut se comporter comme une lvalue. On peut donc utiliser +la syntaxe des structures classiques (`struct.x = 7`) comme si il +s'agissait de méthodes getter ou setter. + +```c +// Considérons une classe paramétrée avec les types 'T' et 'U' +class MyClass(T, U) { + T _data; + U _other; +} + +// Et des méthodes "getter" et "setter" comme suit: +class MyClass(T, U) { + T _data; + U _other; + + // Les constructeurs s'apellent toujours 'this'. + this(T t, U u) { + // Ceci va appeller les setters ci-dessous. + data = t; + other = u; + } + + // getters + @property T data() { + return _data; + } + + @property U other() { + return _other; + } + + // setters + @property void data(T t) { + _data = t; + } + + @property void other(U u) { + _other = u; + } +} + +// Et on l'utilise de cette façon: +void main() { + auto mc = new MyClass!(int, string)(7, "seven"); + + // Importer le module 'stdio' de la bibliothèque standard permet + // d'écrire dans la console (les imports peuvent être locaux à une portée) + import std.stdio; + + // On appelle les getters pour obtenir les valeurs. + writefln("Earlier: data = %d, str = %s", mc.data, mc.other); + + // On appelle les setter pour assigner de nouvelles valeurs. + mc.data = 8; + mc.other = "eight"; + + // On appelle les setter pour obtenir les nouvelles valeurs. + writefln("Later: data = %d, str = %s", mc.data, mc.other); +} +``` +Avec les propriétés, on peut constuire nos setters et nos getters +comme on le souhaite, tout en gardant un syntaxe très propre, +comme si on accédait directement à des membres de la classe. + +Les autres fonctionnalités orientées objets à notre disposition +incluent les interfaces, les classes abstraites, et la surcharge +de méthodes. D gère l'héritage comme Java: On ne peut hériter que +d'une seule classe et implémenter autant d'interface que voulu. + +Nous venons d'explorer les fonctionnalités objet du D, mais changeons +un peu de domaine. D permet la programmation fonctionelle, avec les fonctions +de premier ordre, les fonctions `pure` et les données immuables. +De plus, tout vos algorithmes fonctionelles favoris (map, reduce, filter) +sont disponibles dans le module `std.algorithm`. + +```c +import std.algorithm : map, filter, reduce; +import std.range : iota; // construit un intervalle excluant la dernière valeur. + +void main() { + // On veut un algorithm qui affiche la somme de la listes des carrés + // des entiers paires de 1 à 100. Un jeu d'enfant ! + + // On se content de passer des expressions lambda en paramètre à des templates. + // On peut fournier au template n'importe quelle fonction, mais dans notre + // cas, les lambdas sont pratiques. + auto num = iota(1, 101).filter!(x => x % 2 == 0) + .map!(y => y ^^ 2) + .reduce!((a, b) => a + b); + + writeln(num); +} +``` + +Vous voyez comme on a calculé `num` comme on le ferait en haskell par exemple ? +C'est grâce à une innvoation de D qu'on appelle "Uniform Function Call Syntax". +Avec l'UFCS, on peut choisir d'écrire un appelle à une fonction de manière +classique, ou comme un appelle à une méthode. Walter Brighter a écrit un +article en anglais sur l'UFCS [ici.](http://www.drdobbs.com/cpp/uniform-function-call-syntax/232700394) +Pour faire court, on peut appeller une fonction dont le premier paramètre +est de type A, comme si c'était une méthode de A. + +J'aime le parallélisme. Vous aimez les parallélisme ? Bien sur que vous aimez ça +Voyons comment on le fait en D ! + +```c +import std.stdio; +import std.parallelism : parallel; +import std.math : sqrt; + +void main() { + // On veut calculer la racine carré de tous les nombres + // dans notre tableau, et profiter de tous les coeurs + // à notre disposition. + auto arr = new double[1_000_000]; + + // On utilise un index et une référence à chaque élément du tableau. + // On appelle juste la fonction parallel sur notre tableau ! + foreach(i, ref elem; parallel(arr)) { + ref = sqrt(i + 1.0); + } +} + + +``` diff --git a/fr-fr/go-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/go-fr.html.markdown index 16558e7e..9d8bef70 100644 --- a/fr-fr/go-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/go-fr.html.markdown @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ name: Go category: language language: Go lang: fr-fr -filename: learngo.go +filename: learngo-fr.go contributors: - ["Sonia Keys", "https://github.com/soniakeys"] - ["Christopher Bess", "https://github.com/cbess"] diff --git a/fr-fr/hy-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/hy-fr.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..bd7c6839 --- /dev/null +++ b/fr-fr/hy-fr.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,180 @@ +--- +language: hy +filename: learnhy-fr.hy +contributors: + - ["Abhishek L", "http://twitter.com/abhishekl"] +translators: + - ["Hughes Perreault", "https://github.com/hperreault"] +lang: fr-fr +--- + +Hy est un dialecte du lisp bâti par dessus python. Il fonctionne en +convertissant le code hy en un arbre de syntaxe abstraite de python (ast). +Ceci permet à hy d'appeler du code python et à python d'appeler du code hy. + +Ce tutoriel fonctionne pour hy > 0.9.12 + +```clojure +;; Ceci est une introduction simple à hy, pour un tutoriel rapide aller à +;; http://try-hy.appspot.com +;; +; Les commentaires se font avec des points-virgules, comme les autres LISPS + +;; les s-expression de bases +; Les programmes Lisp sont fait d'expressions symboliques ou sexps qui +; ressemblent à +(some-function args) +; maintenant le quintessentiel hello world +(print "hello world") + +;; les types de données simples +; Tous les types de données simples sont exactement similaires à leurs +; homologues de python +42 ; => 42 +3.14 ; => 3.14 +True ; => True +4+10j ; => (4+10j) un nombre complexe + +; Commençons par un peu d'arithmétique très simple +(+ 4 1) ;=> 5 +; l'opérateur est appliqué à tous les arguments, comme les autres lisps +(+ 4 1 2 3) ;=> 10 +(- 2 1) ;=> 1 +(* 4 2) ;=> 8 +(/ 4 1) ;=> 4 +(% 4 2) ;=> 0 l'opérateur modulo +; l'opérateur d'élévation à la puissance est représenté par ** comme en python +(** 3 2) ;=> 9 +; les expressions imbriquées vont se comporter comme on s'y attend +(+ 2 (* 4 2)) ;=> 10 +; aussi, les opérateurs logiques and or not et equal to etc. vont se comporter +; comme on s'y attend +(= 5 4) ;=> False +(not (= 5 4)) ;=> True + +;; variables +; les variables sont déclarées en utilisant setv, les noms de variables +; peuvent utiliser l'UTF-8 à l'exception de ()[]{}",'`;#| +(setv a 42) +(setv π 3.14159) +(def *foo* 42) +;; d'autres types de conteneurs +; les chaînes, les listes, les tuples et dicts +; ce sont exactement les mêmes que les types de conteneurs de python +"hello world" ;=> "hello world" +; les opérations sur les chaînes fonctionnent comme en python +(+ "hello " "world") ;=> "hello world" +; les listes sont créés en utilisant [], l'indexation commence à 0 +(setv mylist [1 2 3 4]) +; les tuples sont des structures de données immuables +(setv mytuple (, 1 2)) +; les dictionnaires sont des paires clé-valeur +(setv dict1 {"key1" 42 "key2" 21}) +; :nom peut être utilisé pour définir des mots clés dans hy qui peuvent être +; utilisées comme clés +(setv dict2 {:key1 41 :key2 20}) +; utilisez `get' pour obtenir l'élément à l'index / clé +(get mylist 1) ;=> 2 +(get dict1 "key1") ;=> 42 +; Alternativement, si des mots clés ont été utilisés, l'élément peut être +; obtenu directement +(:key1 dict2) ;=> 41 + +;; fonctions et autres constructions de programme +; les fonctions sont définies en utilisant defn, la dernière sexp est renvoyé par défaut +(defn greet [name] + "A simple greeting" ; une docstring optionnelle + (print "hello " name)) + +(greet "bilbo") ;=> "hello bilbo" + +; les fonctions peuvent prendre des arguments optionnels ainsi que des +; arguments sous forme de mots clés +(defn foolists [arg1 &optional [arg2 2]] + [arg1 arg2]) + +(foolists 3) ;=> [3 2] +(foolists 10 3) ;=> [10 3] + +; les fonctions anonymes sont créés en utilisant `fn' ou `lambda' +; qui sont semblable à `defn ' +(map (fn [x] (* x x)) [1 2 3 4]) ;=> [1 4 9 16] + +;; Opérations sur les séquences +; hy a des utilitaires natifs pour les opérations sur les séquences etc. +; récupérez le premier élément en utilisant `first' ou `car' +(setv mylist [1 2 3 4]) +(setv mydict {"a" 1 "b" 2}) +(first mylist) ;=> 1 + +; découpez les listes en utilisant slice +(slice mylist 1 3) ;=> [2 3] + +; obtenez les éléments d'une liste ou dict en utilisant `get' +(get mylist 1) ;=> 2 +(get mydict "b") ;=> 2 +; l'indexation des listes commence à 0 comme en python +; assoc peut définir les éléments à clés/index +(assoc mylist 2 10) ; makes mylist [1 2 10 4] +(assoc mydict "c" 3) ; makes mydict {"a" 1 "b" 2 "c" 3} +; il ya tout un tas d'autres fonctions de base qui rend le travail avec +; les séquences amusant + +;; les importations fonctionnent comme en pyhtonn +(import datetime) +(import [functools [partial reduce]]) ; importe fun1 et fun2 de module1 +(import [matplotlib.pyplot :as plt]) ; faire une importation foo comme bar +; toutes les méthodes natives de python sont accessibles à partir de hy +; a.foo(arg) est appelé (.foo a arg) +(.split (.strip "hello world ")) ;=> ["hello" "world"] + +;; Conditionelles +; (if condition (body-if-true) (body-if-false) +(if (= passcode "moria") + (print "welcome") + (print "Speak friend, and Enter!")) + +; imbriquez plusieurs if else if avec le mot clé cond +(cond + [(= someval 42) + (print "Life, universe and everything else!")] + [(> someval 42) + (print "val too large")] + [(< someval 42) + (print "val too small")]) + +; groupez les expressions avec do, ceux-ci seront executé séquentiellemnt +; les expressions comme defn ont un do implicite +(do + (setv someval 10) + (print "someval is set to " someval)) ;=> 10 + +; créer une liaison lexicale avec `let', toutes les variables déclarées +; comme cela ont une portée locale +(let [[nemesis {"superman" "lex luther" + "sherlock" "moriarty" + "seinfeld" "newman"}]] + (for [(, h v) (.items nemesis)] + (print (.format "{0}'s nemesis was {1}" h v)))) + +;; classes +; les classes sont définies comme ceci +(defclass Wizard [object] + [[--init-- (fn [self spell] + (setv self.spell spell) ; init the spell attr + None)] + [get-spell (fn [self] + self.spell)]]) + +;; allez voir hylang.org +``` + +### Lectures complémentaires + +Ce tutoriel est juste une simple introduction à hy/lisp/python. + +La documentation de HY: [http://hy.readthedocs.org](http://hy.readthedocs.org) + +Le repo GitHub de HY: [http://github.com/hylang/hy](http://github.com/hylang/hy) + +Sur freenode irc #hy, twitter hashtag #hylang diff --git a/fr-fr/javascript-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/javascript-fr.html.markdown index 15478cdb..f1977dac 100644 --- a/fr-fr/javascript-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/javascript-fr.html.markdown @@ -6,23 +6,26 @@ contributors: filename: javascript-fr.js translators: - ['@nbrugneaux', 'https://nicolasbrugneaux.me'] + - ['Michel Antoine', 'https://github.com/antoin-m'] lang: fr-fr --- JavaScript a été créé par Brendan Eich, travaillant alors a Netscape, en 1995. Le langage avait à l'origine pour but d'être un langage de scripting simple pour les sites web, complétant le Java (à ne pas confondre avec JavaScript) -pour des applications web complexes. Mais son intégration très proche et -simple des pages web, ainsi que le support natif des navigateurs a rendu -le JavaScript incontournable aujourd'hui tant bien dans le front-end que +pour des applications web complexes. Mais son intégration très proche et +simple des pages web, ainsi que le support natif des navigateurs a rendu +le JavaScript incontournable aujourd'hui tant bien dans le front-end que dans le back-end. En effet, le JavaScript n'est plus uniquement limité aux navigateurs, grâce à -Node.JS, un projet qui offre un environnement indépendant dans lequel un -interpréteur Javascript, basé sur le célèbre moteur V8 de Google Chrome, +Node.JS, un projet qui offre un environnement indépendant dans lequel un +interpréteur Javascript, basé sur le célèbre moteur V8 de Google Chrome, peut être utilisé directement côté serveur pour exécuter des programmes écrits en JavaScript. +ECMAScript (la norme du langage Javascript) entre en version 6. Cette version introduit de nombreuses mises à jour tout en restant rétrocompatible. L'implémentation de ces nouvelles fonctionnalités est en cours et celles-ci ne sont donc pas forcément compatibles avec tous les navigateurs. + ```js // Les commentaires sont comme en C. Les commentaires mono-ligne commencent par 2 slashs, /* et les commentaires sur plusieurs lignes commencent avec slash-étoile @@ -31,7 +34,7 @@ en JavaScript. // Toutes les expressions peuvent finir par ; doStuff(); -// ... mais n'en n'ont pas forcément besoin, les point-virgules sont ajoutés +// ... mais n'en n'ont pas forcément besoin, les point-virgules sont ajoutés // lors de l’interprétation aux sauts de ligne, sauf exceptions doStuff() @@ -79,6 +82,12 @@ false; // faux "abc"; 'Hello, world'; +// *ES6:* Les chaines de caractères peuvent être crées en utilisant un modèle +// entouré des quotes inverses (`) à la place des quotes classiques (' ou "). +// Les variables sont interprétées avec ${var} +let banta = "Harry", santa = "Hermione"; +`${banta}, your santa is ${santa}.` // = "Harry, your santa is Hermione." + // La négation utilise le symbole ! !true; // = false !false; // = true @@ -117,26 +126,34 @@ false; // faux // Il y a également null et undefined null; // utilisé pour une non-valeur -undefined; // utilisé pour une valeur actuellement non présente (cependant, +undefined; // utilisé pour une valeur actuellement non présente (cependant, // undefined est aussi une valeur valide) // false, null, undefined, NaN, 0 and '' sont 'presque-faux' (falsy), tout le reste // est 'presque-vrai' (truthy) // Notez que 0 est falsy mais '0' est truthy, alors même que 0 == '0' (mais 0 !== '0') +// *ES6:* Introduction d'un nouveau type primitif : Symbol +var symbol_one = Symbol(); +var symbol_two = Symbol('This is optional description, for debugging'); +typeof symbol_one === 'symbol' // = true + +// *ES6:* Un Symbol est immutable et unique +Symbol() === Symbol() // = false +Symbol('learnx') === Symbol('learnx') // = false /////////////////////////////////// -// 2. Variables, Tableaux et Objets +// 2. Variables, Tableaux, Objets, Maps et Sets -// Les variables sont déclarées avec le mot clé var. Le typage en JavaScript est +// Les variables sont déclarées avec le mot clé var. Le typage en JavaScript est // dynamique, donc pas besoin de spécifier le type. L'assignement utilise un seul =. var someVar = 5; // si vous oubliez le mot clé var, vous n'aurez pas d'erreur (sauf en mode strict) someOtherVar = 10; -// ... mais la variable aura une portée globale (plus communément trouvé en tant -// que "global scope" en anglais), et non pas une portée limitée à la fonction +// ... mais la variable aura une portée globale (plus communément trouvé en tant +// que "global scope" en anglais), et non pas une portée limitée à la fonction // dans laquelle vous l'aviez définie. // Les variables déclarées et non assignées sont undefined par défaut @@ -145,6 +162,32 @@ var someThirdVar = undefined; // ... sont deux déclarations identiques. +// Il est possible de déclarer plusieurs variables en séparant leur déclaration +// avec l'opérateur virgule +var someFourthVar = 2, someFifthVar = 4; + +// *ES6:* Les variables peuvent maintenant être déclarées avec les mots-clés +// `let` et `const` +let someSixthVar = 6; +const someSeventhVar = 7; + +// *ES6:* Le mot-clé `let` attache la variable au block de code et non à la fonction +// à l'inverse de `var` +for (let i = 0; i < 10; i++) { + x += 10; +} +i; // = raises ReferenceError + +// *ES6:* Les variables "const" doivent être assignées lors de l'initialisation +const someEighthVar = 7; +const someNinthVar; // raises SyntaxError + +// *ES6:* Modifier une variable constante ne lève par d'erreur mais échoue +// silencieusement +const someNinthVar = 9; +someNinthVar = 10; +someNinthVar; // = 9 + // Il y a des raccourcis pour les opérations mathématiques: someVar += 5; // équivalent pour someVar = someVar + 5; someVar *= 10; // de même, someVar = someVar * 100; @@ -165,6 +208,22 @@ myArray.length; // = 4 // Ajout/Modification à un index spécifique myArray[3] = 'Hello'; +// *ES6:* Les Arrays peuvent maintenant être déstructurés en utilisant le pattern matching +var [a, b] = [1, 2]; +var [a, , b] = [1, -2, 2] + +a; // = 1 +b; // = 2 + +// *ES6:* La déstructuration peut échouer silencieusement. +// Il est aussi possible d'utiliser des valeurs par défaut +var [a] = []; +a; // = undefined; +var [a = 1] = []; +a; // = 1; +var [a = 1] = [2]; +a; // = 2; + // Les objets JavaScript sont appelés 'dictionnaires' ou 'maps' dans certains autres // langages : ils sont une liste non-ordonnée de paires clé-valeur. var myObj = {key1: 'Hello', key2: 'World'}; @@ -179,12 +238,55 @@ myObj['my other key']; // = 4 // .. ou avec un point si la clé est un identifiant valide. myObj.myKey; // = 'myValue' +// *ES6:* Un Symbol peut être utilisé en tant que clé. Puisque ceux-ci sont uniques, +// le seul moyen d'accéder à la propriété est d'avoir une référence sur ce Symbol. +myObj["key"] = "public value"; +myObj[Symbol("key")] = "secret value"; +myObj[Symbol("key")]; // = undefined + // Les objets sont eux aussi modifiables. myObj.myThirdKey = true; // Si vous essayez d'accéder à une valeur non-définie, vous obtiendrez undefined myObj.myFourthKey; // = undefined +// *ES6:* Comme les Arrays, les Objects peuvent être déstructurés en utilisant le pattern matching +var {foo} = {foo: "bar"}; +foo // = "bar" + +// *ES6:* Les Objects déstructurés peuvent utiliser des noms de variables différents +// de ceux d'origine grâce au pattern matching +var {foo, moo: baz} = {foo: "bar", moo: "car"}; +foo // = "bar" +baz // = "car" + +// *ES6:* Il est possible d'utiliser des valeurs par défaut lor de la déstructuration d'un Object +var {foo="bar"} = {moo: "car"}; +foo // = "bar" + +// *ES6:* Une erreur lors de la déstructuration restera silencieuse +var {foo} = {}; +foo // = undefined + +// *ES6:* Les Maps sont des objets itérables de type clé-valeur. +// Il est possible de créer une nouvelle map en utilisant `new Map()` +var myMap = new Map(); + +// *ES6:* Il est possible d'ajouter un couple clé-valeur avec la méthode `.set()`, +// de récupérer une valeur avec `.get()`, +// de vérifier qu'une clé existe avec `.has()` +// et enfin de supprimer un couple clé-valeur avec `.delete()` + +myMap.set("name", "Douglas"); +myMap.get("name"); // = "Douglas" +myMap.has("name"); // = true +myMap.delete("name"); + +// *ES6:* Les Sets sont des ensembles de valeurs uniques. +// Il est possible de créer un set avec `new Set()`. +// Toute valeur non unique est ignorée. +var mySet = new Set([1,2,2]); +console.log([...mySet]); // = [1,2] /////////////////////////////////// // 3. Logique et structures de contrôle @@ -198,7 +300,7 @@ else if (count === 4) { // uniquement quand count est 4 } else { - // le reste du temps, si ni 3, ni 4. + // le reste du temps, si ni 3, ni 4. } // De même pour while. @@ -218,6 +320,22 @@ for (var i = 0; i < 5; i++){ // sera exécutée 5 fois } +// La boucle for...in permet d'itérer sur les noms des propriétés d'un objet +var description = ""; +var person = {fname:"Paul", lname:"Ken", age:18}; +for (var x in person){ + description += person[x] + " "; +} +description; // = "Paul Ken 18 " + +// *ES6:* La boucle for...of permet d'itérer sur les propriétés d'un objet +var description = ""; +var person = {fname:"Paul", lname:"Ken", age:18}; +for (var x of person){ + description += x + " "; +} +description; // = "Paul Ken 18 " + // && est le "et" logique, || est le "ou" logique if (house.size === 'big' && house.colour === 'blue'){ house.contains = 'bear'; @@ -264,7 +382,21 @@ function myFunction(thing){ } myFunction('foo'); // = 'FOO' -// Les fonctions JavaScript sont des objets de première classe, donc peuvent +// Attention, la valeur à retourner doit se trouver sur la même ligne que +// le mot-clé `return` sinon la fonction retournera systématiquement `undefined` +function myFunction(){ + return // <- semicolon automatically inserted here + {thisIsAn: 'object literal'} +} +myFunction(); // = undefined + +// *ES6:* Les paramètres des fonctions peuvent désormais avoir des valeurs par défaut +function default(x, y = 2) { + return x + y; +} +default(10); // == 12 + +// Les fonctions JavaScript sont des objets de première classe, donc peuvent // être réassignées à d'autres variables et passées en tant que paramètres pour // d'autres fonctions function myFunction(){ @@ -274,13 +406,17 @@ setTimeout(myFunction, 5000); // Note: setTimeout ne fait pas parti du langage, mais les navigateurs ainsi // que Node.js le rendent disponible -// Les fonctions n'ont pas nécessairement besoin d'un nom, elles peuvent être +// Les fonctions n'ont pas nécessairement besoin d'un nom, elles peuvent être // anonymes setTimeout(function(){ // ce code s'exécutera dans 5 secondes }, 5000); -// Le Javascript crée uniquement un scope, une portée d'action limitée, pour +// *ES6:* Introduction d'un sucre syntaxique permettant de créer +// une fonction anonyme de la forme : `param => returnValue`. +setTimeout(() => console.log('5 seconds, are up.'), 5000); + +// Le Javascript crée uniquement un scope, une portée d'action limitée, pour // les fonctions, et pas dans les autres blocs. if (true){ var i = 5; @@ -293,7 +429,7 @@ i; // = 5 - et non undefined comme vous pourriez vous y attendre var temporary = 5; // Nous pouvons accéder au scope global en assignant à l'objet global, // qui dans les navigateurs est "window". Il est différent dans Node.js, - // le scope global sera en fait local au module dans lequel vous + // le scope global sera en fait local au module dans lequel vous // vous trouvez. http://nodejs.org/api/globals.html window.permanent = 10; })(); @@ -302,8 +438,8 @@ i; // = 5 - et non undefined comme vous pourriez vous y attendre temporary; // raises ReferenceError permanent; // = 10 -// Une des fonctionnalités les plus puissantes de Javascript est le système de -// closures. Si une fonction est définie dans une autre fonction, alors la +// Une des fonctionnalités les plus puissantes de Javascript est le système de +// closures. Si une fonction est définie dans une autre fonction, alors la // fonction interne aura accès aux variables de la fonction parente, même si // celle-ci a déjà finie son exécution. function sayHelloInFiveSeconds(name){ @@ -318,6 +454,18 @@ function sayHelloInFiveSeconds(name){ } sayHelloInFiveSeconds('Adam'); // ouvre un popup avec 'Hello, Adam!' dans 5sec +// *ES6:* Les paramètres des fonctions appelées avec un tableau en entré +// préfixé par `...` vont se peupler avec les éléments du tableau +function spread(x, y, z) { + return x + y + z; +} +spread(...[1,2,3]); // == 6 + +// *ES6:* Les fonctions peuvent recevoir les paramètres dans un tableau en utilisant l'opérateur `...` +function spread(x, y, z) { + return x + y + z; +} +spread(...[1,2,3]); // == 6 /////////////////////////////////// // 5. Encore plus à propos des Objets; Constructeurs and Prototypes @@ -340,7 +488,7 @@ myObj = { }; myObj.myFunc(); // = 'Hello world!' -// La valeur de "this" change de par l'endroit où la fonction est appelée, et +// La valeur de "this" change de par l'endroit où la fonction est appelée, et // non de l'endroit où elle est définie. Donc elle ne fonctionnera pas si elle // est appelée hors du contexte l'objet. var myFunc = myObj.myFunc; @@ -356,7 +504,7 @@ myObj.myOtherFunc = myOtherFunc; myObj.myOtherFunc(); // = 'HELLO WORLD!' // Le contexte correspond à la valeur de "this". -// Nous pouvons aussi spécifier un contexte, forcer la valeur de "this, +// Nous pouvons aussi spécifier un contexte, forcer la valeur de "this, // pour une fonction quand elle est appelée grâce à "call" ou "apply". var anotherFunc = function(s){ return this.myString + s; @@ -371,19 +519,19 @@ Math.min(42, 6, 27); // = 6 Math.min([42, 6, 27]); // = NaN (uh-oh!) Math.min.apply(Math, [42, 6, 27]); // = 6 -// Mais, "call" and "apply" fonctionnenent uniquement au moment de l'appel de la -// fonction. Pour lier le contexte de façon permanente, nous pouvons utiliser +// Mais, "call" and "apply" fonctionnenent uniquement au moment de l'appel de la +// fonction. Pour lier le contexte de façon permanente, nous pouvons utiliser // "bind" pour garder une référence à la fonction avec ce "this". var boundFunc = anotherFunc.bind(myObj); boundFunc(' And Hello Saturn!'); // = 'Hello World! And Hello Saturn!' -// "bind" peut aussi être utilisé pour créer une application partielle de la +// "bind" peut aussi être utilisé pour créer une application partielle de la // fonction (curry) var product = function(a, b){ return a * b; } var doubler = product.bind(this, 2); doubler(8); // = 16 -// Lorsque vous appelez une fonction avec le mot clé "new", un nouvel objet est +// Lorsque vous appelez une fonction avec le mot clé "new", un nouvel objet est // crée et mis à disposition de la fonction via "this". Ces fonctions sont // communément appelées constructeurs. var MyConstructor = function(){ @@ -395,8 +543,8 @@ myNewObj.myNumber; // = 5 // Chaque objet en Javascript a un "prototype". Quand vous essayez d'accéder à // une propriété que l'objet n'a pas, l'interpréteur va regarder son prototype. -// Quelques implémentations de JS vous laissent accéder au prototype avec la -// propriété "magique" __proto__. Ceci peut être utile, mais n'est pas standard +// Quelques implémentations de JS vous laissent accéder au prototype avec la +// propriété "magique" __proto__. Ceci peut être utile, mais n'est pas standard // et ne fonctionne pas dans certains des navigateurs actuels. var myObj = { myString: 'Hello world!' @@ -478,7 +626,7 @@ String.prototype.firstCharacter = function(){ 'abc'.firstCharacter(); // = 'a' // C'est très souvent utilisé pour le "polyfilling", qui implémente des nouvelles -// fonctionnalités de JavaScript dans de plus anciens environnements, tels que +// fonctionnalités de JavaScript dans de plus anciens environnements, tels que // les vieux navigateurs. //Par exemple, Object.create est assez récent, mais peut être implémenté grâce à @@ -492,31 +640,83 @@ if (Object.create === undefined){ // pour ne pas reécrire si la fonction existe return new Constructor(); } } + +// *ES6:* Les objets peuvent être équipés de proxies qui permettent d'intercepter +// les actions sur leurs propriétés. Voici comment créer un proxy sur un objet : +var proxyObject = new Proxy(object, handler); + +// *ES6:* Les méthodes d'un objet handler sont appelées lors de l'interception d'une action. +// La méthode `.get()` est appelée à chaque lecture d'une propriété +// tandis que la méthode `.set()` est appelée à chaque écriture. +var handler = { + get (target, key) { + console.info('Get on property' + key); + return target[key]; + }, + set (target, key, value) { + console.info('Set on property' + key); + return true; + } +} + +// *ES6:* Les classes peuvent désormais être définies en utilisant le mot-clé `class`. +// Le constructeur s'appelle `constructor` et les méthodes statiques utilisent le mot-clé `static` +class Foo { + constructor() {console.log("constructing Foo");} + bar() {return "bar";} + static baz() {return "baz";} +} + +// *ES6:* Les objets issus des classes sont initialisés avec le mot-clé `new`. +// Il est possible d'hériter d'une classe avec le mot-clé `extends` +var FooObject = new Foo(); // = "constructing Foo" +class Zoo extends Foo {} + +// *ES6:* Les méthodes statiques doivent être appelées par la classe, les autres méthodes par l'objet +Foo.baz() // = "baz" +FooObject.bar() // = "bar" + +// *ES6:* Il est désormais possible d'exporter des valeurs en tant que module. +// Les exports peuvent être n'importe quel objet, valeur ou fonction. +var api = { + foo: "bar", + baz: "ponyfoo" +}; +export default api; + +// *ES6:* La syntaxe `export default` permet d'exporter l'objet sans en changer le nom. +// Il y a plusieurs façons de l'importer: +import coolapi from "api"; // = importe le module dans la variable `coolapi` +import {foo, baz} from "api"; // = importe les attributs `foo` et `baz` du module +import {foo as moo, baz} from "api"; // = importe les attributs `foo` (en le renommant `moo`) et `baz` du module +import _, {map} from "api"; // = importe les exports par défaut ET `map` +import * as coolapi from "api"; // = importe le namespace global du module + ``` ## Pour aller plus loin (en anglais) The [Mozilla Developer Network](https://developer.mozilla.org/fr-FR/docs/Web/JavaScript) expose une -excellente documentation pour le Javascript dans les navigateurs. Et contient +excellente documentation pour le Javascript dans les navigateurs. Et contient également un wiki pour s'entraider. MDN's [A re-introduction to JavaScript](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript) recouvre les principaux sujets vus ici. Le guide est délibérément uniquement -à propos du JavaScript, et ne parle pas des navigateurs; pour cela, dirigez vous +à propos du JavaScript, et ne parle pas des navigateurs; pour cela, dirigez vous plutôt ici : [Document Object Model](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Using_the_W3C_DOM_Level_1_Core) -[Learn Javascript by Example and with Challenges](http://www.learneroo.com/modules/64/nodes/350) quelques challenges. +[Learn Javascript by Example and with Challenges](http://www.learneroo.com/modules/64/nodes/350) quelques challenges. [JavaScript Garden](http://bonsaiden.github.io/JavaScript-Garden/) is an in-depth un guide pour vous éviter les faux-amis dans le JavaScript. -[JavaScript: The Definitive Guide](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596805527/) un classique. A lire. +[JavaScript: The Definitive Guide](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596805527/) un classique. A lire. -En addition aux contributeurs de cet article, du contenu provient du +En addition aux contributeurs de cet article, du contenu provient du "Python tutorial" de Louie Dinh, et de [JS Tutorial](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript) sur le réseau Mozilla. diff --git a/fr-fr/livescript-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/livescript-fr.html.markdown index 9c3b8003..13bbffe5 100644 --- a/fr-fr/livescript-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/livescript-fr.html.markdown @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ filename: learnLivescript-fr.ls contributors: - ["Christina Whyte", "http://github.com/kurisuwhyte/"] translators: - - ["Morgan Bohn", "https://github.com/morganbohn"] + - ["Morgan Bohn", "https://github.com/dotmobo"] lang: fr-fr --- diff --git a/fr-fr/make-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/make-fr.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..48d24549 --- /dev/null +++ b/fr-fr/make-fr.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,268 @@ +--- +language: make +contributors: + - ["Robert Steed", "https://github.com/robochat"] +translators: + - ["altaris", "https://github.com/altaris"] +filename: Makefile-fr +lang: fr-fr +--- + +Un makefile est un fichier qui définit un ensemble de règles liées entre elles +pour créer une ou plusieurs cibles. L'idée est d'effectuer le moins de travail +possible afin de mettre à jour la ou les cibles en fonction des dépendances. + +Écrit en un week-end par Stuart Feldman en 1976, le make et les +makefiles sont encore très utilisés (principalement dans les systèmes Unix), +malgré la concurrence et les critiques faites à son égard. + +Le programme make a plusieurs variantes. Dans ce tutoriel, nous utiliserons +l'implémentation standard : GNU make. + +```make + +# Ceci est un commentaire. + +# Un makefile devrait être nommé "Makefile" (avec ou sans la +# majuscule). Il peut alors être exécuté par `make <cible>`. +# Ce nommage n'est toutefois pas obligatoire : utiliser +# `make -f "fichier" <cible>`. + +# ATTENTION : l'indentation est quant à elle obligatoire, et se fait avec des +# tabulations, pas avec des espaces ! + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# Les basiques +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +# Une règle. Elle ne sera exécutée que si fichier0.txt n'existe pas. +fichier0.txt: + echo "truc" > fichier0.txt + # Même les commentaires sont transférés dans le terminal. + +# Cette règle ne sera exécutée que si fichier0.txt est plus récent que +# fichier1.txt. +fichier1.txt: fichier0.txt + cat fichier0.txt > fichier1.txt + # Utiliser la même syntaxe que dans un terminal. + @cat fichier0.txt >> fichier1.txt + # @ empêche l'affichage de la sortie texte d'une commande. + -@echo 'hello' + # - signifie que la règle devrait continuer à s'exécuter si cette commande + # échoue. + +# Une règle peut avoir plusieurs cibles et plusieurs dépendances. +fichier2.txt fichier3.txt: fichier0.txt fichier1.txt + touch fichier2.txt + touch fichier3.txt + +# Make affichera un avertissement si le makefile comporte plusieurs règles pour +# une même cible. Cependant les règles vides ne comptent pas, et peuvent être +# utilisées pour ajouter des dépendances plus facilement. + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# Fausses règles +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +# Une fausse règle est une règle qui ne correspond pas à un fichier. +# Par définition, elle ne peut pas être à jour, et donc make l’exécutera à +# chaque demande. +all: maker process + +# La déclaration des règles peut être faite dans n'importe quel ordre. +maker: + touch ex0.txt ex1.txt + +# On peut transformer une règle en fausse règle grâce à la cible spéciale +# suivante : +.PHONY: all maker process + +# Une règle dépendante d'une fausse règle sera toujours exécutée. +ex0.txt ex1.txt: maker + +# Voici quelques exemples fréquents de fausses règles : all, make, clean, +# install... + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# Variables automatiques et wildcards +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +# Utilise un wildcard pour des noms de fichier +process: fichier*.txt + @echo $^ # $^ est une variable contenant la liste des dépendances de la + # cible actuelle. + @echo $@ # $@ est le nom de la cible actuelle. En cas de cibles + # multiples, $@ est le nom de la cible ayant causé l'exécution + # de cette règle. + @echo $< # $< contient la première dépendance. + @echo $? # $? contient la liste des dépendances qui ne sont pas à jour. + @echo $+ # $+ contient la liste des dépendances avec d'éventuels + # duplicatas, contrairement à $^. + @echo $| # $| contient la liste des cibles ayant préséance sur la cible + # actuelle. + +# Même si la définition de la règle est scindée en plusieurs morceaux, $^ +# listera toutes les dépendances indiquées. +process: ex1.txt fichier0.txt +# Ici, fichier0.txt est un duplicata dans $+. + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# Pattern matching +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +# En utilisant le pattern matching, on peut par exemple créer des règles pour +# convertir les fichiers d'un certain format dans un autre. +%.png: %.svg + inkscape --export-png $^ + +# Make exécute une règle même si le fichier correspondant est situé dans un sous +# dossier. En cas de conflit, la règle avec la meilleure correspondance est +# choisie. +small/%.png: %.svg + inkscape --export-png --export-dpi 30 $^ + +# Dans ce type de conflit (même cible, même dépendances), make exécutera la +# dernière règle déclarée... +%.png: %.svg + @echo cette règle est choisie + +# Dans ce type de conflit (même cible mais pas les mêmes dépendances), make +# exécutera la première règle pouvant être exécutée. +%.png: %.ps + @echo cette règle n\'est pas choisie si *.svg et *.ps sont présents + +# Make a des règles pré établies. Par exemple, il sait comment créer la cible +# *.o à partir de *.c. + +# Les makefiles plus vieux utilisent un matching par extension de fichier. +.png.ps: + @echo cette règle est similaire à une règle par pattern matching + +# Utiliser cette règle spéciale pour déclarer une règle comme ayant un +# matching par extension de fichier. +.SUFFIXES: .png + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# Variables, ou macros +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +# Les variables sont des chaînes de caractères. + +variable = Ted +variable2="Sarah" + +echo: + @echo $(variable) + @echo ${variable2} + @echo $variable # Cette syntaxe signifie $(n)ame et non pas $(variable) ! + @echo $(variable3) # Les variables non déclarées valent "" (chaîne vide). + +# Les variables sont déclarées de 4 manières, de la plus grande priorité à la +# plus faible : +# 1 : dans la ligne de commande qui invoque make, +# 2 : dans le makefile, +# 3 : dans les variables d’environnement du terminal qui invoque make, +# 4 : les variables prédéfinies. + +# Assigne la variable si une variable d’environnement du même nom n'existe pas +# déjà. +variable4 ?= Jean + +# Empêche cette variable d'être modifiée par la ligne de commande. +override variable5 = David + +# Concatène à une variable (avec un espace avant). +variable4 +=gris + +# Assignations de variable pour les règles correspondant à un pattern +# (spécifique à GNU make). +*.png: variable2 = Sara # Pour toutes les règles correspondant à *.png, et tous + # leurs descendants, la variable variable2 vaudra + # "Sara". +# Si le jeux des dépendances et descendances devient vraiment trop compliqué, +# des incohérences peuvent survenir. + +# Certaines variables sont prédéfinies par make : +affiche_predefinies: + echo $(CC) + echo ${CXX} + echo $(FC) + echo ${CFLAGS} + echo $(CPPFLAGS) + echo ${CXXFLAGS} + echo $(LDFLAGS) + echo ${LDLIBS} + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# Variables : le retour +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +# Les variables sont évaluées à chaque instance, ce qui peut être coûteux en +# calculs. Pour parer à ce problème, il existe dans GNU make une seconde +# manière d'assigner des variables pour qu'elles ne soient évaluées qu'une seule +# fois seulement. + +var := A B C +var2 ::= $(var) D E F # := et ::= sont équivalents. + +# Ces variables sont évaluées procéduralement (i.e. dans leur ordre +# d'apparition), contrairement aux règles par exemple ! + +# Ceci ne fonctionne pas. +var3 ::= $(var4) et fais de beaux rêves +var4 ::= bonne nuit + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# Fonctions +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +# Make a une multitude de fonctions. La syntaxe générale est +# $(fonction arg0,arg1,arg2...). + +# Quelques exemples : + +fichiers_source = $(wildcard *.c */*.c) +fichiers_objet = $(patsubst %.c,%.o,$(fichiers_source)) + +ls: * src/* + @echo $(filter %.txt, $^) + @echo $(notdir $^) + @echo $(join $(dir $^),$(notdir $^)) + +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- +# Directives +#----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +# Inclut d'autres makefiles. +include meuh.mk + +# Branchements conditionnels. +sport = tennis +report: +ifeq ($(sport),tennis) # Il y a aussi ifneq. + @echo 'jeu, set et match' +else + @echo "C'est pas ici Wimbledon ?" +endif + +truc = true +ifdef $(truc) # Il y a aussi ifndef. + machin = 'salut' +endif +``` + +## Quelques références + +### En français + ++ [Introduction à Makefile (developpez.com)] +(http://gl.developpez.com/tutoriel/outil/makefile/), ++ [Compilez sous GNU/Linux ! (openclassrooms)] +(https://openclassrooms.com/courses/compilez-sous-gnu-linux). + +### En anglais + ++ [Documentation de GNU make](https://www.gnu.org/software/make/manual/), ++ [Software carpentry tutorial](http://swcarpentry.github.io/make-novice/), ++ Learn C the hard way [ex2](http://c.learncodethehardway.org/book/ex2.html) +[ex28](http://c.learncodethehardway.org/book/ex28.html). diff --git a/fr-fr/markdown.html.markdown b/fr-fr/markdown.html.markdown index e5e7c73a..2e4e8461 100644 --- a/fr-fr/markdown.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/markdown.html.markdown @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ language: markdown contributors: - ["Andrei Curelaru", "http://www.infinidad.fr"] -filename: markdown.md +filename: markdown-fr.md lang: fr-fr --- @@ -62,8 +62,8 @@ __Celui-là aussi.__ **_Pareil ici_** *__Et là!__* -<!-- Dans le "Github Flavored Markdown", utilisé pour interpréter le Markdown -sur Github, on a également le strikethrough ( texte barré ) : --> +<!-- Dans le "GitHub Flavored Markdown", utilisé pour interpréter le Markdown +sur GitHub, on a également le strikethrough ( texte barré ) : --> ~~Ce texte est barré avec strikethrough.~~ @@ -172,7 +172,7 @@ fonctionne aussi à l'intérieur du bloc de code --> La fonction `run()` ne vous oblige pas à aller courir! -<!-- Via Github Flavored Markdown, vous pouvez utiliser +<!-- Via GitHub Flavored Markdown, vous pouvez utiliser des syntaxes spécifiques --> \`\`\`ruby @@ -183,7 +183,7 @@ puts "Hello world!" end \`\`\` <!-- pareil, pas de backslashes, juste ``` en guise de fin --> -<-- Pas besoin d'indentation pour le code juste au dessus, de plus, Github +<-- Pas besoin d'indentation pour le code juste au dessus, de plus, GitHub va utiliser une coloration syntaxique pour le langage indiqué après les ``` --> <!-- Ligne Horizontale (<hr />) --> @@ -264,7 +264,7 @@ Pour taper *ce texte* entouré d'astérisques mais pas en italique : Tapez \*ce texte\*. <!-- Tableaux --> -<!-- les Tableaux ne sont disponibles que dans le Github Flavored Markdown +<!-- les Tableaux ne sont disponibles que dans le GitHub Flavored Markdown et c'est ce n'est pas super agréable d'utilisation. Mais si vous en avez besoin : --> diff --git a/fr-fr/objective-c-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/objective-c-fr.html.markdown index 4e31c4bf..fbe1741e 100644 --- a/fr-fr/objective-c-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/objective-c-fr.html.markdown @@ -1,5 +1,4 @@ --- - language: Objective-C contributors: - ["Eugene Yagrushkin", "www.about.me/yagrushkin"] @@ -9,7 +8,6 @@ translators: - ["Yannick Loriot", "https://github.com/YannickL"] filename: LearnObjectiveC-fr.m lang: fr-fr - --- L'Objective-C est un langage de programmation orienté objet réflexif principalement utilisé par Apple pour les systèmes d'exploitations Mac OS X et iOS et leurs frameworks respectifs, Cocoa et Cocoa Touch. @@ -519,6 +517,7 @@ __unsafe_unretained NSArray *unsafeArray; // Comme __weak, mais la variable n'es // l'objet est supprimé ``` + ## Lectures Complémentaires [La Page Wikipedia de l'Objective-C](http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective-C) diff --git a/fr-fr/perl-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/perl-fr.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e737b7aa --- /dev/null +++ b/fr-fr/perl-fr.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,174 @@ +--- +name: perl +category: language +language: perl +filename: learnperl-fr.pl +contributors: + - ["Korjavin Ivan", "http://github.com/korjavin"] + - ["Matteo Taroli", "http://www.matteotaroli.be"] +translators: + - ["Matteo Taroli", "http://www.matteotaroli.be"] +lang: fr-fr +--- +Perl 5 est un langage de programmation riche en fonctionnalité, avec plus de 25 ans de développement. + +Perl 5 fonctionne sur plus de 100 plateformes, allant des pc portables aux mainframes et +est autant adapté à un prototypage rapide qu'à des projets de grande envergure. + +```perl +# Les commentaires en une ligne commencent par un dièse + + +#### Types de variables de Perl + +# Les variables comment par un symbole précisant le type. +# Un nom de variable valide commence par une lettre ou un underscore, +# suivi d'un nombre quelconque de lettres, chiffres ou underscores. + +### Perl a trois types principaux de variables: $scalaire, @tableau and %hash + +## Scalaires +# Un scalaire représente une valeur unique : +my $animal = "chameau"; +my $reponse = 42; + +# Les valeurs scalaires peuvent être des strings, des entiers ou des nombres à virgule flottante +# et Perl les convertira automatiquement entre elles quand nécessaire. + +## Tableaux +# Un tableau représente une liste de valeurs : +my @animaux = ("chameau", "lama", "chouette"); +my @nombres = (23, 42, 69); +my @melange = ("chameau", 42, 1.23); + +## Hashes +# Un hash représente un ensemble de paires de clé/valeur : +my %fruit_couleur = ("pomme", "rouge", "banane", "jaune"); + +# Vous pouvez utiliser des espaces et l'opérateur "=>" pour les disposer plus joliment : + +my %fruit_couleur = ( + pomme => "rouge", + banane => "jaune" +); + +# Les scalaires, tableaux et hashes sont plus amplement documentés dans le perldata +# (perldoc perldata) + +# Des types de données plus complexes peuvent être construits en utilisant des références, +# vous permettant de construire des listes et des hashes à l'intérieur d'autres listes et hashes. + +#### Conditions et boucles + +# Perl possède la plupart des conditions et boucles habituelles. + +if ($var) { + ... +} elsif ($var eq 'bar') { + ... +} else { + ... +} + +unless (condition) { + ... +} +# Ceci est fourni en tant que version plus lisible de "if (!condition)" + +# la postcondition à la sauce Perl + +print "Yow!" if $zippy; +print "Nous n'avons pas de banane." unless $bananes; + +# while +while (condition) { + ... +} + +# boucle for et iteration +for (my $i = 0; $i < $max; $i++) { + print "l'index est $i"; +} + +for (my $i = 0; $i < @elements; $i++) { + print "L'élément courant est " . $elements[$i]; +} + +for my $element (@elements) { + print $element; +} + +# implicitement + +# La variable de contexte scalaire $_ est utilisée par défaut dans différentes +# situations, comme par exemple dans la boucle foreach ou en argument par défaut +# de la plupart des fonctions pour en simplifier l'écriture. + +# Dans l'exemple suivant, $_ prends successivement la valeur de +# chaque élément de la liste. + +for (@elements) { + print; # affiche le contenu de $_ +} + + +#### Expressions régulières + +# Le support des expressions régulières par Perl est aussi large que profond +# et est sujet à une longue documentation sur perlrequick, perlretut et ailleurs. +# Cependant, pour faire court : + +# Simple correspondance +if (/foo/) { ... } # vrai si $_ contient "foo" +if ($a =~ /foo/) { ... } # vrai si $a contient "foo" + +# Simple substitution + +$a =~ s/foo/bar/; # remplace le premier foo par bar dans $a +$a =~ s/foo/bar/g; # remplace TOUTES LES INSTANCES de foo par bar dans $a + + +#### Fichiers et E/S + +# Vous pouvez ouvrir un fichier pour y écrire ou pour le lire avec la fonction "open()". + +open(my $in, "<", "input.txt") or die "Impossible d'ouvrir input.txt: $!"; +open(my $out, ">", "output.txt") or die "Impossible d'ouvrir output.txt: $!"; +open(my $log, ">>", "my.log") or die "Impossible d'ouvrir my.log: $!"; + +# Vous pouvez lire depuis un descripteur de fichier grâce à l'opérateur "<>". +# Dans un contexte scalaire, il lit une seule ligne depuis le descripteur de fichier +# et dans un contexte de liste, il lit le fichier complet, assignant chaque ligne à un +# élément de la liste : + +my $ligne = <$in> +my $lignes = <$in> + +#### Ecrire des fonctions + +# Ecrire des fonctions est facile : + +sub logger { + my $logmessage = shift; + + open my $logfile, ">>", "my.log" or die "Impossible d'ouvrir my.log: $!"; + + print $logfile $logmessage; +} + +# Maintenant, nous pouvons utiliser cette fonction comme n'importe quelle fonction intégrée : + +logger("On a une fonction de logging!!"); +``` + +#### Utiliser des modules Perl + +Les modules Perl fournissent une palette de fonctionnalités vous évitant de réinventer la roue et peuvent être téléchargés depuis CPAN (http://www.cpan.org/). Un certain nombre de modules populaires sont inclus dans la distribution même de Perl. + +Perlfaq contiens des questions et réponses liées aux tâches habituelles et propose souvent des suggestions quant aux bons modules à utiliser. + +#### Pour en savoir plus + - [perl-tutorial](http://perl-tutorial.org/) + - [Learn at www.perl.com](http://www.perl.org/learn.html) + - [perldoc](http://perldoc.perl.org/) + - and perl built-in : `perldoc perlintro` diff --git a/fr-fr/python-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/python-fr.html.markdown index 3f6dcabb..d78291be 100644 --- a/fr-fr/python-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/python-fr.html.markdown @@ -14,8 +14,7 @@ Je suis tombé amoureux de Python de par la clarté de sa syntaxe. C'est pratiqu Vos retours sont grandement appréciés. Vous pouvez me contacter sur Twitter [@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) ou par e-mail: louiedinh [at] [google's email service] -NB: Cet artice s'applique spécifiquement à Python 2.7, mais devrait s'appliquer pour toute version Python 2.x -Vous pourrez bientôt trouver un article pour Python 3 en Français. Pour le moment vous pouvez jettez un coup d'oeil à l'article [Python 3 en Anglais](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/python3/). +N.B. : Cet article s'applique spécifiquement à Python 2.7, mais devrait s'appliquer pour toute version Python 2.x. Python 2.7 est en fin de vie et ne sera plus maintenu à partir de 2020, il est donc recommandé d'apprendre Python avec Python 3. Pour Python 3.x, il existe un autre [tutoriel pour Python 3](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/fr-fr/python3-fr/). ```python # Une ligne simple de commentaire commence par un dièse diff --git a/fr-fr/python3-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/python3-fr.html.markdown index 04d0a55d..3d60157c 100644 --- a/fr-fr/python3-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/python3-fr.html.markdown @@ -627,7 +627,7 @@ Human.grunt() # => "*grunt*" # On peut importer des modules import math -print(math.sqrt(16)) # => 4 +print(math.sqrt(16)) # => 4.0 # On peut importer des fonctions spécifiques d'un module from math import ceil, floor diff --git a/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown index b8807104..52d34650 100644 --- a/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown +++ b/fr-fr/typescript-fr.html.markdown @@ -87,22 +87,22 @@ mySearch = function(src: string, sub: string) { // Les membres des classes sont publiques par défaut. class Point { - // Propriétés - x: number; - - // Constructeur - Les mots clés "public" et "private" dans ce contexte - // génèrent le code de la propriété et son initialisation dans le - // constructeur. Ici, "y" sera défini de la même façon que "x", - // mais avec moins de code. Les valeurs par défaut sont supportées. - constructor(x: number, public y: number = 0) { - this.x = x; - } + // Propriétés + x: number; + + // Constructeur - Les mots clés "public" et "private" dans ce contexte + // génèrent le code de la propriété et son initialisation dans le + // constructeur. Ici, "y" sera défini de la même façon que "x", + // mais avec moins de code. Les valeurs par défaut sont supportées. + constructor(x: number, public y: number = 0) { + this.x = x; + } - // Fonctions - dist() { return Math.sqrt(this.x * this.x + this.y * this.y); } + // Fonctions + dist() { return Math.sqrt(this.x * this.x + this.y * this.y); } - // Membres statiques - static origin = new Point(0, 0); + // Membres statiques + static origin = new Point(0, 0); } var p1 = new Point(10 ,20); @@ -110,17 +110,17 @@ var p2 = new Point(25); // y sera 0 // Héritage class Point3D extends Point { - constructor(x: number, y: number, public z: number = 0) { - // Un appel explicite au constructeur de la super classe - // est obligatoire. - super(x, y); - } + constructor(x: number, y: number, public z: number = 0) { + // Un appel explicite au constructeur de la super classe + // est obligatoire. + super(x, y); + } - // Redéfinition - dist() { - var d = super.dist(); - return Math.sqrt(d * d + this.z * this.z); - } + // Redéfinition + dist() { + var d = super.dist(); + return Math.sqrt(d * d + this.z * this.z); + } } // Modules, "." peut être utilisé comme un séparateur de sous modules. @@ -144,19 +144,19 @@ var s2 = new G.Square(10); // Génériques // Classes class Tuple<T1, T2> { - constructor(public item1: T1, public item2: T2) { - } + constructor(public item1: T1, public item2: T2) { + } } // Interfaces interface Pair<T> { - item1: T; - item2: T; + item1: T; + item2: T; } // Et fonctions var pairToTuple = function<T>(p: Pair<T>) { - return new Tuple(p.item1, p.item2); + return new Tuple(p.item1, p.item2); }; var tuple = pairToTuple({ item1:"hello", item2:"world"}); diff --git a/fr-fr/wolfram-fr.html.markdown b/fr-fr/wolfram-fr.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7b446259 --- /dev/null +++ b/fr-fr/wolfram-fr.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ +--- +language: wolfram +contributors: + - ["hyphz", "http://github.com/hyphz/"] +translators: + - ["altaris", "http://github.com/altaris/"] +filename: learnwolfram-fr.nb +lang: fr-fr +--- + +Le langage Wolfram est utilisé dans les programmes suivants : +* La ligne de commandes interactive noyau du Raspberry Pi, mais elle ne peut pas +gérer des éléments graphiques. +* _Mathematica_, un éditeur de texte riche spécialisé pour les mathématiques : +appuyer sur `Shift + Entrée` dans une cellule de code crée un nouvelle cellule +contenant le résultat. +* _Wolfram Wokbench_, une variante d'Eclipse spécialisée pour le langage +Wolfram. + +Ce code d'exemple peut être utilisé et modifié dans ces logiciels. Cependant, le +copier-coller directement dans Mathematica peut causer des problèmes de +formatage, car il ne contient aucune information de mise en page. + +``` +(* Ceci est un commentaire *) + +(* Dans Mathematica, au lieu d'utiliser ces commentaires, vous pouvez créer des + cellules de texte et insérer de jolies images *) + +(* Saisissez une opération et appuyez sur Shift + Entrée pour obtenir le + résultat *) +2*2 (* 4 *) +5+8 (* 13 *) + +(* Appels de fonction *) +Sin[Pi/2] (* 1 *) +(* Syntaxe alternative pour les appels de fonction à 1 paramètre *) +Sin@(Pi/2) (* 1 *) +(Pi/2) // Sin (* 1 *) + +(* Attention : le langage est sensible à la casse ! *) + +(* Toutes les expressions sont en réalité des appels de fonction *) +Times[2, 2] (* 4 *) +Plus[5, 8] (* 13 *) + +(* Utiliser une variable pour la première fois la déclare globalement *) +x = 5 (* 5 *) +x == 5 (* True, l'assignation et le test d'égalité est écrit comme + en C *) +x (* 5 *) +x = x + 5 (* 10 *) +x (* 10 *) +Set[x, 20] (* TOUT est un appel de fonction, TOUUUUUUUUT *) +x (* 20 *) + +(* Le langage Wolfram effectue des manipulations symboliques, donc utiliser des + variables non déclarées est légal *) +truc + 5 (* 5 + truc, comme truc n'est pas déclarée, l'évaluation + s'arrête là *) +truc + 5 + 10 (* 15 + truc, on évalue ce qu'on peut... *) +% (* 15 + truc, % représente le dernier résultat *) +% - truc (* 15, les variables non déclarées peuvent quand même + s'annuler *) +chose = truc + 5 (* Attention : chose est ici une expression et non un nombre *) + +(* Déclaration d'une fonction *) +Double[x_] := x * 2 (* Le symbole := empêche l'évaluation immédiate du terme + à droite *) +Double[10] (* 20 *) +Double[Sin[Pi/2]] (* 2 *) +Double @ Sin @ (Pi/2) (* 2, Utiliser @ évite les paquets de crochets + fermants si moches *) +(Pi/2) // Sin // Double (* 2, Utiliser // permet d'écrire les fonctions dans + l'ordre d'appel *) + +(* En programmation impérative, utiliser ; pour séparer les expressions *) +Salut[] := (Print@"Hello"; Print@"World") (* Les parenthèses sont nécessaires + car ; est prioritaire sur := *) +Salut[] (* Hello World *) + +(* Boucles For à la C *) +Compter[x_] := For[y=0, y<x, y++, (Print[y])] (* L'évaluation des boucles For + se fait comme en C *) +Compter[5] (* 0 1 2 3 4 *) + +(* Boucles While *) +x = 0; While[x < 2, (Print@x; x++)] (* De nouveau, comme en C *) + +(* Expressions conditionnelles et If *) +x = 8; If[x==8, Print@"Huit", Print@"Pas huit"] (* If [condition, si vrai, + si faux] *) +Switch[x, 2, Print@"Deux", 8, Print@"Huit"] (* Switch par valeur *) +Which[x==2, Print@"Deux", x==8, Print@"Huit"] (* Switch du type if, else if, + else if, ..., else *) + +(* Les variables autres que les paramètres de fonctions sont par défaut + globales, même à l'intérieur des fonctions *) +y = 10 (* 10, y est une variable globale *) +Compter[5] (* 0 1 2 3 4 *) +y (* 5, y a été modifiée par Compter *) +x = 20 (* 20, x est une variable globale *) +Compter[5] (* 0 1 2 3 4 *) +x (* 20, dans Compter, le paramètre x masque la variable + globale x *) + +(* La fonction Module permet d'utiliser des variables locales *) +MieuxCompter[x_] := Module[{y}, (For[y=0, y<x, y++, (Print@y)])] +y = 20 (* y est une variable globale *) +MieuxCompter[5] (* 0 1 2 3 4 *) +y (* 20, y n'a pas été modifiée car le y du Module masque le + y global. C'est bien mieux comme ça ! *) + +(* Module permet de faire des déclarations globales aussi *) +Module[{compte}, compte=0; (* compte est une variable locale *) + (Incrementer[] := ++compte); (* Ce module déclare des fonctions, mais elles + ne sont globales. Elles ont cependant accès + aux variables locales au module. *) + (Decrementer[] := --compte)] +compte (* compte, car il n'y a pas de variable globale nommée + compte *) +Incrementer[] (* 1, la fonction utilise la variable compte du module *) +Incrementer[] (* 2, le précédent appel de Incrementer a modifié compte *) +Decrementer[] (* 1 *) +compte (* compte, car il n'existe toujours pas de variable globale + nommé compte *) + +(* Listes *) +liste = {1, 2, 3, 4} (* {1, 2, 3, 4} *) +liste[[1]] (* 1, les indexes commencent à 1 et non 0 !!! *) +Map[Double, liste] (* {2, 4, 6, 8}, appliquer une fonction à une liste de + manière fonctionnelle *) +Double /@ liste (* {2, 4, 6, 8}, syntaxe abrégée de la ligne + précédente *) +Scan[Print, liste] (* 1 2 3 4, boucle impérative sur une liste *) +Fold[Plus, 0, liste] (* 10 (0+1+2+3+4) *) +FoldList[Plus, 0, liste] (* {0, 1, 3, 6, 10}, variante de la fonction + précédente qui donne aussi les résultats + intermédiaires *) +Append[liste, 5] (* {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, liste n'est pas modifiée... *) +Prepend[liste, 5] (* {5, 1, 2, 3, 4}, ... mais elle peut l'être en + écrivant "liste = " *) +Join[liste, {3, 4}] (* {1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 4} *) +liste[[2]] = 5 (* {1, 5, 3, 4}, ceci modifie bien la liste *) + +(* Tables associatives, ou dictionnaires *) +table = <|"Vert" -> 2, "Rouge" -> 1|> (* Crée une table associative *) +table[["Vert"]] (* 2, l'utilise *) +table[["Vert"]] := 5 (* 5, la modifie *) +table[["Bleu"]] := 3.5 (* 3.5, l'étend *) +KeyDropFrom[table, "Vert"] (* Supprime la clé "Vert" *) +Keys[table] (* {Rouge, Bleu} *) +Values[table] (* {1, 3.5} *) + +(* Pour finir, toute bonne démonstration du langage Wolfram contient un + Manipulate ! *) +Manipulate[y^2, {y, 0, 20}] (* Crée une interface graphique interactive qui + affiche y^2, permettant à l'utilisateur de + modifier la valeur de y grâce à un contrôle + allant de 0 à 20. Ne fonctionne que si le + logiciel utilisé gère les éléments graphiques. *) +``` + +## Envie d'aller plus loin ? + +* [Documentation du langage Wolfram (en anglais)] +(http://reference.wolfram.com/language/) diff --git a/fsharp.html.markdown b/fsharp.html.markdown index 76318d7d..809a1da2 100644 --- a/fsharp.html.markdown +++ b/fsharp.html.markdown @@ -31,14 +31,14 @@ If you want to try out the code below, you can go to [tryfsharp.org](http://www. // The "let" keyword defines an (immutable) value let myInt = 5 let myFloat = 3.14 -let myString = "hello" //note that no types needed +let myString = "hello" // note that no types needed // ------ Lists ------ -let twoToFive = [2;3;4;5] // Square brackets create a list with +let twoToFive = [2; 3; 4; 5] // Square brackets create a list with // semicolon delimiters. let oneToFive = 1 :: twoToFive // :: creates list with new 1st element -// The result is [1;2;3;4;5] -let zeroToFive = [0;1] @ twoToFive // @ concats two lists +// The result is [1; 2; 3; 4; 5] +let zeroToFive = [0; 1] @ twoToFive // @ concats two lists // IMPORTANT: commas are never used as delimiters, only semicolons! @@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ add 2 3 // Now run the function. // to define a multiline function, just use indents. No semicolons needed. let evens list = - let isEven x = x%2 = 0 // Define "isEven" as a sub function + let isEven x = x % 2 = 0 // Define "isEven" as a sub function List.filter isEven list // List.filter is a library function // with two parameters: a boolean function // and a list to work on @@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ let sumOfSquaresTo100piped = // you can define lambdas (anonymous functions) using the "fun" keyword let sumOfSquaresTo100withFun = - [1..100] |> List.map (fun x -> x*x) |> List.sum + [1..100] |> List.map (fun x -> x * x) |> List.sum // In F# there is no "return" keyword. A function always // returns the value of the last expression used. @@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ optionPatternMatch invalidValue // The printf/printfn functions are similar to the // Console.Write/WriteLine functions in C#. printfn "Printing an int %i, a float %f, a bool %b" 1 2.0 true -printfn "A string %s, and something generic %A" "hello" [1;2;3;4] +printfn "A string %s, and something generic %A" "hello" [1; 2; 3; 4] // There are also sprintf/sprintfn functions for formatting data // into a string, similar to String.Format in C#. @@ -131,19 +131,19 @@ module FunctionExamples = // basic usage of a function let a = add 1 2 - printfn "1+2 = %i" a + printfn "1 + 2 = %i" a // partial application to "bake in" parameters let add42 = add 42 let b = add42 1 - printfn "42+1 = %i" b + printfn "42 + 1 = %i" b // composition to combine functions let add1 = add 1 let add2 = add 2 let add3 = add1 >> add2 let c = add3 7 - printfn "3+7 = %i" c + printfn "3 + 7 = %i" c // higher order functions [1..10] |> List.map add3 |> printfn "new list is %A" @@ -151,7 +151,7 @@ module FunctionExamples = // lists of functions, and more let add6 = [add1; add2; add3] |> List.reduce (>>) let d = add6 7 - printfn "1+2+3+7 = %i" d + printfn "1 + 2 + 3 + 7 = %i" d // ================================================ // Lists and collection @@ -168,12 +168,12 @@ module FunctionExamples = module ListExamples = // lists use square brackets - let list1 = ["a";"b"] + let list1 = ["a"; "b"] let list2 = "c" :: list1 // :: is prepending let list3 = list1 @ list2 // @ is concat // list comprehensions (aka generators) - let squares = [for i in 1..10 do yield i*i] + let squares = [for i in 1..10 do yield i * i] // prime number generator let rec sieve = function @@ -190,8 +190,8 @@ module ListExamples = | [first; second] -> printfn "list is %A and %A" first second | _ -> printfn "the list has more than two elements" - listMatcher [1;2;3;4] - listMatcher [1;2] + listMatcher [1; 2; 3; 4] + listMatcher [1; 2] listMatcher [1] listMatcher [] @@ -219,7 +219,7 @@ module ListExamples = module ArrayExamples = // arrays use square brackets with bar - let array1 = [| "a";"b" |] + let array1 = [| "a"; "b" |] let first = array1.[0] // indexed access using dot // pattern matching for arrays is same as for lists @@ -230,13 +230,13 @@ module ArrayExamples = | [| first; second |] -> printfn "array is %A and %A" first second | _ -> printfn "the array has more than two elements" - arrayMatcher [| 1;2;3;4 |] + arrayMatcher [| 1; 2; 3; 4 |] // Standard library functions just as for List [| 1..10 |] - |> Array.map (fun i -> i+3) - |> Array.filter (fun i -> i%2 = 0) + |> Array.map (fun i -> i + 3) + |> Array.filter (fun i -> i % 2 = 0) |> Array.iter (printfn "value is %i. ") @@ -248,14 +248,14 @@ module SequenceExamples = // sequences can use yield and // can contain subsequences let strange = seq { - // "yield! adds one element + // "yield" adds one element yield 1; yield 2; // "yield!" adds a whole subsequence yield! [5..10] yield! seq { for i in 1..10 do - if i%2 = 0 then yield i }} + if i % 2 = 0 then yield i }} // test strange |> Seq.toList @@ -280,11 +280,11 @@ module DataTypeExamples = // Tuples are quick 'n easy anonymous types // -- Use a comma to create a tuple - let twoTuple = 1,2 - let threeTuple = "a",2,true + let twoTuple = 1, 2 + let threeTuple = "a", 2, true // Pattern match to unpack - let x,y = twoTuple //sets x=1 y=2 + let x, y = twoTuple // sets x = 1, y = 2 // ------------------------------------ // Record types have named fields @@ -297,7 +297,7 @@ module DataTypeExamples = let person1 = {First="John"; Last="Doe"} // Pattern match to unpack - let {First=first} = person1 //sets first="john" + let {First = first} = person1 // sets first="John" // ------------------------------------ // Union types (aka variants) have a set of choices @@ -331,14 +331,14 @@ module DataTypeExamples = | Worker of Person | Manager of Employee list - let jdoe = {First="John";Last="Doe"} + let jdoe = {First="John"; Last="Doe"} let worker = Worker jdoe // ------------------------------------ - // Modelling with types + // Modeling with types // ------------------------------------ - // Union types are great for modelling state without using flags + // Union types are great for modeling state without using flags type EmailAddress = | ValidEmailAddress of string | InvalidEmailAddress of string @@ -383,8 +383,8 @@ module DataTypeExamples = type Rank = Two | Three | Four | Five | Six | Seven | Eight | Nine | Ten | Jack | Queen | King | Ace - let hand = [ Club,Ace; Heart,Three; Heart,Ace; - Spade,Jack; Diamond,Two; Diamond,Ace ] + let hand = [ Club, Ace; Heart, Three; Heart, Ace; + Spade, Jack; Diamond, Two; Diamond, Ace ] // sorting List.sort hand |> printfn "sorted hand is (low to high) %A" @@ -419,14 +419,14 @@ module ActivePatternExamples = | _ -> printfn "%c is something else" ch // print a list - ['a';'b';'1';' ';'-';'c'] |> List.iter printChar + ['a'; 'b'; '1'; ' '; '-'; 'c'] |> List.iter printChar // ----------------------------------- // FizzBuzz using active patterns // ----------------------------------- // You can create partial matching patterns as well - // Just use undercore in the defintion, and return Some if matched. + // Just use underscore in the defintion, and return Some if matched. let (|MultOf3|_|) i = if i % 3 = 0 then Some MultOf3 else None let (|MultOf5|_|) i = if i % 5 = 0 then Some MultOf5 else None @@ -479,7 +479,7 @@ module AlgorithmExamples = List.concat [smallerElements; [firstElem]; largerElements] // test - sort [1;5;23;18;9;1;3] |> printfn "Sorted = %A" + sort [1; 5; 23; 18; 9; 1; 3] |> printfn "Sorted = %A" // ================================================ // Asynchronous Code @@ -526,7 +526,7 @@ module AsyncExample = |> Async.RunSynchronously // start them off // ================================================ -// .NET compatability +// .NET compatibility // ================================================ module NetCompatibilityExamples = @@ -536,7 +536,7 @@ module NetCompatibilityExamples = // ------- work with existing library functions ------- - let (i1success,i1) = System.Int32.TryParse("123"); + let (i1success, i1) = System.Int32.TryParse("123"); if i1success then printfn "parsed as %i" i1 else printfn "parse failed" // ------- Implement interfaces on the fly! ------- @@ -570,12 +570,12 @@ module NetCompatibilityExamples = // abstract base class with virtual methods [<AbstractClass>] type Shape() = - //readonly properties + // readonly properties abstract member Width : int with get abstract member Height : int with get - //non-virtual method + // non-virtual method member this.BoundingArea = this.Height * this.Width - //virtual method with base implementation + // virtual method with base implementation abstract member Print : unit -> unit default this.Print () = printfn "I'm a shape" @@ -586,19 +586,19 @@ module NetCompatibilityExamples = override this.Height = y override this.Print () = printfn "I'm a Rectangle" - //test - let r = Rectangle(2,3) + // test + let r = Rectangle(2, 3) printfn "The width is %i" r.Width printfn "The area is %i" r.BoundingArea r.Print() // ------- extension methods ------- - //Just as in C#, F# can extend existing classes with extension methods. + // Just as in C#, F# can extend existing classes with extension methods. type System.String with member this.StartsWithA = this.StartsWith "A" - //test + // test let s = "Alice" printfn "'%s' starts with an 'A' = %A" s s.StartsWithA diff --git a/git.html.markdown b/git.html.markdown index bedc9853..35f24b2d 100644 --- a/git.html.markdown +++ b/git.html.markdown @@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ contributors: - ["Leo Rudberg" , "http://github.com/LOZORD"] - ["Betsy Lorton" , "http://github.com/schbetsy"] - ["Bruno Volcov", "http://github.com/volcov"] + - ["Andrew Taylor", "http://github.com/andrewjt71"] filename: LearnGit.txt --- @@ -333,6 +334,9 @@ $ git log --oneline # Show merge commits only $ git log --merges + +# Show all commits represented by an ASCII graph +$ git log --graph ``` ### merge @@ -499,6 +503,16 @@ $ git reset 31f2bb1 # after the specified commit). $ git reset --hard 31f2bb1 ``` +### revert + +Revert can be used to undo a commit. It should not be confused with reset which restores +the state of a project to a previous point. Revert will add a new commit which is the +inverse of the specified commit, thus reverting it. + +```bash +# Revert a specified commit +$ git revert <commit> +``` ### rm @@ -526,7 +540,7 @@ $ git rm /pather/to/the/file/HelloWorld.c * [Atlassian Git - Tutorials & Workflows](https://www.atlassian.com/git/) -* [SalesForce Cheat Sheet](https://na1.salesforce.com/help/doc/en/salesforce_git_developer_cheatsheet.pdf) +* [SalesForce Cheat Sheet](http://res.cloudinary.com/hy4kyit2a/image/upload/SF_git_cheatsheet.pdf) * [GitGuys](http://www.gitguys.com/) diff --git a/go.html.markdown b/go.html.markdown index a857a76c..dc684227 100644 --- a/go.html.markdown +++ b/go.html.markdown @@ -108,12 +108,13 @@ can include line breaks.` // Same string type. bs := []byte("a slice") // Type conversion syntax. // Because they are dynamic, slices can be appended to on-demand. - // To append elements to a slice, built-in append() function is used. + // To append elements to a slice, the built-in append() function is used. // First argument is a slice to which we are appending. Commonly, // the array variable is updated in place, as in example below. s := []int{1, 2, 3} // Result is a slice of length 3. s = append(s, 4, 5, 6) // Added 3 elements. Slice now has length of 6. fmt.Println(s) // Updated slice is now [1 2 3 4 5 6] + // To append another slice, instead of list of atomic elements we can // pass a reference to a slice or a slice literal like this, with a // trailing ellipsis, meaning take a slice and unpack its elements, diff --git a/groovy.html.markdown b/groovy.html.markdown index 492c1ba2..94678c39 100644 --- a/groovy.html.markdown +++ b/groovy.html.markdown @@ -13,8 +13,8 @@ Groovy - A dynamic language for the Java platform [Read more here.](http://www.g /* Set yourself up: - 1) Install GVM - http://gvmtool.net/ - 2) Install Groovy: gvm install groovy + 1) Install SDKMAN - http://sdkman.io/ + 2) Install Groovy: sdk install groovy 3) Start the groovy console by typing: groovyConsole */ @@ -280,7 +280,7 @@ def clos = { print it } clos( "hi" ) /* - Groovy can memorize closure results [1][2][3] + Groovy can memoize closure results [1][2][3] */ def cl = {a, b -> sleep(3000) // simulate some time consuming processing diff --git a/haskell.html.markdown b/haskell.html.markdown index 369b1b20..4ce1a839 100644 --- a/haskell.html.markdown +++ b/haskell.html.markdown @@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ not False -- True [5,4..1] -- [5, 4, 3, 2, 1] -- indexing into a list -[0..] !! 5 -- 5 +[1..10] !! 3 -- 4 -- You can also have infinite lists in Haskell! [1..] -- a list of all the natural numbers @@ -189,17 +189,17 @@ foo = add 10 -- foo is now a function that takes a number and adds 10 to it foo 5 -- 15 -- Another way to write the same thing -foo = (+10) +foo = (10+) foo 5 -- 15 -- function composition --- the (.) function chains functions together. +-- the operator `.` chains functions together. -- For example, here foo is a function that takes a value. It adds 10 to it, --- multiplies the result of that by 5, and then returns the final value. -foo = (*5) . (+10) +-- multiplies the result of that by 4, and then returns the final value. +foo = (4*) . (10+) --- (5 + 10) * 5 = 75 -foo 5 -- 75 +-- 4*(10 + 5) = 60 +foo 5 -- 60 -- fixing precedence -- Haskell has another operator called `$`. This operator applies a function @@ -222,7 +222,7 @@ even . fib $ 7 -- false -- 5. Type signatures ---------------------------------------------------- --- Haskell has a very strong type system, and everything has a type signature. +-- Haskell has a very strong type system, and every valid expression has a type. -- Some basic types: 5 :: Integer @@ -259,7 +259,7 @@ case args of _ -> putStrLn "bad args" -- Haskell doesn't have loops; it uses recursion instead. --- map applies a function over every element in an array +-- map applies a function over every element in a list map (*2) [1..5] -- [2, 4, 6, 8, 10] @@ -279,7 +279,7 @@ foldl (\x y -> 2*x + y) 4 [1,2,3] -- 43 -- This is the same as (2 * (2 * (2 * 4 + 1) + 2) + 3) --- foldl is left-handed, foldr is right- +-- foldl is left-handed, foldr is right-handed foldr (\x y -> 2*x + y) 4 [1,2,3] -- 16 -- This is now the same as @@ -318,7 +318,7 @@ Nothing -- of type `Maybe a` for any `a` -- it is not hard to explain enough to get going. -- When a Haskell program is executed, `main` is --- called. It must return a value of type `IO ()`. For example: +-- called. It must return a value of type `IO a` for some type `a`. For example: main :: IO () main = putStrLn $ "Hello, sky! " ++ (say Blue) @@ -361,7 +361,7 @@ sayHello = do -- You can think of a value of type `IO a` as representing a -- computer program that will generate a value of type `a` -- when executed (in addition to anything else it does). We can --- store and reuse this value using `<-`. We can also +-- name and reuse this value using `<-`. We can also -- make our own action of type `IO String`: action :: IO String @@ -401,11 +401,26 @@ main'' = do let foo = 5 --- You can see the type of any value with `:t`: +-- You can see the type of any value or expression with `:t`: ->:t foo +> :t foo foo :: Integer +-- Operators, such as `+`, `:` and `$`, are functions. +-- Their type can be inspected by putting the operator in parentheses: + +> :t (:) +(:) :: a -> [a] -> [a] + +-- You can get additional information on any `name` using `:i`: + +> :i (+) +class Num a where + (+) :: a -> a -> a + ... + -- Defined in ‘GHC.Num’ +infixl 6 + + -- You can also run any action of type `IO ()` > sayHello @@ -417,7 +432,7 @@ Hello, Friend! There's a lot more to Haskell, including typeclasses and monads. These are the big ideas that make Haskell such fun to code in. I'll leave you with one final -Haskell example: an implementation of quicksort in Haskell: +Haskell example: an implementation of a quicksort variant in Haskell: ```haskell qsort [] = [] @@ -426,7 +441,7 @@ qsort (p:xs) = qsort lesser ++ [p] ++ qsort greater greater = filter (>= p) xs ``` -Haskell is easy to install. Get it [here](http://www.haskell.org/platform/). +There are two popular ways to install Haskell: The traditional [Cabal-based installation](http://www.haskell.org/platform/), and the newer [Stack-based process](https://www.stackage.org/install). You can find a much gentler introduction from the excellent [Learn you a Haskell](http://learnyouahaskell.com/) or diff --git a/hu-hu/coffeescript-hu.html.markdown b/hu-hu/coffeescript-hu.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..b5ae2107 --- /dev/null +++ b/hu-hu/coffeescript-hu.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,107 @@ +--- +language: coffeescript +contributors: + - ["Tenor Biel", "http://github.com/L8D"] + - ["Xavier Yao", "http://github.com/xavieryao"] +translators: + - ["Tamás Diószegi", "http://github.com/ditam"] +lang: hu-hu +filename: coffeescript-hu.coffee +--- + +A CoffeeScript egy apró nyelv ami egy-az-egyben egyenértékű Javascript kódra fordul, és így futásidőben már nem szükséges interpretálni. +Mint a JavaScript egyik követője, a CoffeeScript mindent megtesz azért, hogy olvasható, jól formázott és jól futó JavaScript kódot állítson elő, ami minden JavaScript futtatókörnyezetben jól működik. + +Rézletekért lásd még a [CoffeeScript weboldalát](http://coffeescript.org/), ahol egy teljes CoffeScript tutorial is található. + +```coffeescript +# A CoffeeScript egy hipszter nyelv. +# Követi több modern nyelv trendjeit. +# Így a kommentek, mint Ruby-ban és Python-ban, a szám szimbólummal kezdődnek. + +### +A komment blokkok ilyenek, és közvetlenül '/ *' és '* /' jelekre fordítódnak +az eredményül kapott JavaScript kódban. + +Mielőtt tovább olvasol, jobb, ha a JavaScript alapvető szemantikájával +tisztában vagy. + +(A kód példák alatt kommentként látható a fordítás után kapott JavaScript kód.) +### + +# Értékadás: +number = 42 #=> var number = 42; +opposite = true #=> var opposite = true; + +# Feltételes utasítások: +number = -42 if opposite #=> if(opposite) { number = -42; } + +# Függvények: +square = (x) -> x * x #=> var square = function(x) { return x * x; } + +fill = (container, liquid = "coffee") -> + "Filling the #{container} with #{liquid}..." +#=>var fill; +# +#fill = function(container, liquid) { +# if (liquid == null) { +# liquid = "coffee"; +# } +# return "Filling the " + container + " with " + liquid + "..."; +#}; + +# Szám tartományok: +list = [1..5] #=> var list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; + +# Objektumok: +math = + root: Math.sqrt + square: square + cube: (x) -> x * square x +#=> var math = { +# "root": Math.sqrt, +# "square": square, +# "cube": function(x) { return x * square(x); } +# }; + +# "Splat" jellegű függvény-paraméterek: +race = (winner, runners...) -> + print winner, runners +#=>race = function() { +# var runners, winner; +# winner = arguments[0], runners = 2 <= arguments.length ? __slice.call(arguments, 1) : []; +# return print(winner, runners); +# }; + +# Létezés-vizsgálat: +alert "I knew it!" if elvis? +#=> if(typeof elvis !== "undefined" && elvis !== null) { alert("I knew it!"); } + +# Tömb értelmezések: (array comprehensions) +cubes = (math.cube num for num in list) +#=>cubes = (function() { +# var _i, _len, _results; +# _results = []; +# for (_i = 0, _len = list.length; _i < _len; _i++) { +# num = list[_i]; +# _results.push(math.cube(num)); +# } +# return _results; +# })(); + +foods = ['broccoli', 'spinach', 'chocolate'] +eat food for food in foods when food isnt 'chocolate' +#=>foods = ['broccoli', 'spinach', 'chocolate']; +# +#for (_k = 0, _len2 = foods.length; _k < _len2; _k++) { +# food = foods[_k]; +# if (food !== 'chocolate') { +# eat(food); +# } +#} +``` + +## További források + +- [Smooth CoffeeScript](http://autotelicum.github.io/Smooth-CoffeeScript/) +- [CoffeeScript Ristretto](https://leanpub.com/coffeescript-ristretto/read) diff --git a/hu-hu/go.html.markdown b/hu-hu/go-hu.html.markdown index 638c9489..638c9489 100644 --- a/hu-hu/go.html.markdown +++ b/hu-hu/go-hu.html.markdown diff --git a/hu-hu/ruby.html.markdown b/hu-hu/ruby-hu.html.markdown index 169f2b8e..f2fe4e5d 100644 --- a/hu-hu/ruby.html.markdown +++ b/hu-hu/ruby-hu.html.markdown @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ --- language: ruby lang: hu-hu -filenev: learnruby.rb +filename: learnruby-hu.rb contributors: - ["David Underwood", "http://theflyingdeveloper.com"] - ["Joel Walden", "http://joelwalden.net"] @@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ contributors: - ["Dzianis Dashkevich", "https://github.com/dskecse"] - ["Levi Bostian", "https://github.com/levibostian"] - ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"] - translators: +translators: - ["Zsolt Prontvai", "https://github.com/prozsolt"] --- diff --git a/hu-hu/yaml-hu.html.markdown b/hu-hu/yaml-hu.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..37ce4cb2 --- /dev/null +++ b/hu-hu/yaml-hu.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,147 @@ +--- +language: yaml +filename: learnyaml-hu.yaml +contributors: + - ["Adam Brenecki", "https://github.com/adambrenecki"] +translators: + - ["Tamás Diószegi", "https://github.com/ditam"] +lang: hu-hu +--- + +A YAML egy adat sorosító nyelv, amit úgy terveztek, hogy közvetlenül is +olvasható és írható legyen emberi szemmel. + +A JSON formátum egy szigorú befoglaló halmazát alkotja, kiegészítve azt +szintaktikai jelentéssel bíró sortörésekkel és indentációval, +a Pythonhoz hasonlóan. A Pythonnal ellentétben azonban a YAML nem engedélyezi +a közvetlen tab karakterek jelenlétét. + +Megjegyzés: UTF-8 ékezetes betűk használhatóak, ha a fájl kódlása megfelelő, +a kódolást a tartalomban explicit nem kell (és nem is lehet) feltüntetni. + +```yaml +# A kommentek YAML-ban így néznek ki. + +################## +# Skalár típusok # +################## + +# A gyökér objektumunk (az egész dokumentumra értve) egy map, +# ami a más nyelvekből ismert dictionary, hash vagy object típusokkal egyenértékű. +kulcs: érték +masik_kulcs: Másik érték jön ide. +egy_szam: 100 +tudomanyos_jelolessel: 1e+12 +boolean: true +null_value: null +kulcs benne szóközökkel: érték +# Látható, hogy a sztringeket nem szükséges idézőjelek közé zárni, bár szabad. +Továbbá: "Idézőjelekkel megadott sztring." +"A kulcs is lehet idézőjeles.": "Hasznos lehet, ha ':'-ot akarsz a kulcsban." + +# Többsoros sztringek írhatóak 'literal block'-ként ('|' jelet használva) +# vagy 'folded block'-ként is ('>' jelet használva). +literal_block: | + Ez az egész szöveg-blokk lesz az értéke a literal_block kulcsnak, + a sortöréseket megtartva. + + Az ilyen sztringet az indentáció visszahúzása zárja le, a behúzás pedig + eltávolításra kerül. + + A 'még jobban' behúzott részek megtartják a behúzásukat - + ezeknek a soroknak 4 szóköz behúzása lesz. +folded_style: > + Az az egész szöveg-blokk lesz az értéke a 'folded_style' kulcsnak, de + ezúttal minden sortörés egy szóközre lesz cserélve. + + Az üres sorok, mint a fenti, új sor karakterre cserélődnek. + + A 'még jobban' behúzott sorok megtartják a sortöréseiket, - + ez a szöveg két sorban jelenik meg. + +###################### +# Gyűjtemény típusok # +###################### + +# Egymásba ágyazás a behúzás változtatásával érhető el. +beagyazott_map: + key: value + another_key: Another Value + masik_beagyazott_map: + hello: hello + +# A mapeknek nem csak sztring kulcsaik lehetnek. +0.25: lebegőpontos kulcs + +# A kulcsok lehetnek többsoros objektumok is, ? jellel jelezve a kulcs kezdetét +? | + Ez itt egy + többsoros kulcs +: és ez az értéke + +# Szintén engedélyezett a kollekció típusok használata kulcsként, de egyéb +# nyelvekben ez gyakran problémákat fog okozni. + +# Szekvenciák (listákkal vagy tömbökkel egyenértékűek) így néznek ki: +egy_szekvencia: + - Item 1 + - Item 2 + - 0.5 # Többféle típust is tartalmazhat + - Item 4 + - key: value + another_key: another_value + - + - Ez egy szekvencia + - egy másik szekvenciába ágyazva + +# Mivel a YAML a JSON befoglaló halmazát alkotja, JSON szintaxisú +# mapek és szekvenciák is használhatóak: +json_map: {"key": "value"} +json_seq: [3, 2, 1, "takeoff"] + +######################### +# EXTRA YAML KÉPESSÉGEK # +######################### + +# A YAML-ben ún. 'anchor'-ök segítségével könnyen lehet duplikálni +# tartalmakat a dokumentumon belül. A következő kulcsok azonos értékkel bírnak: +anchored_tartalom: &anchor_neve Ez a sztring két kulcs értéke is lesz. +másik_anchor: *anchor_neve + +# Vannak a YAML-ben tagek is, amivel explicit lehet típusokat jelölni. +explicit_string: !!str 0.5 +# Bizonyos implementációk nyelv-specifikus tageket tartalmaznak, mint +# például ez a Python komplex szám típusának jelölésére: +python_complex_number: !!python/complex 1+2j + +###################### +# EXTRA YAML TÍPUSOK # +###################### + +# Nem a sztringek és a számok az egyedüli skalár típusok YAML-ben. +# ISO-formátumú dátumok és dátumot jelölő literal kifejezések is értelmezettek. +datetime: 2001-12-15T02:59:43.1Z +datetime_with_spaces: 2001-12-14 21:59:43.10 -5 +date: 2002-12-14 + +# A !!binary tag jelöli, hogy egy sztring valójában base64-kódolású +# reprezentációja egy bináris blob-nak +gif_file: !!binary | + R0lGODlhDAAMAIQAAP//9/X17unp5WZmZgAAAOfn515eXvPz7Y6OjuDg4J+fn5 + OTk6enp56enmlpaWNjY6Ojo4SEhP/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/+ + +f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++SH+Dk1hZGUgd2l0aCBHSU1QACwAAAAADAAMAAAFLC + AgjoEwnuNAFOhpEMTRiggcz4BNJHrv/zCFcLiwMWYNG84BwwEeECcgggoBADs= + +# Létezik a YAML-ban egy halmaz típus (set) is, ami így néz ki: +set: + ? elem1 + ? elem2 + ? elem3 + +# Mint Pythonban, a halmazok null értékekkel feltöltött mapek, vagyis a fenti +# halmaz egyenértékű a következővel: +set2: + elem1: null + elem2: null + elem3: null +```
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/hy.html.markdown b/hy.html.markdown index 9beaff0c..79c16c23 100644 --- a/hy.html.markdown +++ b/hy.html.markdown @@ -3,13 +3,14 @@ language: hy filename: learnhy.hy contributors: - ["Abhishek L", "http://twitter.com/abhishekl"] + - ["Zirak", "http://zirak.me"] --- Hy is a lisp dialect built on top of python. This is achieved by converting hy code to python's abstract syntax tree (ast). This allows hy to call native python code or python to call native hy code as well -This tutorial works for hy ≥ 0.9.12 +This tutorial works for hy ≥ 0.9.12, with some corrections for hy 0.11. ```clojure ;; this gives an gentle introduction to hy for a quick trial head to @@ -89,6 +90,17 @@ True ; => True (foolists 3) ;=> [3 2] (foolists 10 3) ;=> [10 3] +; you can use rest arguments and kwargs too: +(defn something-fancy [wow &rest descriptions &kwargs props] + (print "Look at" wow) + (print "It's" descriptions) + (print "And it also has:" props)) + +(something-fancy "My horse" "amazing" :mane "spectacular") + +; you use apply instead of the splat operators: +(apply something-fancy ["My horse" "amazing"] { "mane" "spectacular" }) + ; anonymous functions are created using `fn' or `lambda' constructs ; which are similiar to `defn' (map (fn [x] (* x x)) [1 2 3 4]) ;=> [1 4 9 16] @@ -102,6 +114,8 @@ True ; => True ; slice lists using slice (slice mylist 1 3) ;=> [2 3] +; or, in hy 0.11, use cut instead: +(cut mylist 1 3) ;=> [2 3] ; get elements from a list or dict using `get' (get mylist 1) ;=> 2 @@ -122,6 +136,22 @@ True ; => True ; a.foo(arg) is called as (.foo a arg) (.split (.strip "hello world ")) ;=> ["hello" "world"] +; there is a shortcut for executing multiple functions on a value called the +; "threading macro", denoted by an arrow: +(-> "hello world " (.strip) (.split)) ;=> ["hello" "world] +; the arrow passes the value along the calls as the first argument, for instance: +(-> 4 (* 3) (+ 2)) +; is the same as: +(+ (* 4 3) 2) + +; there is also a "threading tail macro", which instead passes the value as the +; second argument. compare: +(-> 4 (- 2) (+ 1)) ;=> 3 +(+ (- 4 2) 1) ;=> 3 +; to: +(->> 4 (- 2) (+ 1)) ;=> -1 +(+ 1 (- 2 4)) ;=> -1 + ;; Conditionals ; (if condition (body-if-true) (body-if-false) (if (= passcode "moria") @@ -160,6 +190,14 @@ True ; => True [get-spell (fn [self] self.spell)]]) +; or, in hy 0.11: +(defclass Wizard [object] + (defn --init-- [self spell] + (setv self.spell spell)) + + (defn get-spell [self] + self.spell)) + ;; do checkout hylang.org ``` @@ -169,6 +207,6 @@ This tutorial is just a very basic introduction to hy/lisp/python. Hy docs are here: [http://hy.readthedocs.org](http://hy.readthedocs.org) -Hy's Github repo: [http://github.com/hylang/hy](http://github.com/hylang/hy) +Hy's GitHub repo: [http://github.com/hylang/hy](http://github.com/hylang/hy) On freenode irc #hy, twitter hashtag #hylang diff --git a/id-id/php-id.html.markdown b/id-id/php-id.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..34d6e5f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/id-id/php-id.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,848 @@ +--- +language: PHP +contributors: + - ["Malcolm Fell", "http://emarref.net/"] + - ["Trismegiste", "https://github.com/Trismegiste"] +filename: learnphp-id.php +translators: + - ["Ahmad Zafrullah", "https://github.com/23Pstars"] +lang: id-id +--- + +Dokumen ini menjelaskan tentang PHP5 keatas. + +```php +<?php // Skrip PHP harus diawali dengan tag <?php + +// Jika dokumen PHP hanya mengandung kode PHP, sebaiknya tidak menggunakan +// tag penutup PHP untuk menghindari ketidaksengajaan tampilnya sesuatu. + +// Dua garis miring diawal digunakan untuk komentar satu baris. + +/* + Membatasi teks dalam garis miring-bintang dan bintang-garis miring + membuat komentar untuk banyak-baris sekaligus. +*/ + +// Gunakan "echo" or "print" untuk menampilkan sesuatu +print('Halo '); // Menampilkan "Halo " tanpa baris baru + +// () boleh tidak digunakan dalam menggunakan "print" dan "echo" +echo "Dunia\n"; // Menampilkan "Dunia" dengan baris baru +// (semua perintah harus diakhiri dengan titik koma) + +// Apapun yang berada diluar tag <?php akan ditampilkan secara otomatis +?> +Halo Dunia, lagi! +<?php + + +/************************************ + * Tipe Data & Variabel + */ + +// Variabel diawali dengan simnbol $. +// Nama variabel yang benar diawali dengan huruf atau garis-bawah, +// diikuti dengan beberapa huruf, angka, dan garis-bawah lainnya. + +// Nilai Boolean adalah case-insensitive +$boolean = true; // atau TRUE atau True +$boolean = false; // atau FALSE atau False + +// Nilai Integer +$int1 = 12; // => 12 +$int2 = -12; // => -12 +$int3 = 012; // => 10 (awalan 0 menandakan bilangan Oktal) +$int4 = 0x0F; // => 15 (awalan 0x menandakan bilangan Heksadesimal) +// Bilangan Biner Integer tersedia mulai dari PHP 5.4.0. +$int5 = 0b11111111; // 255 (awalan 0b menandakan bilangan Biner) + +// Nilai Floats (dikenal juga sebagai Doubles) +$float = 1.234; +$float = 1.2e3; +$float = 7E-10; + +// Menghapus variable +unset($int1); + +// Aritmatika +$jumlah = 1 + 1; // 2 +$selisih = 2 - 1; // 1 +$perkalian = 2 * 2; // 4 +$pembagian = 2 / 1; // 2 + +// Aritmatika singkat +$angka = 0; +$angka += 1; // Menjumlahkan $angka dengan 1 +echo $angka++; // Menampilkan 1 (dijumlahkan dengan 1 setelah ditampilkan) +echo ++$angka; // Menampilkan 3 (dijumlahkan dengan 1 sebelum ditampilkan) +$angka /= $float; // Membagi dan menyimpan hasil pembagian pada $angka; + +// String biasanya diawali dan ditutup dengan petik satu. +$sgl_quotes = '$String'; // => '$String' + +// Hindari menggunakan petik dua kecuali menyertakan variabel lain +$dbl_quotes = "Ini adalah $sgl_quotes."; // => 'Ini adalah $String.' + +// Karakter khusus hanya berlaku pada petik dua +$berfungsi = "Ini mengandung \t karakter tab."; +$tidak_berfungsi = 'Ini hanya mengandung garis miring dan huruf t: \t'; + +// Batasi variabel dengan kurung kurawal jika diperlukan +$uang = "Saya memiliki $${angka} di Bank."; + +// Sejak PHP 5.3, nowdocs dapat digunakan untuk tak-terinterpolasi banyak-baris +$nowdoc = <<<'END' +Banyak baris +string +END; + +// Heredocs akan melakukan interpolasi +$heredoc = <<<END +Banyak baris +$sgl_quotes +END; + +// Menyambung string dapat dilakukan menggunakan . +echo 'String ini ' . 'tersambung'; + +// String dapat dijadikan parameter pada "echo" +echo 'Banyak', 'Parameter', 'String'; // Menampilkan 'BanyakParameterString' + + +/******************************** + * Konstan + */ + +// Sebuah konstan didifinisikan menggunakan fungsi define() +// dan tidak bisa diganti/rubah selama program berjalan! + +// Nama konstan yang benar diawali dengan huruf dan garis-bawah, +// diikuti dengan beberapa huruf, angka, atau garis-bawah. +define("FOO", "sesuatu"); + +// Mengakses konstan memungkinkan untuk dapat dipanggil tanpa menggunakan simbol $ +echo FOO; // Menampilkan 'sesuatu' +echo 'Keluaran ini adalah ' . FOO; // Menampilkan 'Keluaran ini adalah sesuatu' + + + +/******************************** + * Larik (Array) + */ + +// Semua larik dalam PHP bersifat asosiatif (saling berhubungan). + +// Berfungsi pada semua versi PHP +$asosiatif = array('Satu' => 1, 'Dua' => 2, 'Tiga' => 3); + +// Pada PHP 5.4 diperkenalkan cara penulisan (sintaks) baru +$asosiatif = ['Satu' => 1, 'Dua' => 2, 'Tiga' => 3]; + +echo $asosiatif['Satu']; // menampilkan 1 + +// Daftar literal secara tidak langsung ditentukan oleh kunci integer +$larik = ['Satu', 'Dua', 'Tiga']; +echo $larik[0]; // => "Satu" + +// Menambahkan sebuah elemen pada akhir larik +$larik[] = 'Empat'; +// atau +array_push($larik, 'Lima'); + +// Menghapus elemen dari larik +unset($larik[3]); + +/******************************** + * Keluaran + */ + +echo('Halo Dunia!'); +// Menampilkan Halo Dunia! ke "stdout". +// "stdout" adalah sebuah halaman web ketika dijalankan dalam peramban (browser). + +print('Halo Dunia!'); // Sama seperti "echo" + +// "echo" dan "print" merupakan bahasa konstruksi, jadi tanda kurung dapat dihilangkan +echo 'Halo Dunia!'; +print 'Halo Dunia!'; + +$paragraf = 'paragraf'; + +echo 100; // Menampilkan variabel skalar secara langsung +echo $paragraf; // atau sebuat variabel + +// Jika PHP tag-singkat telah dikonfigurasi, atau versi PHP yang digunakan +// adalah 5.4.0 keatas, dapat digunakan sintaks "echo" singkat + +?> +<p><?= $paragraf ?></p> +<?php + +$x = 1; +$y = 2; +$x = $y; // $x sekarang berisi nilai yang sama dengan $y +$z = &$y; +// $z sekarang berisi referensi ke $y. Mengubah nilai dari $z +// akan mengubah nilai dari $y juga, begitupun sebaliknya. +// $x tetap tidak berubah sebagaimana nilai asli dari $y + +echo $x; // => 2 +echo $z; // => 2 +$y = 0; +echo $x; // => 2 +echo $z; // => 0 + +// Menampilkan tipe dan nilai dari variabel ke "stdout" +var_dump($z); // prints int(0) + +// Menampilkan variabel ke "stdout" dalam format yang mudah dibaca +print_r($larik); // menampilkan: Array ( [0] => Satu [1] => Dua [2] => Tiga ) + +/******************************** + * Logika + */ +$a = 0; +$b = '0'; +$c = '1'; +$d = '1'; + +// menegaskan lemparan sebuah peringatan jika pernyataan tidak benar + +// Perbandingan berikut akan selalu benar, meskipun memiliki tipe yang berbeda. +assert($a == $b); // kesamaan +assert($c != $a); // ketidak-samaan +assert($c <> $a); // versi lain dari ketidak-samaan +assert($a < $c); +assert($c > $b); +assert($a <= $b); +assert($c >= $d); + +// Dibawah ini hanya akan bernilai benar jika nilainya memiliki tipe yang sama. +assert($c === $d); +assert($a !== $d); +assert(1 === '1'); +assert(1 !== '1'); + +// Operator 'Spaceship' (sejak PHP 7) +// Mengembalikan 0 jika nilai pada kedua sisi adalah sama +// Mengembalikan 1 jika nilai pada sisi kiri lebih besar +// Mengembalikan -1 jika nilai pada sisi kanan lebih besar + +$a = 100; +$b = 1000; + +echo $a <=> $a; // 0 karena keduanya sama +echo $a <=> $b; // -1 karena $a < $b +echo $b <=> $a; // 1 karena $b > $a + +// Variabel dapat dikonversi menjadi tipe lain, sesuai penggunaannya. + +$integer = 1; +echo $integer + $integer; // => 2 + +$string = '1'; +echo $string + $string; // => 2 (string dipaksa menjadi integer) + +$string = 'satu'; +echo $string + $string; // => 0 +// Menghasilkan 0 karena operator (+) tidak dapat memaksa string 'satu' menjadi sebuah integer + +// Perubahan tipe dapat dimanfaatkan untuk diperlakukan sebagai tipe lainnya + +$boolean = (boolean) 1; // => true + +$nol = 0; +$boolean = (boolean) $nol; // => false + +// Terdapat juga fungsi khusus untuk melakukan perubahan terhadap beberapa tipe +$integer = 5; +$string = strval($integer); + +$var = null; // Nilai Null + + +/******************************** + * Struktur Kontrol + */ + +if (true) { + print 'Saya tampil'; +} + +if (false) { + print 'Saya tidak tampil'; +} else { + print 'Saya tampil'; +} + +if (false) { + print 'Tidak tampil'; +} elseif(true) { + print 'Tampil'; +} + +// operator ternary +print (false ? 'Tidak tampil' : 'Tampil'); + +// cara pintas operator ternary mulai dirilis sejak PHP 5.3 +// persamaan dari "$x ? $x : 'Kerjakan'" +$x = false; +print($x ?: 'Kerjakan'); + +// operator null coalesce sejak PHP 7 +$a = null; +$b = 'Ditampilkan'; +echo $a ?? 'a belum di-set'; // menampilkan 'a belum di-set' +echo $b ?? 'b belum di-set'; // menampilkan 'Ditampilkan' + + +$x = 0; +if ($x === '0') { + print 'Tidak ditampilkan'; +} elseif($x == '1') { + print 'Tidak ditampilkan'; +} else { + print 'Tampil'; +} + + +// Alternatif sintaks untuk kebutuhan templat: +?> + +<?php if ($x): ?> +Ini ditampilkan jika pengujian benar. +<?php else: ?> +Selain tersebut ini yang akan ditampilkan. +<?php endif; ?> + +<?php + +// Gunakan "switch" untuk menghemat logika. +switch ($x) { + case '0': + print 'Switch mendukung tipe paksaan'; + break; // Kata kunci "break" harus disertakan, jika tidak + // maka logika tersebut akan berlanjut ke bagian "dua" dan "tiga" + case 'dua': + case 'tiga': + // Lakukan sesuatu jika $x bernilai "dua" atau "tiga" + break; + default: + // Aksi cadangan +} + +// "while", "do...while" dan perulangan "for" +$i = 0; +while ($i < 5) { + echo $i++; +}; // Menampilkan "01234" + +echo "\n"; + +$i = 0; +do { + echo $i++; +} while ($i < 5); // Menampilkan "01234" + +echo "\n"; + +for ($x = 0; $x < 10; $x++) { + echo $x; +} // Menampilkan "0123456789" + +echo "\n"; + +$roda = ['sepeda' => 2, 'mobil' => 4]; + +// Perulangan "foreach" dapat melakukan iterasi pada larik (array) +foreach ($roda as $jumlah_roda) { + echo $jumlah_roda; +} // Menampilkan "24" + +echo "\n"; + +// Iterasi dapat dilakukan terhadap "key" (kunci) dan "value" (nilai) +foreach ($roda as $mesin => $jumlah_roda) { + echo "$mesin memiliki $jumlah_roda buah roda"; +} + +echo "\n"; + +$i = 0; +while ($i < 5) { + if ($i === 3) { + break; // Menghentikan proses perulangan + } + echo $i++; +} // Menampilkan "012" + +for ($i = 0; $i < 5; $i++) { + if ($i === 3) { + continue; // Melewati tahapan iterasi saat ini + } + echo $i; +} // Menampilkan "0124" + + +/******************************** + * Fungsi + */ + +// Fungsi didefinisikan dengan "function": +function fungsi_saya () { + return 'Halo'; +} + +echo fungsi_saya(); // => "Halo" + +// Nama fungsi yang baik dan benar diawali dengan sebuah huruf atau garis-bawah, diikuti oleh +// beberapa huruf, angka, atau garis-bawah. + +function jumlah ($x, $y = 1) { // $y merupakan opsional, jika tidak ditentukan akan bernilai 1 + $hasil = $x + $y; + return $hasil; +} + +echo jumlah(4); // => 5 +echo jumlah(4, 2); // => 6 + +// $hasil tidak dapat diakses dari luar fungsi +// print $hasil; // Akan menghasilkan sebuah "warning". + +// Sejak PHP 5.3 fungsi dapat dideklarasikan menjadi tanpa-nama (anonymous); +$inc = function ($x) { + return $x + 1; +}; + +echo $inc(2); // => 3 + +function foo ($x, $y, $z) { + echo "$x - $y - $z"; +} + +// Fungsi dapat mengembalikan fungsi juga +function bar ($x, $y) { + // Gunakan "use" untuk mengakses variabel diluar fungsi + return function ($z) use ($x, $y) { + foo($x, $y, $z); + }; +} + +$bar = bar('A', 'B'); +$bar('C'); // Menampilkan "A - B - C" + +// Fungsi uang memiliki nama dapat dipanggil berdasarkan string +$nama_fungsi = 'jumlah'; +echo $nama_fungsi(1, 2); // => 3 +// Bermanfaat untuk menentukan fungsi mana yang akan dipanggil secara dinamis. +// Atau, dapat juga menggunakan fungsi call_user_func(callable $callback [, $parameter [, ... ]]); + +// Akses semua parameter yang dikirim ke sebuah fungsi +function parameter() { + $jumlah_param = func_num_args(); + if( $jumlah_param > 0 ) { + echo func_get_arg(0) . ' | '; + } + $daftar_param = func_get_args(); + foreach( $daftar_param as $kunci => $param ) { + echo $kunci . ' - ' . $param . ' | '; + } +} + +parameter('Halo', 'Dunia'); // Halo | 0 - Halo | 1 - Dunia | + +// Sejak PHP 5.6, mendapatkan jumlah variabel yang ada pada parameter +function variabel($kata, ...$daftar) { + echo $kata . " || "; + foreach ($daftar as $item) { + echo $item . ' | '; + } +} + +variable("Pemisah", "Halo", "Dunia") // Pemisah || Halo | Dunia | + +/******************************** + * Penyertaan ("include") + */ + +<?php +// Skrip PHP yang berada dalam dokumen "include" juga harus dibuka dengan tag PHP. + +include 'dokumen-saya.php'; +// Kode yang ada dalam dokumen-saya.php sekarang dapat diakses dari cakupan saat ini. +// Jika dokumen tidak dapat disertakan (include, seperti dokumen tidak ditemukan), maka pesan peringatan akan muncul. + +include_once 'dokumen-saya.php'; +// Jika dokumen-saya telah disertakan (include) oleh perintah sebelumnya, maka +// dokumen tersebut tidak akan disertakan lagi. Ini bertujuan untuk menghindari kesalahan +// yang diakibatkan oleh deklarasi ganda. + +require 'dokumen-saya.php'; +require_once 'dokumen-saya.php'; +// Memiliki fungsi yang sama dengan "include", namun jika dokumen tidak ditemukan +// atau tidak dapat disertakan maka akan menghasilkan pesan kesalahan fatal. + +// Isi dari dokumen-saya.php: +<?php + +return 'Apapun yang kamu suka.'; +// akhir dari dokumen + +// "include" dan "require" dapat mengembalikan sebuah nilai. +$nilai = include 'dokumen-saya.php'; + +// Dokumen akan disertakan berdasarkan lokasi direktori dokumen (file path) yang diberikan, jika tidak didefinisikan +// maka akan digunakan konfigurasi dari "include_path". Jika dokumen tidak ditemukan dalam "include_path", +// fungsi include akan melakukan pengecekan pada direktori yang sama dengan dokumen yang menggunakan fungsi include tersebut, +// jika tidak ditemukan juga maka pesan gagal akan dimunculkan. +/* */ + +/******************************** + * Kelas (class) + */ + +// Kelas didefinisikan dengan kata "class" + +class KelasSaya +{ + const NILAI_KONSTAN = 'nilai'; // Sebuah konstan + + static $nilaiStatis = 'statis'; + + // Variabel statis dan hak jenis aksesnya + public static $variabelStatisPublik = 'nilaiStatisPublik'; + // Hanya dapat diakses dalam kelas + private static $variabelStatisPrivat = 'nilaiStatisPrivat'; + // Dapat diakses dalam kelas dan kelas turunan + protected static $variabelStatisTerlindungi = 'nilaiStatisTerlindungi'; + + // Properti harus mendeklarasikan hak aksesnya + public $properti = 'publik'; + public $PropertiInstansi; + protected $variabel = 'terlindungi'; // Dapat diakses dari kelas itu sendiri dan kelas turunannya + private $variabel = 'tersembunyi'; // Hanya dapat diakses dari kelas itu sendiri + + // Membuat konstruktor dengan perintah __construct + public function __construct($PropertiInstansi) { + // Akses variabel instansi menggunakan perintah $this + $this->PropertiInstansi = $PropertiInstansi; + } + + // Method dideklarasikan sebagai fungsi didalam kelas + public function methodSaya() + { + print 'KelasSaya'; + } + + // Perintah "final" membuat sebuah fungsi tidak dapat di-override oleh kelas turunannya + final function tidakDapatDiOverride() + { + } + +/* + * Deklarasi properti atau method pada kelas sebagai statis membuat properti atau method tersebut + * dapat diakses tanpa melakukan instansiasi kelas. Properti statis tidak dapat diakses melalui + * objek kelas yang hasil instansiasi, sedangkan method statis bisa. + */ + + public static function methodStatisSaya() + { + print 'Saya adalah statis'; + } +} + +// Konstan pada kelas dapat diakses secara statis +echo KelasSaya::NILAI_KONSTAN; // Menampilkan 'nilai' + +echo KelasSaya::$nilaiStatis; // Menampilkan 'statis' +KelasSaya::methodStatisSaya(); // Menampilkan 'Saya adalah statis' + +// Instansi kelas menggunakan perintah "new" +$kelas_saya = new KelasSaya('Sebuah properti instansiasi'); +// Tanda kurung adalah opsional jika tidak ingin menggunakan argumen. + +// Akses anggota kelas menggunakan -> +echo $kelas_saya->properti; // => "publik" +echo $kelas_saya->propertiInstansi; // => "Sebuah properti instansi" +$kelas_saya->methodSaya(); // => "KelasSaya" + +// Menurunkan kelas menggunakan kata kunci "extends" +class KelasSayaLainnya extends KelasSaya +{ + function tampilkanPropertiTerlindungi() + { + echo $this->properti; + } + + // "override" terhadap sebuah method + function methodSaya() + { + parent::methodSaya(); + print ' > KelasSayaLainnya'; + } +} + +$kelas_saya_lainnya = new KelasSayaLainnya('Instansiasi properti'); +$kelas_saya_lainnya->tampilkanPropertiTerlindung(); // => Menampilkan "terlindungi" +$kelas_saya_lainnya->methodSaya(); // Menampilkan "KelasSaya > KelasSayaLainnya" + +final class SayaTidakBisaDiturunkan +{ +} + +// Gunakan method ajaib (magic method) untuk membuat fungsi "getters" dan "setters" +class PetaKelasSaya +{ + private $properti; + + public function __get($key) + { + return $this->$key; + } + + public function __set($key, $value) + { + $this->$key = $value; + } +} + +$x = new PetaKelasSaya(); +echo $x->properti; // akan memanggil method __get() +$x->properti = 'Sesuatu'; // akan memanggil method __set(); + +// Kelas dapat dijadikan abstrak (menggunakan kata kunci "abstract"), atau +// meng-implementasikan interfaces (menggunakan kata kunci "implements"). +// Sebuah interface dideklarasikan dengan perintah "interface". + +interface InterfaceSatu +{ + public function kerjakanSesuatu(); +} + +interface InterfaceDua +{ + public function kerjakanYangLain(); +} + +// interface dapat diturunkan +interface InterfaceTiga extends InterfaceDua +{ + public function kerjakanYangBerbeda(); +} + +abstract class KelasAbstrakSaya implements InterfaceSatu +{ + public $x = 'kerjakanSesuatu'; +} + +class KelasKongkritSaya extends KelasAbstrakSaya implements InterfaceTwo +{ + public function kerjakanSesuatu() + { + echo $x; + } + + public function kerjakanYangLain() + { + echo 'kerjakanYangLain'; + } +} + +// Kelas dapat diimplementasikan pada banyak interface +class KelasLainnya implements InterfaceSatu, InterfaceDua +{ + public function kerjakanSesuatu() + { + echo 'kerjakanSesuatu'; + } + + public function kerjakanYangLain() + { + echo 'kerjakanYangLain'; + } +} + + +/******************************** + * Sifat (Traits) + */ + +// Traits mulai tersedia sejak PHP 5.4.0 dan dideklarasikan menggunakan kata kunci "trait" + +trait TraitSaya +{ + public function methodTraitSaya() + { + print 'Saya menggunakan Trait'; + } +} + +class KelasTraitSaya +{ + use TraitSaya; +} + +$kls = new KelasTraitSaya(); +$kls->methodTraitSaya(); // menampilkan "Saya menggunakan Trait" + + +/******************************** + * Namespaces + */ + +// Bagian ini telah dibatasi, karena deklarasi "namespace" +// karena harus ditempatkan diawal dokumen. + +<?php + +// Secara default, kelas tersedia sebagai namespace umum, dan dapat +// secara khusus dipanggil dengan garis-miring terbalik (backslash). + +$kls = new \KelasSaya(); + + +// Menentukan namespace untuk sebuah dokumen +namespace Saya\Namespace; + +class KelasSaya +{ +} + +// (dari dokumen lainnya) +$kls = new Saya\Namespace\KelasSaya; + +// Atau dari dalam namespace lainnya. +namespace Saya\Lainnya\Namespace; + +use Saya\Namespace\KelasSaya; + +$kls = new KelasSaya(); + +// Namespace dapat menggunakan alias + +namespace Saya\Lainnya\Namespace; + +use Saya\Namespace as SuatuKelasLainnya; + +$kls = new SuatuKelasLainnya\KelasSaya(); + + +/********************** +* Late Static Binding +* +*/ + +class KelasInduk { + public static function siapa() { + echo "Ini adalah " . __CLASS__ . "\n"; + } + public static function coba() { + // kata kunci "self" merujuk pada method yang berada dalam satu kelas + self::who(); + // kata kunci "static" merujuk pada method yang berada di kelas dimana method itu dijalankan + static::who(); + } +} + +KelasInduk::coba(); +/* +Ini adalah KelasInduk +Ini adalah KelasInduk +*/ + +class KelasAnak extends KelasInduk { + public static function siapa() { + echo "Tapi ini adalah " . __CLASS__ . "\n"; + } +} + +KelasAnak::tes(); +/* +Ini adalah KelasInduk +Tapi ini adalah KelasAnak +*/ + +/********************** +* Magic constants +* +*/ + +// Mendapatkan nama dari suatu kelas. Harus dideklarasikan didalam kelas tersebut. +echo "Nama kelas ini adalah " . __CLASS__; + +// Mendapatkan alamat lengkap direktori +echo "Alamat direktori ini adalah " . __DIR__; + + // Beberapa yang banyak digunakan + require __DIR__ . '/vendor/autoload.php'; + +// Mendapatkan alamat lengkap dokumen +echo "Alamat dokumen ini adalah " . __FILE__; + +// Mendapatkan nama fungsi +echo "Nama fungsi ini adalah " . __FUNCTION__; + +// Mendapatkan nomor baris perintah +echo "Nomor baris perintah ini adalah " . __LINE__; + +// Mendapatkan nama method. Hanya mengembalikan sebuah nilai jika berada didalam trait atau deklarasi objek. +echo "Nama method ini adalah " . __METHOD__; + +// Mendapatkan nama namespace +echo "Namespace saat ini adalah " . __NAMESPACE__; + +// Mendapatkan nama dari trait. Hanya mengembalikan sebuah nilai jika berada didalam trait atau deklarasi objek. +echo "Namespace saat ini adalah " . __TRAIT__; + +/********************** +* Penanganan Kesalahan (Error) +* +*/ + +// Penanganan error sederhana menggunakan "try...catch" + +try { + // Kerjakan sesuatu +} catch (Exception $e) { + // Penanganan exception +} + +// Menggunakan "try...catch" blok pada namespace + +try { + // Kerjakan sesuatu +} catch (\Exception $e) { + // Penanganan exception +} + +// Exception khusus + +class ExceptionSaya extends Exception {} + +try { + + $kondisi = true; + + if ($kondisi) { + throw new ExceptionSaya('Terjadi sesuatu'); + } + +} catch (ExceptionSaya $e) { + // Penanganan untuk exception khusus +} + +``` + +## Informasi lainnya + +Kunjungi [Dokumentasi resmi PHP](http://www.php.net/manual/) untuk referensi dan masukan komunitas. + +Jika anda tertarik untuk belajar lebih dalam, kunjungi +[PHP The Right Way](http://www.phptherightway.com/). + +Jika anda terbiasa dengan manajemen paket, kunjungi +[Composer](http://getcomposer.org/). + +Untuk standar umum, kunjungi PHP Framework Interoperability Group's +[PSR standards](https://github.com/php-fig/fig-standards). diff --git a/id-id/xml-id.html.markdown b/id-id/xml-id.html.markdown index c1e985aa..fedba711 100644 --- a/id-id/xml-id.html.markdown +++ b/id-id/xml-id.html.markdown @@ -1,23 +1,80 @@ --- language: xml -filename: learnxml.xml +filename: learnxml-id.xml contributors: - ["João Farias", "https://github.com/JoaoGFarias"] translators: - ["Rizky Luthfianto", "https://github.com/rilut"] + - ["Ahmad Zafrullah", "https://github.com/23Pstars"] lang: id-id --- -XML adalah bahasa markup yang dirancang untuk menyimpan dan mengirim data. +XML adalah bahasa markup yang dirancang untuk menyimpan dan mengirim data. XML mudah dibaca oleh manusia dan mesin. Tidak seperti HTML, XML tidak menentukan bagaimana menampilkan atau format data, hanya membawanya. -* Sintaks XML +Terdapat perbedaan antara **konten** dan **markup**. Singkatnya, konten dapat berupa apapun dan markup adalah sebagai penentu. + +## Definisi dan Pendahuluan + +Dokumen XML pada dasarnya disusun oleh *elemen* yang dapat memiliki *atribut* untuk menjelaskan elemen tersebut dan dapat memiliki beberapa konten tekstual atau beberapa elemen sebagai anak-nya. Setiap dokumen XML hendaknya memiliki satu elemen akar, yang menjadi induk dari semua elemen dalam dokumen XML. + +Pengurai XML dirancang menjadi sangat ketat, dan akan berhenti melakukan penguraian terhadap dokumen yang cacat. Oleh karena itu semua dokumen XML harus mengikuti [Aturan Sintaks XML](http://www.w3schools.com/xml/xml_syntax.asp). ```xml -<!-- Komentar di XML seperti ini --> +<!-- Ini adalah komentar. Komentar harus memiliki dua tanda penghubung secara berurutan (-). --> +<!-- Komentar dapat renggang + menjadi banyak baris --> + +<!-- Elemen --> +<!-- Elemen merupakan komponen dasar dari XML. Ada dua tipe dari elemen, kosong: --> +<elemen1 atribut="nilai" /> <!-- Elemen kosong tidak memiliki konten apapun --> +<!-- dan tidak-kosong: --> +<elemen2 atribut="nilai">Konten</elemen2> +<!-- Nama elemen hanya dapat berupa huruf dan angka saja. --> + +<kosong /> <!-- Elemen yang terdiri dari tag elemen kosong… --> +<!-- …tidak memiliki content apapun dan murni markup. --> + +<tidakkosong> <!-- Atau, elemen ini memiliki tag pembuka… --> + <!-- …suatu konten… --> +</tidakkosong> <!-- dan sebuah tag penutup. --> + +<!-- Nama elemen merupakan *case sensitive*. --> +<elemen /> +<!-- …tidak sama dengan elemen sebelumnya --> +<eLEMEN /> + +<!-- Atribut --> +<!-- Sebuah atribut merupakan hubungan kunci-nilai yang terdapat pada elemen. --> +<elemen atribut="nilai" lainnya="nilaiLainnya" banyakNilai="daftar nilai ber-spasi" /> +<!-- Sebuah atribut digunakan hanya sekali dalam sebuah elemen. Dan hanya memiliki satu nilai. + Salah satu solusi untuk mengatasi permasalahan tersebut adalah dengan menggunakan daftar nilai ber-spasi. --> + +<!-- Elemen bersarang --> +<!-- Konten dari sebuah elemen dapat berupa elemen lainnya:: --> +<ayah> + <anak>Teks</anak> + <oranglain /> +</ayah> +<!-- Mengikuti standar tatanan pohon. Setiap elemen disebut *node*. + Induk yang berada satu tingkat diatasnya disebut *parent*, keturunan yang berada satu tingkat dibawahnya disebut *children*. + Elemen yang berada pada *parent* yang sama disebut Saudara (*siblings*). --> + +<!-- XML mempertahankan spasi. --> +<anak> + Teks +</anak> +<!-- …tidak sama dengan --> +<anak>Teks</anak> +``` + + +## Dokumen XML +```xml <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> +<!-- XML prolog, boleh tidak digunakan namun direkomendasikan untuk digunakan. --> <tokobuku> <buku category="MEMASAK"> <judul lang="en">Everyday Italian</judul> @@ -65,7 +122,7 @@ Tidak seperti HTML, XML tidak menentukan bagaimana menampilkan atau format data, ``` -* Dokumen yang well-formated & Validasi +## Dokumen yang well-formated & Validasi Sebuah dokumen XML disebut well-formated jika sintaksisnya benar. Namun, juga mungkin untuk mendefinisikan lebih banyak batasan dalam dokumen, @@ -128,3 +185,17 @@ Dengan alat ini, Anda dapat memeriksa data XML di luar logika aplikasi. </buku> </tokobuku> ``` +## Kompatibilitas DTD dan Definisi Skema XML + +Dukungan untuk DTD dapat ditemukan dimana-mana karena sudah sangat lama. Namun sayangnya, fitur XML terkini seperti *namespaces* tidak didukung oleh DTD. XML Xchema Definitions (XSDs) bertujuan untuk mengganti DTD dalam mendefinisikan tatabahasa dokumen XML. + +## Sumber + +* [Validasi dokumen XML](http://www.xmlvalidation.com) + +## Bacaan lainnya + +* [XML Schema Definitions Tutorial](http://www.w3schools.com/schema/) +* [DTD Tutorial](http://www.w3schools.com/xml/xml_dtd_intro.asp) +* [XML Tutorial](http://www.w3schools.com/xml/default.asp) +* [Using XPath queries to parse XML](http://www.w3schools.com/xml/xml_xpath.asp) diff --git a/inform7.html.markdown b/inform7.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7f1da0e0 --- /dev/null +++ b/inform7.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,195 @@ +--- +language: Inform7 +contributors: + - ["Hyphz", "http://github.com/hyphz/"] +filename: LearnInform.Inform +--- +Inform 7 is a natural language based language created by Graham Nelson and Emily Short for writing text adventures, but also potentially usable for other text based applications, especially data backed ones. + +``` +"LearnInform" by Hyphz + +[This is a comment.] + +[Inform 7 is a language designed for building text adventures. +It can be used for other purposes too, although the default +library builds a text adventure. Inform 7 is object oriented.] + +[This creates a class by subclassing. "Value" is the universal subclass, +but "object" is the most basic that behaves like an OO object.] +A datablock is a kind of object. + +[Classes can have properties.] +A datablock can be broken. [This creates a boolean property.] +A datablock is usually not broken. [This sets its default value.] +A datablock can be big or small. [This creates an enumerated property.] +A datablock is usually small. [This sets its default value.] +A datablock has a number called the sequence number. [This creates a typed property.] +A datablock has some text called the name. ["Some text" means a string.] +A datablock has a datablock called the chain. [Declared classes become types.] + +[This creates a global named instance.] +Block1 is a datablock. +The sequence number of Block1 is 1. +The name of Block1 is "Block One." + +[Functions and procedures are defined as "phrases".] +To do the thing everyone does with their first program: + say "Hello World.". [Full stop indicates the end, indent indicates the scope.] + +To dump (the block - a datablock): [That's how we create a parameter.] + say the sequence number of the block; + say the name of the block; + if the block is broken, say "(Broken)". + +To toggle (the block - a datablock): + if the block is broken: [Conditional.] + now the block is not broken; [Updating a property.] + else: + now the block is broken. + +[Multiple parameters.] +To fix (the broken block - a datablock) using (the repair block - a datablock): + if the broken block is not broken, stop; [Comma for a non indented single command.] + if the repair block is broken, stop; + now the sequence number of the broken block is the sequence number of the repair block; + now the broken block is not broken. + +[Because of its text adventure origins, Inform 7 doesn't generally allow objects +to be created dynamically, although there's a language extension that enables it.] +Block2 is a datablock. +Block2 is broken. +The sequence number of Block2 is 2. +The name of Block2 is "Block two." + +To demonstrate calling a phrase with two parameters: + Let the second block be block2; [Local pointer variable.] + fix the second block using Block1; + say the sequence number of the second block. [1.] + +[Lists.] +To show how to use list types: + let the list be a list of datablocks; + add Block1 to the list; + add Block2 to the list; + say the list; ["Block1 and Block2"] + [Membership.] + if Block1 is listed in the list: + say "Block1 is there."; + [Loop.] + repeat with the block running through the list: + dump the block; [1 Block One. 1 Block Two.] + [Remember block two's sequence number was changed above.] + let X be entry 2 of the list; [Counting starts at 1.] + dump X; ["1 Block two."] + remove X from the list; + say the list. [Block1] + +[Here's how we define a function and do arithmetic.] + +To decide which number is the sum of all numbers up to (X - a number) (this is summing up): + let the total so far be a number; + repeat with the current number running from 1 to X: + now the total so far is the total so far + the current number; + decide on the total so far. [This is the return statement.] + +[ We have higher order functions too. ] + +To demonstrate a higher order function: + say summing up applied to {1, 2, 3, 4}. + +To decide which number is the result of applying (phrase - phrase A -> A) twice to (B - a value of kind A): + let b1 be phrase applied to B; + let b2 be phrase applied to b1; + decide on b2. + +To demonstrate defining a higher order function: + let X be 5; + say the result of applying summing up twice to X. + +[ Rulebooks allow a number of functions which apply to the same type under different conditions to be stacked. ] + +Datablock validation rules is a datablock based rulebook. + +A datablock validation rule for a broken datablock: rule fails. +A datablock validation rule for a datablock (called the block): + dump the block; + rule succeeds. + +To demonstrate invoking a rulebook: + follow datablock validation rules for Block1; + follow datablock validation rules for Block2. + +[ Objects can also have relations, which resemble those in a relational database. ] +A dog is a kind of thing. +Rover is a dog. +The kennel is a container. [This is a built in base class.] +Rover is in the kennel. [This creates an inbuilt relation called "containment".] + +[We can create relations by declaring their type.] + +Guide dog ownership relates one dog to one person. [One-to-one.] +Property ownership relates various things to one person. [Many-to-one.] +Friendship relates various people to various people. [Many-to-many.] + +[To actually use them we must assign verbs or prepositions to them.] + +The verb to own means the property ownership relation. +The verb to be the guide dog of means the guide dog ownership relation. +The verb to be guided by means the reversed guide dog ownership relation. +The verb to be friends with means the friendship relation. + +Edward is a person. A person can be blind. Edward is blind. +Edward is guided by Rover. +Benny is a person. Edward is friends with Benny. + +To demonstrate looking something up with a relation: + repeat with the dog running through things that are the guide dog of Edward: + say the dog; + repeat with the friend running through things that are friends with Edward: + say the friend. + +[We can also define relations that exist procedurally.] + +Helpfulness relates a person (called the helper) to a person (called the helpee) when the helpee is blind and the helper is not blind. +The verb to be helpful to means the helpfulness relation. +To demonstrate using a procedural relation: + repeat with the helper running through people that are helpful to Edward: + say the helper. + + +[ Interface to the text adventure harness to allow the above code to be run. ] +Tutorial room is a room. +"A rather strange room full of buttons. Push them to run the exercises, or turn on the robot to run them all." +A button is a kind of thing. A button is fixed in place. + +The red button is a button in tutorial room. +Instead of pushing the red button, do the thing everyone does with their first program. +The green button is a button in tutorial room. +Instead of pushing the green button, demonstrate calling a phrase with two parameters. +The blue button is a button in tutorial room. +Instead of pushing the blue button, show how to use list types. +The cyan button is a button in tutorial room. +Instead of pushing the cyan button, say the sum of all numbers up to 5. +The purple button is a button in tutorial room. +Instead of pushing the purple button, demonstrate a higher order function. +The black button is a button in tutorial room. +Instead of pushing the black button, demonstrate defining a higher order function. +The white button is a button in tutorial room. +Instead of pushing the white button, demonstrate invoking a rulebook. +The puce button is a button in tutorial room. +Instead of pushing the puce button, demonstrate looking something up with a relation. +The orange button is a button in tutorial room. +Instead of pushing the orange button, demonstrate using a procedural relation. + +The robot is an object in tutorial room. +Instead of switching on the robot: + say "The robot begins to frantically flail its arms about."; + repeat with button running through buttons in the tutorial room: + say "The robot randomly hits [the button]."; + try pushing button. +``` + +##Ready For More? + +* [Inform 7](http://www.inform7.com/) diff --git a/it-it/brainfuck-it.html.markdown b/it-it/bf-it.html.markdown index 08d2ede9..a79710d0 100644 --- a/it-it/brainfuck-it.html.markdown +++ b/it-it/bf-it.html.markdown @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ --- -language: brainfuck +language: bf contributors: - ["Prajit Ramachandran", "http://prajitr.github.io/"] - ["Mathias Bynens", "http://mathiasbynens.be/"] diff --git a/it-it/coffeescript-it.html.markdown b/it-it/coffeescript-it.html.markdown index 31973369..d30ba819 100644 --- a/it-it/coffeescript-it.html.markdown +++ b/it-it/coffeescript-it.html.markdown @@ -4,8 +4,6 @@ contributors: - ["Luca 'Kino' Maroni", "http://github.com/kino90"] - ["Tenor Biel", "http://github.com/L8D"] - ["Xavier Yao", "http://github.com/xavieryao"] -translators: - - ["Tommaso Pifferi","http://github.com/neslinesli93"] filename: coffeescript-it.coffee lang: it-it --- diff --git a/it-it/python-it.html.markdown b/it-it/python-it.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3a4099e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/it-it/python-it.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,647 @@ +--- +language: python +contributors: + - ["Louie Dinh", "http://ldinh.ca"] + - ["Amin Bandali", "http://aminbandali.com"] + - ["Andre Polykanine", "https://github.com/Oire"] +filename: learnpython.py +translators: + - ["Ale46", "http://github.com/Ale46/"] +lang: it-it +--- +Python è stato creato da Guido Van Rossum agli inizi degli anni 90. Oggi è uno dei più popolari +linguaggi esistenti. Mi sono innamorato di Python per la sua chiarezza sintattica. E' sostanzialmente +pseudocodice eseguibile. + +Feedback sono altamente apprezzati! Potete contattarmi su [@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) oppure [at] [google's email service] + +Nota: Questo articolo è valido solamente per Python 2.7, ma dovrebbe andar bene anche per +Python 2.x. Per Python 3.x, dai un'occhiata a [Python 3 tutorial](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/python3/). + +```python + +# I commenti su una sola linea iniziano con un cancelletto + +""" Più stringhe possono essere scritte + usando tre ", e sono spesso usate + come commenti +""" + +#################################################### +## 1. Tipi di dati primitivi ed Operatori +#################################################### + +# Hai i numeri +3 # => 3 + +# La matematica è quello che vi aspettereste +1 + 1 # => 2 +8 - 1 # => 7 +10 * 2 # => 20 +35 / 5 # => 7 + +# La divisione è un po' complicata. E' una divisione fra interi in cui viene +# restituito in automatico il risultato intero. +5 / 2 # => 2 + +# Per le divisioni con la virgola abbiamo bisogno di parlare delle variabili floats. +2.0 # Questo è un float +11.0 / 4.0 # => 2.75 ahhh...molto meglio + +# Il risultato di una divisione fra interi troncati positivi e negativi +5 // 3 # => 1 +5.0 // 3.0 # => 1.0 # funziona anche per i floats +-5 // 3 # => -2 +-5.0 // 3.0 # => -2.0 + +# Operazione Modulo +7 % 3 # => 1 + +# Elevamento a potenza (x alla y-esima potenza) +2**4 # => 16 + +# Forzare le precedenze con le parentesi +(1 + 3) * 2 # => 8 + +# Operatori Booleani +# Nota "and" e "or" sono case-sensitive +True and False #=> False +False or True #=> True + +# Note sull'uso di operatori Bool con interi +0 and 2 #=> 0 +-5 or 0 #=> -5 +0 == False #=> True +2 == True #=> False +1 == True #=> True + +# nega con not +not True # => False +not False # => True + +# Uguaglianza è == +1 == 1 # => True +2 == 1 # => False + +# Disuguaglianza è != +1 != 1 # => False +2 != 1 # => True + +# Altri confronti +1 < 10 # => True +1 > 10 # => False +2 <= 2 # => True +2 >= 2 # => True + +# I confronti possono essere concatenati! +1 < 2 < 3 # => True +2 < 3 < 2 # => False + +# Le stringhe sono create con " o ' +"Questa è una stringa." +'Anche questa è una stringa.' + +# Anche le stringhe possono essere sommate! +"Ciao " + "mondo!" # => Ciao mondo!" +# Le stringhe possono essere sommate anche senza '+' +"Ciao " "mondo!" # => Ciao mondo!" + +# ... oppure moltiplicate +"Hello" * 3 # => "HelloHelloHello" + +# Una stringa può essere considerata come una lista di caratteri +"Questa è una stringa"[0] # => 'Q' + +# % può essere usato per formattare le stringhe, in questo modo: +"%s possono essere %s" % ("le stringhe", "interpolate") + +# Un nuovo modo per fomattare le stringhe è il metodo format. +# Questo metodo è quello consigliato +"{0} possono essere {1}".format("le stringhe", "formattate") +# Puoi usare delle parole chiave se non vuoi contare +"{nome} vuole mangiare {cibo}".format(nome="Bob", cibo="lasagna") + +# None è un oggetto +None # => None + +# Non usare il simbolo di uguaglianza "==" per comparare oggetti a None +# Usa "is" invece +"etc" is None # => False +None is None # => True + +# L'operatore 'is' testa l'identità di un oggetto. Questo non è +# molto utile quando non hai a che fare con valori primitivi, ma lo è +# quando hai a che fare con oggetti. + +# None, 0, e stringhe/liste vuote sono tutte considerate a False. +# Tutti gli altri valori sono True +bool(0) # => False +bool("") # => False + + +#################################################### +## 2. Variabili e Collections +#################################################### + +# Python ha una funzione di stampa +print "Sono Python. Piacere di conoscerti!" + +# Non c'è bisogno di dichiarare una variabile per assegnarle un valore +una_variabile = 5 # Convenzionalmente si usa caratteri_minuscoli_con_underscores +una_variabile # => 5 + +# Accedendo ad una variabile non precedentemente assegnata genera un'eccezione. +# Dai un'occhiata al Control Flow per imparare di più su come gestire le eccezioni. +un_altra_variabile # Genera un errore di nome + +# if può essere usato come un'espressione +"yahoo!" if 3 > 2 else 2 # => "yahoo!" + +# Liste immagazzinano sequenze +li = [] +# Puoi partire con una lista pre-riempita +altra_li = [4, 5, 6] + +# Aggiungi cose alla fine di una lista con append +li.append(1) # li ora è [1] +li.append(2) # li ora è [1, 2] +li.append(4) # li ora è [1, 2, 4] +li.append(3) # li ora è [1, 2, 4, 3] +# Rimuovi dalla fine della lista con pop +li.pop() # => 3 e li ora è [1, 2, 4] +# Rimettiamolo a posto +li.append(3) # li ora è [1, 2, 4, 3] di nuovo. + +# Accedi ad una lista come faresti con un array +li[0] # => 1 +# Assegna nuovo valore agli indici che sono già stati inizializzati con = +li[0] = 42 +li[0] # => 42 +li[0] = 1 # Nota: è resettato al valore iniziale +# Guarda l'ultimo elemento +li[-1] # => 3 + +# Guardare al di fuori dei limiti è un IndexError +li[4] # Genera IndexError + +# Puoi guardare gli intervalli con la sintassi slice (a fetta). +# (E' un intervallo chiuso/aperto per voi tipi matematici.) +li[1:3] # => [2, 4] +# Ometti l'inizio +li[2:] # => [4, 3] +# Ometti la fine +li[:3] # => [1, 2, 4] +# Seleziona ogni seconda voce +li[::2] # =>[1, 4] +# Copia al contrario della lista +li[::-1] # => [3, 4, 2, 1] +# Usa combinazioni per fare slices avanzate +# li[inizio:fine:passo] + +# Rimuovi arbitrariamente elementi da una lista con "del" +del li[2] # li è ora [1, 2, 3] +# Puoi sommare le liste +li + altra_li # => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] +# Nota: i valori per li ed altra_li non sono modificati. + +# Concatena liste con "extend()" +li.extend(altra_li) # Ora li è [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] + +# Controlla l'esistenza di un valore in una lista con "in" +1 in li # => True + +# Esamina la lunghezza con "len()" +len(li) # => 6 + + +# Tuple sono come le liste ma immutabili. +tup = (1, 2, 3) +tup[0] # => 1 +tup[0] = 3 # Genera un TypeError + +# Puoi fare tutte queste cose da lista anche sulle tuple +len(tup) # => 3 +tup + (4, 5, 6) # => (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) +tup[:2] # => (1, 2) +2 in tup # => True + +# Puoi scompattare le tuple (o liste) in variabili +a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) # a è ora 1, b è ora 2 and c è ora 3 +# Le tuple sono create di default se non usi le parentesi +d, e, f = 4, 5, 6 +# Guarda come è facile scambiare due valori +e, d = d, e # d è ora 5 ed e è ora 4 + + +# Dizionari immagazzinano mappature +empty_dict = {} +# Questo è un dizionario pre-riempito +filled_dict = {"uno": 1, "due": 2, "tre": 3} + +# Accedi ai valori con [] +filled_dict["uno"] # => 1 + +# Ottieni tutte le chiavi come una lista con "keys()" +filled_dict.keys() # => ["tre", "due", "uno"] +# Nota - Nei dizionari l'ordine delle chiavi non è garantito. +# Il tuo risultato potrebbe non essere uguale a questo. + +# Ottieni tutt i valori come una lista con "values()" +filled_dict.values() # => [3, 2, 1] +# Nota - Come sopra riguardo l'ordinamento delle chiavi. + +# Controlla l'esistenza delle chiavi in un dizionario con "in" +"uno" in filled_dict # => True +1 in filled_dict # => False + +# Cercando una chiave non esistente è un KeyError +filled_dict["quattro"] # KeyError + +# Usa il metodo "get()" per evitare KeyError +filled_dict.get("uno") # => 1 +filled_dict.get("quattro") # => None +# Il metodo get supporta un argomento di default quando il valore è mancante +filled_dict.get("uno", 4) # => 1 +filled_dict.get("quattro", 4) # => 4 +# nota che filled_dict.get("quattro") è ancora => None +# (get non imposta il valore nel dizionario) + +# imposta il valore di una chiave con una sintassi simile alle liste +filled_dict["quattro"] = 4 # ora, filled_dict["quattro"] => 4 + +# "setdefault()" aggiunge al dizionario solo se la chiave data non è presente +filled_dict.setdefault("five", 5) # filled_dict["five"] è impostato a 5 +filled_dict.setdefault("five", 6) # filled_dict["five"] è ancora 5 + + +# Sets immagazzina ... sets (che sono come le liste, ma non possono contenere doppioni) +empty_set = set() +# Inizializza un "set()" con un po' di valori +some_set = set([1, 2, 2, 3, 4]) # some_set è ora set([1, 2, 3, 4]) + +# l'ordine non è garantito, anche se a volta può sembrare ordinato +another_set = set([4, 3, 2, 2, 1]) # another_set è ora set([1, 2, 3, 4]) + +# Da Python 2.7, {} può essere usato per dichiarare un set +filled_set = {1, 2, 2, 3, 4} # => {1, 2, 3, 4} + +# Aggiungere elementi ad un set +filled_set.add(5) # filled_set è ora {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} + +# Fai intersezioni su un set con & +other_set = {3, 4, 5, 6} +filled_set & other_set # => {3, 4, 5} + +# Fai unioni su set con | +filled_set | other_set # => {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} + +# Fai differenze su set con - +{1, 2, 3, 4} - {2, 3, 5} # => {1, 4} + +# Controlla l'esistenza in un set con in +2 in filled_set # => True +10 in filled_set # => False + + +#################################################### +## 3. Control Flow +#################################################### + +# Dichiariamo una variabile +some_var = 5 + +# Questo è un controllo if. L'indentazione è molto importante in python! +# stampa "some_var è più piccola di 10" +if some_var > 10: + print "some_var è decisamente più grande di 10." +elif some_var < 10: # Questa clausola elif è opzionale. + print "some_var è più piccola di 10." +else: # Anche questo è opzionale. + print "some_var è precisamente 10." + + +""" +I cicli for iterano sulle liste +stampa: + cane è un mammifero + gatto è un mammifero + topo è un mammifero +""" +for animale in ["cane", "gatto", "topo"]: + # Puoi usare {0} per interpolare le stringhe formattate. (Vedi di seguito.) + print "{0} è un mammifero".format(animale) + +""" +"range(numero)" restituisce una lista di numeri +da zero al numero dato +stampa: + 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 +""" +for i in range(4): + print i + +""" +"range(lower, upper)" restituisce una lista di numeri +dal più piccolo (lower) al più grande (upper) +stampa: + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 +""" +for i in range(4, 8): + print i + +""" +I cicli while vengono eseguiti finchè una condizione viene a mancare +stampa: + 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 +""" +x = 0 +while x < 4: + print x + x += 1 # Forma compatta per x = x + 1 + +# Gestisci le eccezioni con un blocco try/except + +# Funziona da Python 2.6 in su: +try: + # Usa "raise" per generare un errore + raise IndexError("Questo è un errore di indice") +except IndexError as e: + pass # Pass è solo una non-operazione. Solitamente vorrai fare un recupero. +except (TypeError, NameError): + pass # Eccezioni multiple possono essere gestite tutte insieme, se necessario. +else: # Clausola opzionale al blocco try/except. Deve seguire tutti i blocchi except + print "Tutto ok!" # Viene eseguita solo se il codice dentro try non genera eccezioni +finally: # Eseguito sempre + print "Possiamo liberare risorse qui" + +# Invece di try/finally per liberare risorse puoi usare il metodo with +with open("myfile.txt") as f: + for line in f: + print line + +#################################################### +## 4. Funzioni +#################################################### + +# Usa "def" per creare nuove funzioni +def aggiungi(x, y): + print "x è {0} e y è {1}".format(x, y) + return x + y # Restituisce valori con il metodo return + +# Chiamare funzioni con parametri +aggiungi(5, 6) # => stampa "x è 5 e y è 6" e restituisce 11 + +# Un altro modo per chiamare funzioni è con parole chiave come argomenti +aggiungi(y=6, x=5) # Le parole chiave come argomenti possono arrivare in ogni ordine. + + +# Puoi definire funzioni che accettano un numero variabile di argomenti posizionali +# che verranno interpretati come tuple se non usi il * +def varargs(*args): + return args + +varargs(1, 2, 3) # => (1, 2, 3) + + +# Puoi definire funzioni che accettano un numero variabile di parole chiave +# come argomento, che saranno interpretati come un dizionario se non usi ** +def keyword_args(**kwargs): + return kwargs + +# Chiamiamola per vedere cosa succede +keyword_args(big="foot", loch="ness") # => {"big": "foot", "loch": "ness"} + + +# Puoi farle entrambi in una volta, se ti va +def all_the_args(*args, **kwargs): + print args + print kwargs +""" +all_the_args(1, 2, a=3, b=4) stampa: + (1, 2) + {"a": 3, "b": 4} +""" + +# Quando chiami funzioni, puoi fare l'opposto di args/kwargs! +# Usa * per sviluppare gli argomenti posizionale ed usa ** per espandere gli argomenti parola chiave +args = (1, 2, 3, 4) +kwargs = {"a": 3, "b": 4} +all_the_args(*args) # equivalente a foo(1, 2, 3, 4) +all_the_args(**kwargs) # equivalente a foo(a=3, b=4) +all_the_args(*args, **kwargs) # equivalente a foo(1, 2, 3, 4, a=3, b=4) + +# puoi passare args e kwargs insieme alle altre funzioni che accettano args/kwargs +# sviluppandoli, rispettivamente, con * e ** +def pass_all_the_args(*args, **kwargs): + all_the_args(*args, **kwargs) + print varargs(*args) + print keyword_args(**kwargs) + +# Funzioni Scope +x = 5 + +def setX(num): + # La variabile locale x non è uguale alla variabile globale x + x = num # => 43 + print x # => 43 + +def setGlobalX(num): + global x + print x # => 5 + x = num # la variabile globable x è ora 6 + print x # => 6 + +setX(43) +setGlobalX(6) + +# Python ha funzioni di prima classe +def create_adder(x): + def adder(y): + return x + y + return adder + +add_10 = create_adder(10) +add_10(3) # => 13 + +# Ci sono anche funzioni anonime +(lambda x: x > 2)(3) # => True + +# Esse sono incluse in funzioni di alto livello +map(add_10, [1, 2, 3]) # => [11, 12, 13] +filter(lambda x: x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) # => [6, 7] + +# Possiamo usare la comprensione delle liste per mappe e filtri +[add_10(i) for i in [1, 2, 3]] # => [11, 12, 13] +[x for x in [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] if x > 5] # => [6, 7] + + +#################################################### +## 5. Classi +#################################################### + +# Usiamo una sottoclasse da un oggetto per avere una classe. +class Human(object): + + # Un attributo della classe. E' condiviso da tutte le istanze delle classe + species = "H. sapiens" + + # Costruttore base, richiamato quando la classe viene inizializzata. + # Si noti che il doppio leading e gli underscore finali denotano oggetti + # o attributi che sono usati da python ma che vivono nello spazio dei nome controllato + # dall'utente. Non dovresti usare nomi di questo genere. + def __init__(self, name): + # Assegna l'argomento all'attributo name dell'istanza + self.name = name + + # Un metodo dell'istanza. Tutti i metodi prendo "self" come primo argomento + def say(self, msg): + return "{0}: {1}".format(self.name, msg) + + # Un metodo della classe è condiviso fra tutte le istanze + # Sono chiamate con la classe chiamante come primo argomento + @classmethod + def get_species(cls): + return cls.species + + # Un metodo statico è chiamato senza una classe od una istanza di riferimento + @staticmethod + def grunt(): + return "*grunt*" + + +# Instanziare una classe +i = Human(name="Ian") +print i.say("hi") # stampa "Ian: hi" + +j = Human("Joel") +print j.say("hello") # stampa "Joel: hello" + +# Chiamare metodi della classe +i.get_species() # => "H. sapiens" + +# Cambiare l'attributo condiviso +Human.species = "H. neanderthalensis" +i.get_species() # => "H. neanderthalensis" +j.get_species() # => "H. neanderthalensis" + +# Chiamare il metodo condiviso +Human.grunt() # => "*grunt*" + + +#################################################### +## 6. Moduli +#################################################### + +# Puoi importare moduli +import math +print math.sqrt(16) # => 4 + +# Puoi ottenere specifiche funzione da un modulo +from math import ceil, floor +print ceil(3.7) # => 4.0 +print floor(3.7) # => 3.0 + +# Puoi importare tutte le funzioni da un modulo +# Attenzione: questo non è raccomandato +from math import * + +# Puoi abbreviare i nomi dei moduli +import math as m +math.sqrt(16) == m.sqrt(16) # => True +# puoi anche verificare che le funzioni sono equivalenti +from math import sqrt +math.sqrt == m.sqrt == sqrt # => True + +# I moduli di Python sono normali file python. Ne puoi +# scrivere di tuoi ed importarli. Il nome del modulo +# è lo stesso del nome del file. + +# Potete scoprire quali funzioni e attributi +# definiscono un modulo +import math +dir(math) + + +#################################################### +## 7. Avanzate +#################################################### + +# I generatori ti aiutano a fare codice pigro +def double_numbers(iterable): + for i in iterable: + yield i + i + +# Un generatore crea valori al volo. +# Invece di generare e ritornare tutti i valori in una volta ne crea uno in ciascuna +# iterazione. Ciò significa che i valori più grandi di 15 non saranno considerati in +# double_numbers. +# Nota xrange è un generatore che fa la stessa cosa di range. +# Creare una lista 1-900000000 occuperebbe molto tempo e spazio. +# xrange crea un oggetto generatore xrange invece di creare l'intera lista +# come fa range. +# Usiamo un underscore finale nel nome delle variabile quando vogliamo usare un nome +# che normalmente colliderebbe con una parola chiave di python +xrange_ = xrange(1, 900000000) + +# raddoppierà tutti i numeri fino a che result >=30 non sarà trovato +for i in double_numbers(xrange_): + print i + if i >= 30: + break + + +# Decoratori +# in questo esempio beg include say +# Beg chiamerà say. Se say_please è True allora cambierà il messaggio +# ritornato +from functools import wraps + + +def beg(target_function): + @wraps(target_function) + def wrapper(*args, **kwargs): + msg, say_please = target_function(*args, **kwargs) + if say_please: + return "{} {}".format(msg, "Per favore! Sono povero :(") + return msg + + return wrapper + + +@beg +def say(say_please=False): + msg = "Puoi comprarmi una birra?" + return msg, say_please + + +print say() # Puoi comprarmi una birra? +print say(say_please=True) # Puoi comprarmi una birra? Per favore! Sono povero :( +``` + +## Pronto per qualcosa di più? + +### Gratis Online + +* [Automate the Boring Stuff with Python](https://automatetheboringstuff.com) +* [Learn Python The Hard Way](http://learnpythonthehardway.org/book/) +* [Dive Into Python](http://www.diveintopython.net/) +* [The Official Docs](http://docs.python.org/2.6/) +* [Hitchhiker's Guide to Python](http://docs.python-guide.org/en/latest/) +* [Python Module of the Week](http://pymotw.com/2/) +* [A Crash Course in Python for Scientists](http://nbviewer.ipython.org/5920182) +* [First Steps With Python](https://realpython.com/learn/python-first-steps/) + +### Libri cartacei + +* [Programming Python](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596158106/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0596158106&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20) +* [Dive Into Python](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1441413022/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1441413022&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20) +* [Python Essential Reference](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0672329786/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0672329786&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20) diff --git a/ja-jp/bash-jp.html.markdown b/ja-jp/bash-jp.html.markdown index 88e5ff1c..ea8fa49f 100644 --- a/ja-jp/bash-jp.html.markdown +++ b/ja-jp/bash-jp.html.markdown @@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ echo "Last program return value: $?" echo "Script's PID: $$" echo "Number of arguments: $#" echo "Scripts arguments: $@" -echo "Scripts arguments seperated in different variables: $1 $2..." +echo "Scripts arguments separated in different variables: $1 $2..." # 入力値の読み込み echo "What's your name?" @@ -117,7 +117,7 @@ echo "There are $(ls | wc -l) items here." echo "There are `ls | wc -l` items here." # BashはJavaやC++のように、case文による分岐ができます -case "$VARIABLE" in +case "$VARIABLE" in #分岐条件として使いたいパターンを並べてください 0) echo "There is a zero.";; 1) echo "There is a one.";; diff --git a/ja-jp/php-jp.html.markdown b/ja-jp/php-jp.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..112916f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/ja-jp/php-jp.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,777 @@ +--- +language: PHP +contributors: + - ["Malcolm Fell", "http://emarref.net/"] + - ["Trismegiste", "https://github.com/Trismegiste"] +translators: + - ["Kazushige Tominaga", "https://github.com/kazu9su"] +filename: learnphp-jp.php +lang: ja-jp +--- + +このドキュメントでは、 PHP 5+ について説明します。 + +```php +<?php // PHPのコードは、<?php タグで囲む必要があります。 + +// もしあなたのphpファイルがPHPのみで構成される場合、 +// 意図しない出力を防ぐために、phpの閉じタグは省略するのがベストプラクティスです。 +// 一行のコメントを書く場合、2つのスラッシュで始めます。 +# ハッシュ(ポンド記号として知られる)を使いたいでしょうが、//のほうが一般的です +/* + スラッシュとアスタリスク、アスタリスクとスラッシュで囲むと、 + 複数行のコメントを書けます。 +*/ + +// 出力をプリントしたい場合は、"echo" か "print" を使います。 +print('Hello '); // これは "Hello " という改行なしの文字列をプリントします。 + +// カッコ()はprintとecho関数に置いては省略できます。 +echo "World\n"; // これは改行ありの"World"という文字列をプリントします。 +// (全ての命令文では、セミコロンを最後に付けることが必須です。) + +// <?php タグの外側にあるものは、自動的にプリントされます。 +?> +Hello World Again! +<?php + + +/************************************ + * 型と変数について + */ + +// 変数は"$"マークで始まります +// 有効な変数名にするには、文字またはアンダースコア(_)で始めて, +// その後はどんな数字でも、文字でも、アンダースコアで続けても構いません + +//ブーリアン値は大文字、小文字問いません +$boolean = true; // or TRUE or True +$boolean = false; // or FALSE or False + +// 数値 +$int1 = 12; // => 12 +$int2 = -12; // => -12 +$int3 = 012; // => 10 (先頭の0は8進法を示す) +$int4 = 0x0F; // => 15 (先頭の0xは16進法を示す) + +// floats(浮動小数) (別名double) +$float = 1.234; +$float = 1.2e3; +$float = 7E-10; + +// 変数の削除 +unset($int1); + +// 計算式 +$sum = 1 + 1; // 2 +$difference = 2 - 1; // 1 +$product = 2 * 2; // 4 +$quotient = 2 / 1; // 2 + +// 式の省略 +$number = 0; +$number += 1; // $numberに1加算Increment $number by 1 +echo $number++; // 1 がプリントされる(式の評価の後に加算される) +echo ++$number; // 3 がプリントされる(式の評価の前に加算される) +$number /= $float; // 割り算した結果の商を$numberに割り当てる + +// 文字列はシングルクォートで囲むのが望ましいです +$sgl_quotes = '$String'; // => '$String' + +// 文字列中に、他の変数を埋め込みたい場合以外は、ダブルクォートを使用するのはやめましょう +$dbl_quotes = "This is a $sgl_quotes."; // => 'This is a $String.' + +// Special characters are only escaped in double quotes +// 特殊文字はダブルクォートによってのみ、エスケープされます +$escaped = "This contains a \t tab character."; +$unescaped = 'This just contains a slash and a t: \t'; + +// 必要があれば、変数を波括弧で囲みます +$money = "I have $${number} in the bank."; + +// PHP 5.3から、nowdocs形式が変数の挿入をしない複数行の文字列の定義に使用できます +$nowdoc = <<<'END' +Multi line +string +END; + +// ヒアドキュメント形式なら、文字列中に変数の挿入を行えます。 +$heredoc = <<<END +Multi line +$sgl_quotes +END; + +// 文字列の連結は . で行います +echo 'This string ' . 'is concatenated'; + +// 別々のパラメータとしてechoに渡すこともできます +echo 'Multiple', 'Parameters', 'Valid'; + +/******************************** + * 定数 + */ + +// 定数は define() を使って定義します +// また、実行中は変更することができないので注意が必要です！ + +// 有効は定数は文字かアンダースコアで始めます +// それ移行のは、どんな数値でも文字列でもアンダースコアでも構いません +define("FOO", "something"); + +// 定義した名前をそのまま($はつけずに)使用することで、定数にアクセスできます +// access to a constant is possible by direct using the choosen name +echo 'This outputs '.FOO; + + +/******************************** + * 配列 + */ + +// PHPの配列はすべて連想配列です + +// 連想配列は、他の言語ではハッシュ(ハッシュマップ)として知られています + +// すべてのバージョンのPHPで動作します +$associative = array('One' => 1, 'Two' => 2, 'Three' => 3); + +// PHP 5.4 から、新しいシンタックスが導入されました +$associative = ['One' => 1, 'Two' => 2, 'Three' => 3]; + +echo $associative['One']; // 1とプリントされます + +// キーを指定しないシンプルな配列にも、自動的に数値キーが振られます +$array = ['One', 'Two', 'Three']; +echo $array[0]; // => "One" + +// 配列の最後に要素を追加する +$array[] = 'Four'; +// または、次のようにも書けます +array_push($array, 'Five'); + +// 配列から要素を削除 +unset($array[3]); + +/******************************** + * 出力 + */ + +echo('Hello World!'); +// 標準出力にHello World! とプリントします +// 標準出力はブラウザーで実行していればWebページに出力されます +// Stdout is the web page if running in a browser. + +print('Hello World!'); // echoの結果と同じです + +// echo は言語自体の構成要素であり、括弧なしで呼び出せます +// echo is actually a language construct, so you can drop the parentheses. +echo 'Hello World!'; +print 'Hello World!'; // printも同様です + +$paragraph = 'paragraph'; + +echo 100; // スカラー数値を直接出力します +echo $paragraph; // 変数も使用できます + +// PHPタグの短縮型が設定されているか、使用しているPHPのバージョンが +// 5.4.0 以上であれば、短縮echoシンタックスを使用できます +?> +<p><?= $paragraph ?></p> +<?php + +$x = 1; +$y = 2; +$x = $y; // $xに$yの値を代入します +$z = &$y; +// $zは$yへの参照です。 +// $zの値を変更すると$yの値も変更されるでしょう。逆も同様です。 +// $xは$yの最初の値を変わらず保持しています + +echo $x; // => 2 +echo $z; // => 2 +$y = 0; +echo $x; // => 2 +echo $z; // => 0 + +// 変数の型と値を標準出力へダンプします +var_dump($z); // int(0) と出力されます + +// 人間が読めるフォーマットで変数を標準出力にプリントします +print_r($array); // prints: Array ( [0] => One [1] => Two [2] => Three ) + +/******************************** + * ロジック + */ +$a = 0; +$b = '0'; +$c = '1'; +$d = '1'; + +// assertは引数がfalseの場合、Exceptionを投げます + +//これらの比較は型が違ったとしても、常に真です。 +assert($a == $b); // equality +assert($c != $a); // inequality +assert($c <> $a); // alternative inequality +assert($a < $c); +assert($c > $b); +assert($a <= $b); +assert($c >= $d); + +// 次の比較は値が等しく、かつ同じ型である場合のみ真です +assert($c === $d); +assert($a !== $d); +assert(1 === '1'); +assert(1 !== '1'); + +// spaceship演算子はPHP7から使用可能です +$a = 100; +$b = 1000; + +echo $a <=> $a; // 等しいので0になります +echo $a <=> $b; // $a < $b なので -1 です +echo $b <=> $a; // $b > $a なので 1 です + +// 変数は使用するコンテキストによって、変換されます + +$integer = 1; +echo $integer + $integer; // => 2 + +$string = '1'; +echo $string + $string; // => 2 (文字列は強制的に数値として処理されます) + +$string = 'one'; +echo $string + $string; // => 0 +// '+'演算子は文字列'one'を数値にキャストできないので、0と出力されます + +// 型のキャスティングによって、変数を指定したもう一つの型として扱うことができます +// Type casting can be used to treat a variable as another type + +$boolean = (boolean) 1; // => true + +$zero = 0; +$boolean = (boolean) $zero; // => false + +// 型をキャストするため専用の関数も存在します +$integer = 5; +$string = strval($integer); + +$var = null; // Null値 + + +/******************************** + * 制御構造 + */ + +if (true) { + print 'I get printed'; +} + +if (false) { + print 'I don\'t'; +} else { + print 'I get printed'; +} + +if (false) { + print 'Does not get printed'; +} elseif(true) { + print 'Does'; +} + +// 三項演算子 +print (false ? 'Does not get printed' : 'Does'); + +// PHP 5.3から、三項演算子の短縮形が使用できます +// $x ? $x : 'Does'と同義です +$x = false; +print($x ?: 'Does'); + +// null合体演算子はPHP 7から使用できます +$a = null; +$b = 'Does print'; +echo $a ?? 'a is not set'; // prints 'a is not set' +echo $b ?? 'b is not set'; // prints 'Does print' + + +$x = 0; +if ($x === '0') { + print 'Does not print'; +} elseif($x == '1') { + print 'Does not print'; +} else { + print 'Does print'; +} + + + +// :を用いる別の構文はテンプレートで有用です +?> + +<?php if ($x): ?> +この部分はifが真のとき表示されます +<?php else: ?> +それ以外の場合は、この部分が表示されます +<?php endif; ?> + +<?php + +// いくつかのロジックを保存するにはswitchを使用します +switch ($x) { + case '0': + print 'Switch does type coercion'; + break; // breakを書く必要があります。 + // でなければ、次の'two', 'three'のcase文を続けて実行することになります。 + case 'two': + case 'three': + // 変数が'two'または'three'の場合、何かを実行します + break; + default: + //デフォルトで何かを実行します +} + +// while, do, forの構文は、おそらく他の言語とも共通なものです +$i = 0; +while ($i < 5) { + echo $i++; +}; // Prints "01234" + +echo "\n"; + +$i = 0; +do { + echo $i++; +} while ($i < 5); // Prints "01234" + +echo "\n"; + +for ($x = 0; $x < 10; $x++) { + echo $x; +} // Prints "0123456789" + +echo "\n"; + +$wheels = ['bicycle' => 2, 'car' => 4]; + +//Foreachループによって、 配列を反復処理できます +foreach ($wheels as $wheel_count) { + echo $wheel_count; +} // Prints "24" + +echo "\n"; + +// 値と同じ様に、keyも反復処理できます +foreach ($wheels as $vehicle => $wheel_count) { + echo "A $vehicle has $wheel_count wheels"; +} + +echo "\n"; + +$i = 0; +while ($i < 5) { + if ($i === 3) { + break; // Exit out of the while loop + } + echo $i++; +} // Prints "012" + +for ($i = 0; $i < 5; $i++) { + if ($i === 3) { + continue; // Skip this iteration of the loop + } + echo $i; +} // Prints "0124" + + +/******************************** + * 関数 + */ + +// 関数を"function"で定義します +function my_function () { + return 'Hello'; +} + +echo my_function(); // => "Hello" + +// 有効な関数名は、文字またはアンダースコアで始めます。それ以降は +// どれだけ長い文字、数値、アンダースコアを続けても構いません + +function add ($x, $y = 1) { // $yはオプショナルな値であり、デフォルトで 1 です + $result = $x + $y; + return $result; +} + +echo add(4); // => 5 +echo add(4, 2); // => 6 + +// $result には、関数の外からアクセス出来ません +// print $result; // エラーになります + +// PHP 5.3 から、無名関数が使えます +$inc = function ($x) { + return $x + 1; +}; + +echo $inc(2); // => 3 + +function foo ($x, $y, $z) { + echo "$x - $y - $z"; +} + +// 関数は、関数を返すことができます +function bar ($x, $y) { + // 関数外の変数を利用したいときは、'use'を使います + return function ($z) use ($x, $y) { + foo($x, $y, $z); + }; +} + +$bar = bar('A', 'B'); +$bar('C'); // Prints "A - B - C" + +// 文字列を使って、定義済みの関数を呼び出すことができます +$function_name = 'add'; +echo $function_name(1, 2); // => 3 + +// プログラミング中に、動的に動かす関数を決める場合に便利です。 +// もしくは、call_user_func(callable $callback [, $parameter [, ... ]]) を使っても同じことができます + + +// 特に指定しなくても、渡された引数を受け取ることもできます +function parameters() { + $numargs = func_num_args(); + if ($numargs > 0) { + echo func_get_arg(0) . ' | '; + } + $args_array = func_get_args(); + foreach ($args_array as $key => $arg) { + echo $key . ' - ' . $arg . ' | '; + } +} + +parameters('Hello', 'World'); // Hello | 0 - Hello | 1 - World | + +/******************************** + * ファイルの読み込み + */ + +<?php +// 読み込まれたファイル中のPHPは、同じくPHPのオープンタグで始める必要があります + +include 'my-file.php'; +// my-file.php中のコードは、現在のスコープの中で使用可能です +// もしファイルを読み込めなければ (例:file not found)、警告が発せられます + +include_once 'my-file.php'; +// my-file.phpのコードが既にどこかで読み込まれていれば、 +// ファイルを読み込みません。これは、クラスの多重定義のエラーを防ぎます + +require 'my-file.php'; +require_once 'my-file.php'; +// include()と同じように、require()はもしファイルを読み込むことができなければ、 +// 致命的エラーの原因となります + +// my-include.phpの内容 +<?php + +return 'Anything you like.'; +// End file + +// include()とrequire()は一つの値を返します +$value = include 'my-include.php'; + +// ファイルは与えられたファイルパスを基に読み込まれます。 +// ファイルパスを指定しない場合は、include_path の設定を利用します。 +// もしファイルがinclude_path中に見つからない場合は、 +// 呼び出し元スクリプトのディレクトリと作業ディレクトリの中も探します。 +// それでも見つからない場合、失敗します。 +/* */ + +/******************************** + * クラス + */ + +// クラスはclassキーワードで定義します + +class MyClass +{ + const MY_CONST = 'value'; // クラス定数です + + static $staticVar = 'static'; + + // スタティック変数とアクセス制限 + public static $publicStaticVar = 'publicStatic'; + // クラス内でのみアクセス可能 + private static $privateStaticVar = 'privateStatic'; + // そのクラスと子クラスで参照可能 + protected static $protectedStaticVar = 'protectedStatic'; + + // プロパティはアクセス制限を宣言する必要があります + public $property = 'public'; + public $instanceProp; + protected $prot = 'protected'; // そのクラスと子クラスで参照可能 + private $priv = 'private'; // クラス内でのみアクセス可能 + + // __constructでコンストラクターを生成します + public function __construct($instanceProp) { + // $thisでインスタンス変数にアクセスします + $this->instanceProp = $instanceProp; + } + + // メソッドはクラス内で関数として定義されます + public function myMethod() + { + print 'MyClass'; + } + + // finalキーワードは関数の上書きを禁止します + final function youCannotOverrideMe() + { + } + +/* + * クラスプロパティまたはメソッドをstaticとして作成すれば、 + * クラスをインスタンス化(newすること)しなくてもアクセスできます。 + * プロパティをstaticとして定義すると、 + * インスタンス化されたクラスオブジェクトを通してのアクセスはできなくなります。 + */ + + public static function myStaticMethod() + { + print 'I am static'; + } +} + +// クラス定数は、いつでも静的にアクセスできます。 +echo MyClass::MY_CONST; // Outputs 'value'; + +echo MyClass::$staticVar; // Outputs 'static'; +MyClass::myStaticMethod(); // Outputs 'I am static'; + +// クラスをインスタンス化するには、newを使います。 +$my_class = new MyClass('An instance property'); +// 括弧はもし引数を渡す必要がなければ省略可能です。 + +// ->を使ってクラスのメンバにアクセスします。 +echo $my_class->property; // => "public" +echo $my_class->instanceProp; // => "An instance property" +$my_class->myMethod(); // => "MyClass" + + +// extendsを使用してクラスを継承します。 +class MyOtherClass extends MyClass +{ + function printProtectedProperty() + { + echo $this->prot; + } + + // メソッドを上書きします。 + function myMethod() + { + parent::myMethod(); + print ' > MyOtherClass'; + } +} + +$my_other_class = new MyOtherClass('Instance prop'); +$my_other_class->printProtectedProperty(); // => Prints "protected" +$my_other_class->myMethod(); // Prints "MyClass > MyOtherClass" + +final class YouCannotExtendMe +{ +} + +// 「マジックメソッド」を使ってゲッターとセッターを生成できます。 +class MyMapClass +{ + private $property; + + public function __get($key) + { + return $this->$key; + } + + public function __set($key, $value) + { + $this->$key = $value; + } +} + +$x = new MyMapClass(); +echo $x->property; // __get() メソッドを使用します +$x->property = 'Something'; // __set() メソッドを使用します + +// クラスは抽象クラスにもできます(abstractキーワードを使用します)し、 +// インターフェースを実装することもできます(implementsキーワードを使用します)。 +// インターフェースはinterfaceキーワードで定義します。 + +interface InterfaceOne +{ + public function doSomething(); +} + +interface InterfaceTwo +{ + public function doSomethingElse(); +} + +// インターフェースは継承することができます +interface InterfaceThree extends InterfaceTwo +{ + public function doAnotherContract(); +} + +abstract class MyAbstractClass implements InterfaceOne +{ + public $x = 'doSomething'; +} + +class MyConcreteClass extends MyAbstractClass implements InterfaceTwo +{ + public function doSomething() + { + echo $x; + } + + public function doSomethingElse() + { + echo 'doSomethingElse'; + } +} + + +// クラスは1つ以上のインターフェースを実装できます。 +class SomeOtherClass implements InterfaceOne, InterfaceTwo +{ + public function doSomething() + { + echo 'doSomething'; + } + + public function doSomethingElse() + { + echo 'doSomethingElse'; + } +} + + +/******************************** + * トレイト + */ + +// トレイトはPHP 5.4.0 以上で使用可能で、traitキーワードで定義します。 + +trait MyTrait +{ + public function myTraitMethod() + { + print 'I have MyTrait'; + } +} + +class MyTraitfulClass +{ + use MyTrait; +} + +$cls = new MyTraitfulClass(); +$cls->myTraitMethod(); // Prints "I have MyTrait" + + +/******************************** + * 名前空間 + */ + +// このセクションは名前空間の定義はファイルの先頭で宣言される必要があるため、 +// 独立しています。 +// そのケースには当てはまらないふりをして続けましょう。 + +<?php + +// デフォルトでは、クラスはグローバルな名前空間に存在し、 +// バックスラッシュによって明確にコールできます。 + +$cls = new \MyClass(); + + + +// ファイルに名前空間をセットします +namespace My\Namespace; + +class MyClass +{ +} + +// (別のファイルからの呼び出し) +$cls = new My\Namespace\MyClass; + +// 異なる名前空間からの呼び出し +namespace My\Other\Namespace; + +use My\Namespace\MyClass; + +$cls = new MyClass(); + +// 名前空間に別名をつけることもできます + +namespace My\Other\Namespace; + +use My\Namespace as SomeOtherNamespace; + +$cls = new SomeOtherNamespace\MyClass(); + +/********************** +* エラーハンドリング +* +*/ + +// シンプルなエラーハンドリングは、try catchを使えば行えます + +try { + // 処理を実行します +} catch ( Exception $e) { + // 例外を処理します +} + +// try catchを名前空間を持った環境で使用するときは、次のようにします。 + +try { + // Do something + // 処理を実行します +} catch (\Exception $e) { + // 例外を処理します +} + +// 例外のカスタマイズ + +class MyException extends Exception {} + +try { + + $condition = true; + + if ($condition) { + throw new MyException('Something just happend'); + } + +} catch (MyException $e) { + // Handle my exception +} + +``` + +## より詳しい情報 + +リファレンスを見るため、またコミュニティへの情報提供のために、 [PHP公式ドキュメント](http://www.php.net/manual/) を訪れてみてください。 + +もし最新のベストプラクティスに興味があるなら、 +[PHP The Right Way](http://www.phptherightway.com/)を訪れてみてください。 + + +もしあなたがよいパッケージマネジメント・システムを持つ言語で開発経験があるのなら、 +[Composer](http://getcomposer.org/)も確かめてみてください。 + + +共通基準を知るためには、PHP Framework Interoperability Groupの +[PSR standards](https://github.com/php-fig/fig-standards)にも訪れてみてください。 diff --git a/java.html.markdown b/java.html.markdown index 38c9e490..50629ce1 100644 --- a/java.html.markdown +++ b/java.html.markdown @@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ public class LearnJava { // // BigInteger can be initialized using an array of bytes or a string. - BigInteger fooBigInteger = new BigDecimal(fooByteArray); + BigInteger fooBigInteger = new BigInteger(fooByteArray); // BigDecimal - Immutable, arbitrary-precision signed decimal number @@ -144,7 +144,12 @@ public class LearnJava { // or by initializing the unscaled value (BigInteger) and scale (int). BigDecimal fooBigDecimal = new BigDecimal(fooBigInteger, fooInt); - + + // Be wary of the constructor that takes a float or double as + // the inaccuracy of the float/double will be copied in BigDecimal. + // Prefer the String constructor when you need an exact value. + + BigDecimal tenCents = new BigDecimal("0.1"); // Strings @@ -170,7 +175,7 @@ public class LearnJava { // Another way to declare & initialize an array int[] y = {9000, 1000, 1337}; String names[] = {"Bob", "John", "Fred", "Juan Pedro"}; - boolean bools[] = new boolean[] {true, false, false}; + boolean bools[] = {true, false, false}; // Indexing an array - Accessing an element System.out.println("intArray @ 0: " + intArray[0]); @@ -186,9 +191,9 @@ public class LearnJava { // operations perform as could be expected for a // doubly-linked list. // Maps - A set of objects that map keys to values. Map is - // an interface and therefore cannot be instantiated. - // The type of keys and values contained in a Map must - // be specified upon instantiation of the implementing + // an interface and therefore cannot be instantiated. + // The type of keys and values contained in a Map must + // be specified upon instantiation of the implementing // class. Each key may map to only one corresponding value, // and each key may appear only once (no duplicates). // HashMaps - This class uses a hashtable to implement the Map @@ -207,8 +212,8 @@ public class LearnJava { System.out.println("1+2 = " + (i1 + i2)); // => 3 System.out.println("2-1 = " + (i2 - i1)); // => 1 System.out.println("2*1 = " + (i2 * i1)); // => 2 - System.out.println("1/2 = " + (i1 / i2)); // => 0 (0.5 truncated down) - System.out.println("1/2 = " + (i1 / (i2*1.0))); // => 0.5 + System.out.println("1/2 = " + (i1 / i2)); // => 0 (int/int returns an int) + System.out.println("1/2 = " + (i1 / (double)i2)); // => 0.5 // Modulo System.out.println("11%3 = "+(11 % 3)); // => 2 @@ -416,7 +421,7 @@ public class LearnJava { // easier way, by using something that is called Double Brace // Initialization. - private static final Set<String> COUNTRIES = HashSet<String>() {{ + private static final Set<String> COUNTRIES = new HashSet<String>() {{ add("DENMARK"); add("SWEDEN"); add("FINLAND"); @@ -433,7 +438,7 @@ public class LearnJava { // You can include other, non-public outer-level classes in a .java file, -// but it is good practice. Instead split classes into separate files. +// but it is not good practice. Instead split classes into separate files. // Class Declaration Syntax: @@ -450,6 +455,17 @@ class Bicycle { protected int gear; // Protected: Accessible from the class and subclasses String name; // default: Only accessible from within this package + static String className; // Static class variable + + // Static block + // Java has no implementation of static constructors, but + // has a static block that can be used to initialize class variables + // (static variables). + // This block will be called when the class is loaded. + static { + className = "Bicycle"; + } + // Constructors are a way of creating classes // This is a constructor public Bicycle() { @@ -519,7 +535,7 @@ class PennyFarthing extends Bicycle { // (Penny Farthings are those bicycles with the big front wheel. // They have no gears.) - public PennyFarthing(int startCadence, int startSpeed){ + public PennyFarthing(int startCadence, int startSpeed) { // Call the parent constructor with super super(startCadence, startSpeed, 0, "PennyFarthing"); } @@ -686,6 +702,66 @@ public abstract class Mammal() return true; } } + + +// Enum Type +// +// An enum type is a special data type that enables for a variable to be a set +// of predefined constants. The variable must be equal to one of the values that +// have been predefined for it. Because they are constants, the names of an enum +// type's fields are in uppercase letters. In the Java programming language, you +// define an enum type by using the enum keyword. For example, you would specify +// a days-of-the-week enum type as: + +public enum Day { + SUNDAY, MONDAY, TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY, + THURSDAY, FRIDAY, SATURDAY +} + +// We can use our enum Day like that: + +public class EnumTest { + + // Variable Enum + Day day; + + public EnumTest(Day day) { + this.day = day; + } + + public void tellItLikeItIs() { + switch (day) { + case MONDAY: + System.out.println("Mondays are bad."); + break; + + case FRIDAY: + System.out.println("Fridays are better."); + break; + + case SATURDAY: + case SUNDAY: + System.out.println("Weekends are best."); + break; + + default: + System.out.println("Midweek days are so-so."); + break; + } + } + + public static void main(String[] args) { + EnumTest firstDay = new EnumTest(Day.MONDAY); + firstDay.tellItLikeItIs(); // => Mondays are bad. + EnumTest thirdDay = new EnumTest(Day.WEDNESDAY); + thirdDay.tellItLikeItIs(); // => Midweek days are so-so. + } +} + +// Enum types are much more powerful than we show above. +// The enum body can include methods and other fields. +// You can se more at https://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/javaOO/enum.html + ``` ## Further Reading @@ -709,7 +785,7 @@ The links provided here below are just to get an understanding of the topic, fee * [Generics](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/generics/index.html) -* [Java Code Conventions](http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/codeconv-138413.html) +* [Java Code Conventions](http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/codeconvtoc-136057.html) **Online Practice and Tutorials** diff --git a/javascript.html.markdown b/javascript.html.markdown index d408e885..98261334 100644 --- a/javascript.html.markdown +++ b/javascript.html.markdown @@ -16,13 +16,14 @@ JavaScript isn't just limited to web browsers, though: Node.js, a project that provides a standalone runtime for Google Chrome's V8 JavaScript engine, is becoming more and more popular. -Feedback would be highly appreciated! You can reach me at -[@adambrenecki](https://twitter.com/adambrenecki), or -[adam@brenecki.id.au](mailto:adam@brenecki.id.au). +JavaScript has a C-like syntax, so if you've used languages like C or Java, +a lot of the basic syntax will already be familiar. Despite this, and despite +the similarity in name, JavaScript's object model is significantly different to +Java's. ```js -// Comments are like C. Single-line comments start with two slashes, -/* and multiline comments start with slash-star +// Single-line comments start with two slashes. +/* Multiline comments start with slash-star, and end with star-slash */ // Statements can be terminated by ; @@ -40,7 +41,7 @@ doStuff() // JavaScript has one number type (which is a 64-bit IEEE 754 double). // Doubles have a 52-bit mantissa, which is enough to store integers -// up to about 9✕10¹⁵ precisely. +// up to about 9✕10¹⁵ precisely. 3; // = 3 1.5; // = 1.5 @@ -100,6 +101,10 @@ false; // Strings are concatenated with + "Hello " + "world!"; // = "Hello world!" +// ... which works with more than just strings +"1, 2, " + 3; // = "1, 2, 3" +"Hello " + ["world", "!"] // = "Hello world,!" + // and are compared with < and > "a" < "b"; // = true @@ -140,7 +145,7 @@ undefined; // used to indicate a value is not currently present (although // character. var someVar = 5; -// if you leave the var keyword off, you won't get an error... +// If you leave the var keyword off, you won't get an error... someOtherVar = 10; // ...but your variable will be created in the global scope, not in the scope @@ -149,7 +154,7 @@ someOtherVar = 10; // Variables declared without being assigned to are set to undefined. var someThirdVar; // = undefined -// if you wan't to declare a couple of variables, then you could use a comma +// If you want to declare a couple of variables, then you could use a comma // separator var someFourthVar = 2, someFifthVar = 4; @@ -198,8 +203,6 @@ myObj.myFourthKey; // = undefined /////////////////////////////////// // 3. Logic and Control Structures -// The syntax for this section is almost identical to Java's. - // The `if` structure works as you'd expect. var count = 1; if (count == 3){ @@ -227,15 +230,15 @@ for (var i = 0; i < 5; i++){ // will run 5 times } -//The For/In statement loops iterates over every property across the entire prototype chain +// The for/in statement iterates over every property across the entire prototype chain. var description = ""; var person = {fname:"Paul", lname:"Ken", age:18}; for (var x in person){ description += person[x] + " "; } -//If only want to consider properties attached to the object itself, -//and not its prototypes use hasOwnProperty() check +// To only consider properties attached to the object itself +// and not its prototypes, use the `hasOwnProperty()` check. var description = ""; var person = {fname:"Paul", lname:"Ken", age:18}; for (var x in person){ @@ -244,8 +247,9 @@ for (var x in person){ } } -//for/in should not be used to iterate over an Array where the index order is important. -//There is no guarantee that for/in will return the indexes in any particular order +// For/in should not be used to iterate over an Array where the index order +// is important, as there is no guarantee that for/in will return the indexes +// in any particular order. // && is logical and, || is logical or if (house.size == "big" && house.colour == "blue"){ @@ -260,7 +264,7 @@ var name = otherName || "default"; // The `switch` statement checks for equality with `===`. -// use 'break' after each case +// Use 'break' after each case // or the cases after the correct one will be executed too. grade = 'B'; switch (grade) { @@ -291,12 +295,9 @@ myFunction("foo"); // = "FOO" // Note that the value to be returned must start on the same line as the // `return` keyword, otherwise you'll always return `undefined` due to // automatic semicolon insertion. Watch out for this when using Allman style. -function myFunction() -{ +function myFunction(){ return // <- semicolon automatically inserted here - { - thisIsAn: 'object literal' - } + {thisIsAn: 'object literal'} } myFunction(); // = undefined @@ -310,6 +311,12 @@ setTimeout(myFunction, 5000); // Note: setTimeout isn't part of the JS language, but is provided by browsers // and Node.js. +// Another function provided by browsers is setInterval +function myFunction(){ + // this code will be called every 5 seconds +} +setInterval(myFunction, 5000); + // Function objects don't even have to be declared with a name - you can write // an anonymous function definition directly into the arguments of another. setTimeout(function(){ @@ -504,6 +511,10 @@ myNumber === myNumberObj; // = false if (0){ // This code won't execute, because 0 is falsy. } +if (new Number(0)){ + // This code will execute, because wrapped numbers are objects, and objects + // are always truthy. +} // However, the wrapper objects and the regular builtins share a prototype, so // you can actually add functionality to a string, for instance. @@ -531,28 +542,42 @@ if (Object.create === undefined){ // don't overwrite it if it exists ## Further Reading -The [Mozilla Developer -Network](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript) provides -excellent documentation for JavaScript as it's used in browsers. Plus, it's a -wiki, so as you learn more you can help others out by sharing your own -knowledge. +The [Mozilla Developer Network][1] provides excellent documentation for +JavaScript as it's used in browsers. Plus, it's a wiki, so as you learn more you +can help others out by sharing your own knowledge. + +MDN's [A re-introduction to JavaScript][2] covers much of the concepts covered +here in more detail. This guide has quite deliberately only covered the +JavaScript language itself; if you want to learn more about how to use +JavaScript in web pages, start by learning about the [Document Object Model][3]. + +[Learn Javascript by Example and with Challenges][4] is a variant of this +reference with built-in challenges. + +[JavaScript Garden][5] is an in-depth guide of all the counter-intuitive parts +of the language. + +[JavaScript: The Definitive Guide][6] is a classic guide and reference book. + +[Eloquent Javascript][8] by Marijn Haverbeke is an excellent JS book/ebook with attached terminal + +[Eloquent Javascript - The Annotated Version][9] by Gordon Zhu is also a great derivative of Eloquent Javascript with extra explanations and clarifications for some of the more complicated examples. -MDN's [A re-introduction to -JavaScript](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript) -covers much of the concepts covered here in more detail. This guide has quite -deliberately only covered the JavaScript language itself; if you want to learn -more about how to use JavaScript in web pages, start by learning about the -[Document Object -Model](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Using_the_W3C_DOM_Level_1_Core) +[Javascript: The Right Way][10] is a guide intended to introduce new developers to JavaScript and help experienced developers learn more about its best practices. -[Learn Javascript by Example and with Challenges](http://www.learneroo.com/modules/64/nodes/350) is a variant of this reference with built-in challenges. -[JavaScript Garden](http://bonsaiden.github.io/JavaScript-Garden/) is an in-depth -guide of all the counter-intuitive parts of the language. +In addition to direct contributors to this article, some content is adapted from +Louie Dinh's Python tutorial on this site, and the [JS Tutorial][7] on the +Mozilla Developer Network. -[JavaScript: The Definitive Guide](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596805527/) is a classic guide / reference book. -In addition to direct contributors to this article, some content is adapted -from Louie Dinh's Python tutorial on this site, and the [JS -Tutorial](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript) -on the Mozilla Developer Network. +[1]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript +[2]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript +[3]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Using_the_W3C_DOM_Level_1_Core +[4]: http://www.learneroo.com/modules/64/nodes/350 +[5]: http://bonsaiden.github.io/JavaScript-Garden/ +[6]: http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596805527/ +[7]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript +[8]: http://eloquentjavascript.net/ +[9]: http://watchandcode.com/courses/eloquent-javascript-the-annotated-version +[10]: http://jstherightway.org/ diff --git a/json.html.markdown b/json.html.markdown index cde7bc40..a612cffe 100644 --- a/json.html.markdown +++ b/json.html.markdown @@ -8,27 +8,24 @@ contributors: - ["Michael Neth", "https://github.com/infernocloud"] --- -As JSON is an extremely simple data-interchange format, this is most likely going to be the simplest Learn X in Y Minutes ever. +JSON is an extremely simple data-interchange format. As [json.org](http://json.org) says, it is easy for humans to read and write and for machines to parse and generate. -JSON in its purest form has no actual comments, but most parsers will accept C-style (`//`, `/* */`) comments. Some parsers also tolerate a trailing comma (i.e. a comma after the last element of an array or the after the last property of an object), but they should be avoided for better compatibility. - -For the purposes of this, however, everything is going to be 100% valid JSON. Luckily, it kind of speaks for itself. - -A JSON value must be a number, a string, an array, an object, or one of the following 3 literal names: true, false, null. - -Supporting browsers are: Firefox 3.5+, Internet Explorer 8.0+, Chrome 1.0+, Opera 10.0+, and Safari 4.0+. - -File extension for JSON files is ".json" and the MIME type for JSON text is "application/json". +A piece of JSON must represent either: +* A collection of name/value pairs (`{ }`). In various languages, this is realized as an object, record, struct, dictionary, hash table, keyed list, or associative array. +* An ordered list of values (`[ ]`). In various languages, this is realized as an array, vector, list, or sequence. + an array/list/sequence (`[ ]`) or a dictionary/object/associated array (`{ }`). -Many programming languages have support for serializing (encoding) and unserializing (decoding) JSON data into native data structures. Javascript has implicit support for manipulating JSON text as data. +JSON in its purest form has no actual comments, but most parsers will accept C-style (`//`, `/* */`) comments. Some parsers also tolerate a trailing comma (i.e. a comma after the last element of an array or the after the last property of an object), but they should be avoided for better compatibility. -More information can be found at http://www.json.org/ +For the purposes of this tutorial, everything is going to be 100% valid JSON. Luckily, it kind of speaks for itself. -JSON is built on two structures: -* A collection of name/value pairs. In various languages, this is realized as an object, record, struct, dictionary, hash table, keyed list, or associative array. -* An ordered list of values. In most languages, this is realized as an array, vector, list, or sequence. +Supported data types: -An object with various name/value pairs. +* Strings: `"hello"`, `"\"A quote.\""`, `"\u0abe"`, `"Newline.\n"` +* Numbers: `23`, `0.11`, `12e10`, `3.141e-10`, `1.23e+4` +* Objects: `{ "key": "value" }` +* Arrays: `["Values"]` +* Miscellaneous: `true`, `false`, `null` ```json { @@ -66,20 +63,20 @@ An object with various name/value pairs. "alternative style": { "comment": "check this out!" - , "comma position": "doesn't matter - as long as it's before the next key, then it's valid" + , "comma position": "doesn't matter, if it's before the next key, it's valid" , "another comment": "how nice" - } -} -``` + }, -A single array of values by itself is also valid JSON. -```json -[1, 2, 3, "text", true] -``` -Objects can be a part of the array as well. + "whitespace": "Does not matter.", -```json -[{"name": "Bob", "age": 25}, {"name": "Jane", "age": 29}, {"name": "Jack", "age": 31}] + + + "that was short": "And done. You now know everything JSON has to offer." +} ``` + +## Further Reading + +* [JSON.org](http://json.org) All of JSON beautifully explained using flowchart-like graphics. diff --git a/julia.html.markdown b/julia.html.markdown index cba7cd45..23d834f4 100644 --- a/julia.html.markdown +++ b/julia.html.markdown @@ -2,13 +2,14 @@ language: Julia contributors: - ["Leah Hanson", "http://leahhanson.us"] + - ["Pranit Bauva", "http://github.com/pranitbauva1997"] filename: learnjulia.jl --- Julia is a new homoiconic functional language focused on technical computing. While having the full power of homoiconic macros, first-class functions, and low-level control, Julia is as easy to learn and use as Python. -This is based on Julia 0.3. +This is based on Julia 0.4. ```ruby @@ -22,7 +23,7 @@ This is based on Julia 0.3. ## 1. Primitive Datatypes and Operators #################################################### -# Everything in Julia is a expression. +# Everything in Julia is an expression. # There are several basic types of numbers. 3 # => 3 (Int64) @@ -102,6 +103,11 @@ false # Printing is easy println("I'm Julia. Nice to meet you!") +# String can be compared lexicographically +"good" > "bye" # => true +"good" == "good" # => true +"1 + 2 = 3" == "1 + 2 = $(1+2)" # => true + #################################################### ## 2. Variables and Collections #################################################### @@ -145,12 +151,16 @@ a = Int64[] # => 0-element Int64 Array # 1-dimensional array literals can be written with comma-separated values. b = [4, 5, 6] # => 3-element Int64 Array: [4, 5, 6] +b = [4; 5; 6] # => 3-element Int64 Array: [4, 5, 6] b[1] # => 4 b[end] # => 6 -# 2-dimentional arrays use space-separated values and semicolon-separated rows. +# 2-dimensional arrays use space-separated values and semicolon-separated rows. matrix = [1 2; 3 4] # => 2x2 Int64 Array: [1 2; 3 4] +# Arrays of a particular Type +b = Int8[4, 5, 6] # => 3-element Int8 Array: [4, 5, 6] + # Add stuff to the end of a list with push! and append! push!(a,1) # => [1] push!(a,2) # => [1,2] @@ -262,8 +272,8 @@ values(filled_dict) # Note - Same as above regarding key ordering. # Check for existence of keys in a dictionary with in, haskey -in(("one", 1), filled_dict) # => true -in(("two", 3), filled_dict) # => false +in(("one" => 1), filled_dict) # => true +in(("two" => 3), filled_dict) # => false haskey(filled_dict, "one") # => true haskey(filled_dict, 1) # => false @@ -282,7 +292,7 @@ get(filled_dict,"four",4) # => 4 # Use Sets to represent collections of unordered, unique values empty_set = Set() # => Set{Any}() # Initialize a set with values -filled_set = Set(1,2,2,3,4) # => Set{Int64}(1,2,3,4) +filled_set = Set([1,2,2,3,4]) # => Set{Int64}(1,2,3,4) # Add more values to a set push!(filled_set,5) # => Set{Int64}(5,4,2,3,1) @@ -292,7 +302,7 @@ in(2, filled_set) # => true in(10, filled_set) # => false # There are functions for set intersection, union, and difference. -other_set = Set(3, 4, 5, 6) # => Set{Int64}(6,4,5,3) +other_set = Set([3, 4, 5, 6]) # => Set{Int64}(6,4,5,3) intersect(filled_set, other_set) # => Set{Int64}(3,4,5) union(filled_set, other_set) # => Set{Int64}(1,2,3,4,5,6) setdiff(Set(1,2,3,4),Set(2,3,5)) # => Set{Int64}(1,4) @@ -390,6 +400,14 @@ end add(5, 6) # => 11 after printing out "x is 5 and y is 6" +# Compact assignment of functions +f_add(x, y) = x + y # => "f (generic function with 1 method)" +f_add(3, 4) # => 7 + +# Function can also return multiple values as tuple +f(x, y) = x + y, x - y +f(3, 4) # => (7, -1) + # You can define functions that take a variable number of # positional arguments function varargs(args...) @@ -402,14 +420,12 @@ varargs(1,2,3) # => (1,2,3) # The ... is called a splat. # We just used it in a function definition. -# It can also be used in a fuction call, +# It can also be used in a function call, # where it will splat an Array or Tuple's contents into the argument list. -Set([1,2,3]) # => Set{Array{Int64,1}}([1,2,3]) # produces a Set of Arrays -Set([1,2,3]...) # => Set{Int64}(1,2,3) # this is equivalent to Set(1,2,3) +add([5,6]...) # this is equivalent to add(5,6) -x = (1,2,3) # => (1,2,3) -Set(x) # => Set{(Int64,Int64,Int64)}((1,2,3)) # a Set of Tuples -Set(x...) # => Set{Int64}(2,3,1) +x = (5,6) # => (5,6) +add(x...) # this is equivalent to add(5,6) # You can define functions with optional positional arguments @@ -531,12 +547,8 @@ abstract Cat # just a name and point in the type hierarchy # Abstract types cannot be instantiated, but can have subtypes. # For example, Number is an abstract type -subtypes(Number) # => 6-element Array{Any,1}: - # Complex{Float16} - # Complex{Float32} - # Complex{Float64} +subtypes(Number) # => 2-element Array{Any,1}: # Complex{T<:Real} - # ImaginaryUnit # Real subtypes(Cat) # => 0-element Array{Any,1} @@ -554,10 +566,11 @@ subtypes(AbstractString) # 8-element Array{Any,1}: # Every type has a super type; use the `super` function to get it. typeof(5) # => Int64 super(Int64) # => Signed -super(Signed) # => Real +super(Signed) # => Integer +super(Integer) # => Real super(Real) # => Number super(Number) # => Any -super(super(Signed)) # => Number +super(super(Signed)) # => Real super(Any) # => Any # All of these type, except for Int64, are abstract. typeof("fire") # => ASCIIString @@ -723,7 +736,7 @@ code_native(square_area, (Float64,)) # ret # # Note that julia will use floating point instructions if any of the -# arguements are floats. +# arguments are floats. # Let's calculate the area of a circle circle_area(r) = pi * r * r # circle_area (generic function with 1 method) circle_area(5) # 78.53981633974483 diff --git a/ko-kr/brainfuck-kr.html.markdown b/ko-kr/bf-kr.html.markdown index c2e4341f..3d366d7c 100644 --- a/ko-kr/brainfuck-kr.html.markdown +++ b/ko-kr/bf-kr.html.markdown @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ --- -language: brainfuck +language: bf contributors: - ["Prajit Ramachandran", "http://prajitr.github.io/"] - ["Mathias Bynens", "http://mathiasbynens.be/"] diff --git a/ko-kr/erlang-kr.html.markdown b/ko-kr/erlang-kr.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..b0b1dd2a --- /dev/null +++ b/ko-kr/erlang-kr.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,333 @@ +--- +language: erlang +contributors: + - ["Giovanni Cappellotto", "http://www.focustheweb.com/"] +filename: learnerlang-kr.erl +translators: + - ["Taesung Jung", "https://github.com/tsj"] +lang: ko-kr +--- + +```erlang +% 퍼센트 기호는 한 줄 주석을 시작한다. + +%% 두 개의 퍼센트 문자는 함수의 주석에 사용된다. + +%%% 세 개의 퍼센트 문자는 모듈의 주석에 사용된다. + +% Erlang에선 3가지 유형의 문장 부호를 사용한다. +% 쉼표(`,`)는 함수 호출에서 인수, 데이터 생성자(constructors), 패턴을 구분한다. +% 마침표(`.`)(다음에 오는 공백)는 셸에서 함수 전체와 식을 구분한다. +% 세미콜론(`;`)은 절을 구분한다. 몇 가지 문맥(contexts)에서 절이 발견된다: +% 함수 정의와 `case`, `if`, `try..catch`, 그리고 `receive` 식 + + +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% +%% 1. 변수와 패턴 매칭 +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% + +% Erlang에서 새로운 변수는 `=` 문장에 의해 바인딩 된다. +Num = 42. % 모든 변수 이름은 반드시 대문자로 시작해야 한다. + +% Erlang은 단일 할당 변수(single-assignment variables)를 가진다; +% 만약 다른 값을 `Num` 변수에 할당하려고 시도하면 오류가 발생한다. +Num = 43. % ** 예외 오류: 우변의 값 43과 매칭되지 않음 + +% 대부분 언어에서 `=`는 할당문을 나타낸다. 그러나 Erlang에서 +% `=`는 패턴 매칭 연산자를 나타낸다. 비어 있는 변수가 `=` 연산자의 좌변에 +% 사용되면 바인드(할당) 된다, 그러나 바인드 변수가 좌변에 사용된 경우에 +% 다음 행동은 그 바인드 변수가 관측된다. +% `Lhs = Rhs`의 진짜 의미: 우변(`Rhs`)을 평가하고, 그리고 +% 그 결과를 좌변(`Lhs`)의 패턴과 매치시켜라. +Num = 7 * 6. + +% 부동 소수점 수. +Pi = 3.14159. + +% Atom은 숫자가 아닌 서로 다른 상숫값을 표현하는 데 사용한다. Atom은 +% 소문자로 시작하고, 연속적인 영숫자(alphanumeric) 문자나 밑줄(`_`) 또는 +% 골뱅이(`@`) 기호가 따라온다. +Hello = hello. +OtherNode = example@node. + +% 영숫자 값이 아닌 Atom은 작은따옴표로 묶여서 작성될 수 있다. +AtomWithSpace = 'some atom with space'. + +% Tuple은 C의 struct와 비슷하다. +Point = {point, 10, 45}. + +% Tuple에서 어떤 값을 추출하려면, 패턴 매칭 연산자 `=`를 사용한다. +{point, X, Y} = Point. % X = 10, Y = 45 + +% 관심 없는 변수를 위해 자리 표시자(placeholder) `_`를 사용할 수 있다. +% 기호 `_`는 익명 변수(anonymous variable)라 부른다. 일반적인 변수들과 +% 다르게 같은 패턴에서 여러 번 나오더라도 동일한 값으로 바인드되지 않아도 된다. +Person = {person, {name, {first, joe}, {last, armstrong}}, {footsize, 42}}. +{_, {_, {_, Who}, _}, _} = Person. % Who = joe + +% List를 만들기 위해서 List의 원소는 대괄호([])로 둘러싸고 쉼표(,)로 구분한다. +% List의 각각의 원소는 어떤 타입도 가능하다. +% List의 첫 번째 원소는 List의 HEAD이다. 만약 List의 HEAD를 제거하면, +% 남은 부분은 List의 TAIL이라 부른다. +ThingsToBuy = [{apples, 10}, {pears, 6}, {milk, 3}]. + +% 만약 `T`가 List이면, `[H|T]`도 HEAD가 `H`이고 TAIL이 `T`인 List이다. +% 세로 막대(`|`)는 List의 HEAD와 TAIL을 분리한다. `[]`는 빈 List다. +% List의 원소들은 패턴 매칭 연산으로 추출할 수 있다. +% 만약 비어있지 않은 List `L`이 있을 때, `[X|Y] = L` 식의 `X`와 `Y`가 +% 바인드되지 않은 변수이면, List의 HEAD는 X에 그리고 TAIL은 Y로 추출된다. +[FirstThing|OtherThingsToBuy] = ThingsToBuy. +% FirstThing = {apples, 10} +% OtherThingsToBuy = [{pears, 6}, {milk, 3}] + +% Erlang에는 문자열(String)이 없다. 문자열은 사실 정수의 List일 뿐이다. +% 문자열은 큰따옴표(`"`)로 묶인다. +Name = "Hello". +[72, 101, 108, 108, 111] = "Hello". + + +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% +%% 2. 순차 프로그래밍 +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% + +% Erlang에서 Module은 코드의 기본 단위이다. 우리가 작성한 모든 함수는 +% Module에 담긴다. Module은 확장자가 `.erl`인 파일에 저장된다. +% 코드가 실행되기 전에 Module은 컴파일되어야 한다. 컴파일된 Module은 +% `.beam` 확장자를 가진다. +-module(geometry). +-export([area/1]). % Module로부터 내보내진(exported) 함수의 List + +% 함수 `area`는 두 개의 절로 구성된다. 절은 세미콜론(`;`)으로 구분되며, +% 마지막 절은 마침표-공백(dot-whitespace)으로 끝난다. +% 각 절은 서문(head)과 본문(body)을 가진다. 서문은 함수의 이름에 이어서 +% 패턴이(괄호 속에) 따라온다. 본문은 연속적인 식으로 구성되고, +% 연속적인 식은 서문의 패턴과 호출한 인수가 성공적으로 매치되면 평가된다. +% 패턴은 함수 정의가 나타나는 순서대로 매치된다. +area({rectangle, Width, Ht}) -> Width * Ht; +area({circle, R}) -> 3.14159 * R * R. + +% geometry.erl 파일의 코드 컴파일 +c(geometry). % {ok,geometry} + +% 호출하려는 함수를 정확히 알아내기 위해 함수 이름을 Module 이름과 함께 +% 명시하는 것이 필요하다. +geometry:area({rectangle, 10, 5}). % 50 +geometry:area({circle, 1.4}). % 6.15752 + +% Erlang에서, 같은 Module에 이름이 같고 Arity(인수의 갯수)가 다른 +% 두 함수는 전혀 다른 함수를 나타낸다. +-module(lib_misc). +-export([sum/1]). % Arity가 1인 내보내진(export) 함수 `sum` + % 하나의 인수만 받음: 정수의 List +sum(L) -> sum(L, 0). +sum([], N) -> N; +sum([H|T], N) -> sum(T, H+N). + +% Fun은 "익명(anonymous)" 함수다. 이름이 없어서 이렇게 부른다. +% 그러나, 변수에 할당될 수 있다. +Double = fun(X) -> 2 * X end. % `Double`은 익명 함수를 가리킨다: + % #Fun<erl_eval.6.17052888> +Double(2). % 4 + +% 함수는 인수로 Fun을 받거나, Fun을 반환할 수 있다. +Mult = fun(Times) -> ( fun(X) -> X * Times end ) end. +Triple = Mult(3). +Triple(5). % 15 + +% List 해석(List comprehensions)은 Fun, Map, Filter 없이 List를 만드는 식이다. +% 표기법 `[F(X) || X <- L]`은 `F(X)`의 List라는 의미이다. +% 이때 `X`는 List `L`로부터 가져온다. +L = [1,2,3,4,5]. +[2 * X || X <- L]. % [2,4,6,8,10] +% List 해석은 Generator와 생성된 값들의 부분 집합을 선택하는 Filter를 가질 수 있다. +EvenNumbers = [N || N <- [1, 2, 3, 4], N rem 2 == 0]. % [2, 4] + +% Guard는 패턴 매칭의 능력을 향상시키는데 사용할 수 있는 구조다. +% Guard를 사용하면, 패턴에 있는 변수에 대해 간단한 검사와 비교를 수행할 수 있다. +% 함수 정의의 서문(head)에 `when` 키워드로 시작되는 Guard를 사용할 수도 있고, +% 또는 식이 허용되는 언어의 어떤 곳에도 사용될 수 있다. +max(X, Y) when X > Y -> X; +max(X, Y) -> Y. + +% Guard는 쉼표(`,`)로 구분된 연속된 Guard 식이다. +% 모든 Guard 식 `GuardExpr1`, `GuardExpr2`, ..., `GuardExprN`이 +% `true`로 평가된다면, Guard `GuardExpr1`, `GuardExpr2`, ..., `GuardExprN`는 +% 참이다. +is_cat(A) when is_atom(A), A =:= cat -> true; +is_cat(A) -> false. +is_dog(A) when is_atom(A), A =:= dog -> true; +is_dog(A) -> false. + +% `=:=` 연산자는 여기서 자세히 다루지 않을 것이다; 두 개의 Erlang 식의 값이 같고 +% *그리고* 같은 타입인지 검사하는 데 사용된다고만 알면 된다. +% `==` 연산자의 작동과 대조할 것: +1 + 2 =:= 3. % true +1 + 2 =:= 3.0. % false +1 + 2 == 3.0. % true + +% 연속적인 Guard는 단일 Guard 또는 세미콜론(`;`)으로 구분된 연속된 Guard다. +% Guard `G1; G2; ...; Gn` 중에 적어도 하나의 Guard가 `true`로 평가된다면, +% 연속적인 Guard `G1; G2; ...; Gn`는 참이다. +is_pet(A) when is_atom(A), (A =:= dog);(A =:= cat) -> true; +is_pet(A) -> false. + +% 주의: 모든 유효한 Erlang 식이 Guard 식으로 사용될 수 있는 것은 아니다; +% 특히, 함수 `is_cat`과 `is_dog`는 `is_pet`의 정의 안에 있는 +% 연속적인 Guard 사이에 사용될 수 없다. +% 연속적인 Guard에 허용되는 식의 자세한 설명은 Erlang 레퍼런스 메뉴얼 +% [section](http://erlang.org/doc/reference_manual/expressions.html#id81912) +% 을 참조하라. + +% Record는 Tuple 안에 이름과 특정 요소를 연결하는 방법을 제공한다. +% Record 정의는 Erlang 소스 코드 파일에 포함되거나 Erlang 소스 코드 파일에 +% 포함될 수 있는 확장자가 `.hrl`인 파일에 집어넣을 수 있다. +-record(todo, { + status = reminder, % 기본 값 + who = joe, + text +}). + +% Record를 사용할 수 있기 전에 Record 정의를 반드시 셸로 읽어 들여야 한다. +% 셸로 읽어 들이기 위해 셸 함수 `rr`(read records의 약자)을 사용한다. +rr("records.hrl"). % [todo] + +% Record 생성과 수정 +X = #todo{}. +% #todo{status = reminder, who = joe, text = undefined} +X1 = #todo{status = urgent, text = "Fix errata in book"}. +% #todo{status = urgent, who = joe, text = "Fix errata in book"} +X2 = X1#todo{status = done}. +% #todo{status = done, who = joe, text = "Fix errata in book"} + +% `case` 식 +% `filter`는 List `L`의 원소 `X` 중에서 `P(X)`가 참인 모든 `X`의 List를 반환한다. +filter(P, [H|T]) -> + case P(H) of + true -> [H|filter(P, T)]; + false -> filter(P, T) + end; +filter(P, []) -> []. +filter(fun(X) -> X rem 2 == 0 end, [1, 2, 3, 4]). % [2, 4] + +% `if` 식. +max(X, Y) -> + if + X > Y -> X; + X < Y -> Y; + true -> nil + end. + +% 주의: 적어도 if 식의 Guard 중의 하나는 반드시 `true`로 평가되어야 한다. +% 그렇지 않으면 예외가 발생한다. + + +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% +%% 3. 예외 +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% + +% 예외는 내부에 에러가 생겼거나 명시적으로 `throw(Exception)`, +% `exit(Exception)` 또는 `erlang:error(Exception)`를 호출하면 +% 시스템에 의해 발생한다. +generate_exception(1) -> a; +generate_exception(2) -> throw(a); +generate_exception(3) -> exit(a); +generate_exception(4) -> {'EXIT', a}; +generate_exception(5) -> erlang:error(a). + +% Erlang은 예외를 잡는 두 가지 방법을 가지고 있다. 한 가지는 +% 예외를 발생시키는 함수의 호출 부분을 `try...catch` 식으로 감싸는 것이다. +catcher(N) -> + try generate_exception(N) of + Val -> {N, normal, Val} + catch + throw:X -> {N, caught, thrown, X}; + exit:X -> {N, caught, exited, X}; + error:X -> {N, caught, error, X} + end. + +% 다른 방법은 그 호출 부분을 `catch` 식으로 감싸는 것이다. +% 예외를 잡았을 때, 그 예외는 오류를 설명하는 Tuple로 변환된다. +catcher(N) -> catch generate_exception(N). + + +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% +%% 4. 병행성 +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% + +% Erlang은 병행성을 위해 Actor 모델을 사용한다. Erlang에서 병행 프로그램을 +% 작성하는 데 필요한 모든 것은 3가지 기본 형식(primitivies)이다: +% 프로세스 생성, 메시지 보내기, 메시지 받기 + +% 새로운 프로세스를 시작하기 위해, 함수를 인수로 받는 `spawn` 함수를 사용한다. + +F = fun() -> 2 + 2 end. % #Fun<erl_eval.20.67289768> +spawn(F). % <0.44.0> + +% `spawn`은 pid(프로세스 식별자)를 반환한다. 이 pid를 프로세스로 +% 메시지를 보내는 데 사용할 수 있다. 메시지 전달을 위해, `!` 연산자를 사용한다. +% 위의 기능이 유용하려면, 메시지를 받을 수 있어야 한다. 메시지를 받는 것은 +% `receive` 메커니즘을 사용한다. + +-module(calculateGeometry). +-compile(export_all). +calculateArea() -> + receive + {rectangle, W, H} -> + W * H; + {circle, R} -> + 3.14 * R * R; + _ -> + io:format("We can only calculate area of rectangles or circles.") + end. + +% Module을 컴파일하고 셸에서 `calculateArea`를 평가한 프로세스를 생성한다. +c(calculateGeometry). +CalculateArea = spawn(calculateGeometry, calculateArea, []). +CalculateArea ! {circle, 2}. % 12.56000000000000049738 + +% 셸도 마찬가지로 프로세스이다. 현재 pid를 얻기 위해서 `self`를 사용할 수 있다. +self(). % <0.41.0> + +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% +%% 5. EUnit과 테스트 +%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% + +% EUnit의 테스트 생성기(generators)와 assert 매크로를 이용해 +% 단위 테스트를 작성할 수 있다. +-module(fib). +-export([fib/1]). +-include_lib("eunit/include/eunit.hrl"). + +fib(0) -> 1; +fib(1) -> 1; +fib(N) when N > 1 -> fib(N-1) + fib(N-2). + +fib_test_() -> + [?_assert(fib(0) =:= 1), + ?_assert(fib(1) =:= 1), + ?_assert(fib(2) =:= 2), + ?_assert(fib(3) =:= 3), + ?_assert(fib(4) =:= 5), + ?_assert(fib(5) =:= 8), + ?_assertException(error, function_clause, fib(-1)), + ?_assert(fib(31) =:= 2178309) + ]. + +% EUnit은 Erlang 셸에서 테스트를 실행할 수 있게 +% 자동으로 test() 함수를 내보낸다(export). +fib:test() + +% Erlang의 유명한 빌드 툴인 Rebar는 EUnit과 호환된다. +% ``` +% rebar eunit +% ``` + +``` + +## 참조 + +* ["Learn You Some Erlang for great good!"](http://learnyousomeerlang.com/) +* ["Programming Erlang: Software for a Concurrent World" by Joe Armstrong](http://pragprog.com/book/jaerlang/programming-erlang) +* [조 암스트롱, 김석준 역, "프로그래밍 얼랭: Software for a Concurrent World", 인사이트](http://ebook.insightbook.co.kr/book/23) +* [Erlang/OTP Reference Documentation](http://www.erlang.org/doc/) +* [Erlang - Programming Rules and Conventions](http://www.erlang.se/doc/programming_rules.shtml) diff --git a/ko-kr/lua-kr.html.markdown b/ko-kr/lua-kr.html.markdown index b4a018ef..ce3b71cb 100644 --- a/ko-kr/lua-kr.html.markdown +++ b/ko-kr/lua-kr.html.markdown @@ -418,5 +418,5 @@ lua-users.org에 있는 <a href="http://lua-users.org/files/wiki_insecure/users/ learn.lua로 저장한 후 "lua learn.lua"를 실행해 보세요! 이 글은 tylerneylon.com에 처음으로 써본 글이며, -<a href="https://gist.github.com/tylerneylon/5853042">Github의 Gist</a>에서도 확인할 수 있습니다. +<a href="https://gist.github.com/tylerneylon/5853042">GitHub의 Gist</a>에서도 확인할 수 있습니다. 루아로 즐거운 시간을 보내세요! diff --git a/latex.html.markdown b/latex.html.markdown index 9b7b4feb..d41f6b2f 100644 --- a/latex.html.markdown +++ b/latex.html.markdown @@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ contributors: - ["Chaitanya Krishna Ande", "http://icymist.github.io"] - ["Colton Kohnke", "http://github.com/voltnor"] - ["Sricharan Chiruvolu", "http://sricharan.xyz"] + - ["Ramanan Balakrishnan", "https://github.com/ramananbalakrishnan"] filename: learn-latex.tex --- @@ -106,6 +107,9 @@ Here's how you state all y that belong to X, $\forall$ x $\in$ X. \\ % However, the math symbols only exist in math-mode. % We can enter math-mode from text mode with the $ signs. % The opposite also holds true. Variable can also be rendered in math-mode. +% We can also enter math mode with \[\] + +\[a^2 + b^2 = c^2 \] My favorite Greek letter is $\xi$. I also like $\beta$, $\gamma$ and $\sigma$. I haven't found a Greek letter that yet that LaTeX doesn't know about! @@ -201,7 +205,7 @@ environment. By now you're probably wondering how to compile this fabulous document and look at the glorious glory that is a LaTeX pdf. -(yes, this document actually does compiles). \\ +(yes, this document actually does compile). \\ Getting to the final document using LaTeX consists of the following steps: \begin{enumerate} \item Write the document in plain text (the "source code"). @@ -224,6 +228,15 @@ format you defined in Step 1. That's all for now! +% Most often, you would want to have a references section in your document. +% The easiest way to set this up would be by using the bibliography section +\begin{thebibliography}{1} + % similar to other lists, the \bibitem command can be used to list items + % each entry can then be cited directly in the body of the text + \bibitem{latexwiki} The amazing LaTeX wikibook: {\em https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX} + \bibitem{latextutorial} An actual tutorial: {\em http://www.latex-tutorial.com} +\end{thebibliography} + % end the document \end{document} ``` diff --git a/less.html.markdown b/less.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a1018ca3 --- /dev/null +++ b/less.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,379 @@ +--- +language: less +filename: learnless.less +contributors: + - ["Saravanan Ganesh", "http://srrvnn.me"] +--- + +Less is a CSS pre-processor, that adds features such as variables, nesting, mixins and more. +Less (and other preprocessors, such as [Sass](http://sass-lang.com/) help developers to write maintainable and DRY (Don't Repeat Yourself) code. + +```css + + +//Single line comments are removed when Less is compiled to CSS. + +/*Multi line comments are preserved. */ + + +/*Variables +==============================*/ + + + +/* You can store a CSS value (such as a color) in a variable. +Use the '@' symbol to create a variable. */ + +@primary-color: #A3A4FF; +@secondary-color: #51527F; +@body-font: 'Roboto', sans-serif; + +/* You can use the variables throughout your stylesheet. +Now if you want to change a color, you only have to make the change once.*/ + +body { + background-color: @primary-color; + color: @secondary-color; + font-family: @body-font; +} + +/* This would compile to: */ +body { + background-color: #A3A4FF; + color: #51527F; + font-family: 'Roboto', sans-serif; +} + + +/* This is much more maintainable than having to change the color +each time it appears throughout your stylesheet. */ + + +/*Mixins +==============================*/ + + + +/* If you find you are writing the same code for more than one +element, you might want to reuse that easily.*/ + +.center { + display: block; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + left: 0; + right: 0; +} + +/* You can use the mixin by simply adding the selector as a style */ + +div { + .center; + background-color: @primary-color; +} + +/*Which would compile to: */ +.center { + display: block; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + left: 0; + right: 0; +} +div { + display: block; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + left: 0; + right: 0; + background-color: #A3A4FF; +} + +/* You can omit the mixin code from being compiled by adding parenthesis + after the selector */ + +.center() { + display: block; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + left: 0; + right: 0; +} + +div { + .center; + background-color: @primary-color; +} + +/*Which would compile to: */ +div { + display: block; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + left: 0; + right: 0; + background-color: #A3A4FF; +} + + +/*Functions +==============================*/ + + + +/* Less provides functions that can be used to accomplish a variety of + tasks. Consider the following */ + +/* Functions can be invoked by using their name and passing in the + required arguments */ +body { + width: round(10.25px); +} + +.footer { + background-color: fadeout(#000000, 0.25) +} + +/* Compiles to: */ + +body { + width: 10px; +} + +.footer { + background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.75); +} + +/* You may also define your own functions. Functions are very similar to + mixins. When trying to choose between a function or a mixin, remember + that mixins are best for generating CSS while functions are better for + logic that might be used throughout your Less code. The examples in + the Math Operators' section are ideal candidates for becoming a reusable + function. */ + +/* This function will take a target size and the parent size and calculate + and return the percentage */ + +.average(@x, @y) { + @average_result: ((@x + @y) / 2); +} + +div { + .average(16px, 50px); // "call" the mixin + padding: @average_result; // use its "return" value +} + +/* Compiles to: */ + +div { + padding: 33px; +} + +/*Extend (Inheritance) +==============================*/ + + + +/*Extend is a way to share the properties of one selector with another. */ + +.display { + height: 50px; +} + +.display-success { + &:extend(.display); + border-color: #22df56; +} + +/* Compiles to: */ +.display, +.display-success { + height: 50px; +} +.display-success { + border-color: #22df56; +} + +/* Extending a CSS statement is preferable to creating a mixin + because of the way it groups together the classes that all share + the same base styling. If this was done with a mixin, the properties + would be duplicated for each statement that + called the mixin. While it won't affect your workflow, it will + add unnecessary bloat to the files created by the Less compiler. */ + + + +/*Nesting +==============================*/ + + + +/*Less allows you to nest selectors within selectors */ + +ul { + list-style-type: none; + margin-top: 2em; + + li { + background-color: #FF0000; + } +} + +/* '&' will be replaced by the parent selector. */ +/* You can also nest pseudo-classes. */ +/* Keep in mind that over-nesting will make your code less maintainable. +Best practices recommend going no more than 3 levels deep when nesting. +For example: */ + +ul { + list-style-type: none; + margin-top: 2em; + + li { + background-color: red; + + &:hover { + background-color: blue; + } + + a { + color: white; + } + } +} + +/* Compiles to: */ + +ul { + list-style-type: none; + margin-top: 2em; +} + +ul li { + background-color: red; +} + +ul li:hover { + background-color: blue; +} + +ul li a { + color: white; +} + + + +/*Partials and Imports +==============================*/ + + + +/* Less allows you to create partial files. This can help keep your Less + code modularized. Partial files conventionally begin with an '_', + e.g. _reset.less. and are imported into a main less file that gets + compiled into CSS */ + +/* Consider the following CSS which we'll put in a file called _reset.less */ + +html, +body, +ul, +ol { + margin: 0; + padding: 0; +} + +/* Less offers @import which can be used to import partials into a file. + This differs from the traditional CSS @import statement which makes + another HTTP request to fetch the imported file. Less takes the + imported file and combines it with the compiled code. */ + +@import 'reset'; + +body { + font-size: 16px; + font-family: Helvetica, Arial, Sans-serif; +} + +/* Compiles to: */ + +html, body, ul, ol { + margin: 0; + padding: 0; +} + +body { + font-size: 16px; + font-family: Helvetica, Arial, Sans-serif; +} + + +/*Math Operations +==============================*/ + + + +/* Less provides the following operators: +, -, *, /, and %. These can + be useful for calculating values directly in your Less files instead + of using values that you've already calculated by hand. Below is an example + of a setting up a simple two column design. */ + +@content-area: 960px; +@main-content: 600px; +@sidebar-content: 300px; + +@main-size: @main-content / @content-area * 100%; +@sidebar-size: @sidebar-content / @content-area * 100%; +@gutter: 100% - (@main-size + @sidebar-size); + +body { + width: 100%; +} + +.main-content { + width: @main-size; +} + +.sidebar { + width: @sidebar-size; +} + +.gutter { + width: @gutter; +} + +/* Compiles to: */ + +body { + width: 100%; +} + +.main-content { + width: 62.5%; +} + +.sidebar { + width: 31.25%; +} + +.gutter { + width: 6.25%; +} + + +``` + +## Practice Less + +If you want to play with Less in your browser, check out [LESS2CSS](http://lesscss.org/less-preview/). + +## Compatibility + +Less can be used in any project as long as you have a program to compile it +into CSS. You'll want to verify that the CSS you're using is compatible +with your target browsers. + +[QuirksMode CSS](http://www.quirksmode.org/css/) and [CanIUse](http://caniuse.com) are great resources for checking compatibility. + +## Further reading +* [Official Documentation](http://lesscss.org/features/) diff --git a/lt-lt/json-lt.html.markdown b/lt-lt/json-lt.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8c97e598 --- /dev/null +++ b/lt-lt/json-lt.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +--- +language: json +filename: learnjson.json +lang: lt-lt +contributors: + - ["Zygimantus", "https://github.com/zygimantus"] +--- + +JSON („džeisonas“) yra itin paprastas duomenų mainų formatas, todėl tai bus pati lengviausia „Learn X in Y Minutes“ pamoka. + +JSON savo gryniausioje formoje neturi jokių komentarų, tačiau dauguma analizatorių priimtų C stiliaus komentarus (`//`, `/* */`). Kai kurie analizatoriai taip pat toleruoja gale esantį kablelį, pvz., kablelis po kiekvieno masyvo paskutinio elemento arba po paskutinio objekto lauko, tačiau jų reikėtų vengti dėl geresnio suderinamumo. + +JSON reikšmė privalo būti skaičius, eilutė, masyvas, objektas arba viena reikšmė iš šių: true, false, null. + +Palaikančios naršyklės yra: Firefox 3.5+, Internet Explorer 8.0+, Chrome 1.0+, Opera 10.0+, and Safari 4.0+. + +Failo plėtinys JSON failams yra „.json“, o MIME tipas yra „application/json“. + +Dauguma programavimo kalbų palaiko JSON duomenų serializaciją (kodavimą) ir deserializaciją (dekodavimą) į natyviasias duomenų struktūras. Javascript turi visišką JSON teksto kaip duomenų manipuliavimo palaikymą. + +Daugiau informacijos galima rasti http://www.json.org/ + +JSON yra pastatytas iš dviejų struktūrų: +* Vardų/reikšmių porų rinkinys. Daugomoje kalbų, tai yra realizuojama kaip objektas, įrašas, struktūra, žodynas, hash lentelė, sąrašas su raktais arba asociatyvusis masyvas. +* Rūšiuotas reikšmių sąrašas. Daugumoje kalbų, toks sąrašas yra realizuojama kaip masyvas, vektorius, sąrašas arba seka. + +Objektas su įvairiomis vardo/reikšmės poromis. + +```json +{ + "raktas": "reikšmė", + + "raktai": "privalo visada būti uždaryti dvigubomis kabutėmis", + "skaičiai": 0, + "eilutės": "Labas, pasauli. Visas unikodas yra leidžiamas, kartu su \"vengimu\".", + "turi logiką?": true, + "niekas": null, + + "didelis skaičius": 1.2e+100, + + "objektai": { + "komentaras": "Dauguma tavo struktūrų ateis iš objektų.", + + "masyvas": [0, 1, 2, 3, "Masyvas gali turėti bet ką savyje.", 5], + + "kitas objektas": { + "komentaras": "Šie dalykai gali būti įdedami naudingai." + } + }, + + "kvailumas": [ + { + "kalio šaltiniai": ["bananai"] + }, + [ + [1, 0, 0, 0], + [0, 1, 0, 0], + [0, 0, 1, "neo"], + [0, 0, 0, 1] + ] + ], + + "alternativus stilius": { + "komentaras": "tik pažiūrėk!" + , "kablelio padėti": "nesvarbi - kol jis prieš kitą raktą, tada teisingas" + , "kitas komentaras": "kaip gražu" + } +} +``` + +Paprastas reikšmių masyvas pats savaime yra galiojantis JSON. + +```json +[1, 2, 3, "tekstas", true] +``` + +Objektai taip pat gali būti masyvų dalis. + +```json +[{"vardas": "Jonas", "amžius": 25}, {"vardas": "Eglė", "amžius": 29}, {"vardas": "Petras", "amžius": 31}] +``` diff --git a/lua.html.markdown b/lua.html.markdown index 0809215f..2cd4d7bb 100644 --- a/lua.html.markdown +++ b/lua.html.markdown @@ -190,7 +190,7 @@ end -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- A table can have a metatable that gives the table operator-overloadish --- behavior. Later we'll see how metatables support js-prototypey behavior. +-- behaviour. Later we'll see how metatables support js-prototypey behaviour. f1 = {a = 1, b = 2} -- Represents the fraction a/b. f2 = {a = 2, b = 3} diff --git a/make.html.markdown b/make.html.markdown index 563139d1..b3425b8a 100644 --- a/make.html.markdown +++ b/make.html.markdown @@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ target to the most recent version of the source. Famously written over a weekend by Stuart Feldman in 1976, it is still widely used (particularly
on Unix) despite many competitors and criticisms.
-There are many varieties of make in existance, this article assumes that
+There are many varieties of make in existence, this article assumes that
we are using GNU make which is the standard on Linux.
```make
@@ -145,11 +145,11 @@ echo: # In order of priority from highest to lowest:
# 1: commandline arguments
# 2: Makefile
-# 3: shell enviroment variables - make imports these automatically.
+# 3: shell environment variables - make imports these automatically.
# 4: make has some predefined variables
name4 ?= Jean
-# Only set the variable if enviroment variable is not already defined.
+# Only set the variable if environment variable is not already defined.
override name5 = David
# Stops commandline arguments from changing this variable.
@@ -234,10 +234,8 @@ bar = 'hello' endif
```
-
### More Resources
+ [gnu make documentation](https://www.gnu.org/software/make/manual/)
+ [software carpentry tutorial](http://swcarpentry.github.io/make-novice/)
+ learn C the hard way [ex2](http://c.learncodethehardway.org/book/ex2.html) [ex28](http://c.learncodethehardway.org/book/ex28.html)
-
diff --git a/markdown.html.markdown b/markdown.html.markdown index 2333110f..b4ad3202 100644 --- a/markdown.html.markdown +++ b/markdown.html.markdown @@ -2,45 +2,65 @@ language: markdown contributors: - ["Dan Turkel", "http://danturkel.com/"] + - ["Jacob Ward", "http://github.com/JacobCWard/"] filename: markdown.md --- -Markdown was created by John Gruber in 2004. It's meant to be an easy to read and write syntax which converts easily to HTML (and now many other formats as well). -Give me as much feedback as you want! / Feel free to fork and pull request! +Markdown was created by John Gruber in 2004. It's meant to be an easy to read and write syntax which converts easily to HTML (and now many other formats as well). +Markdown also varies in implementation from one parser to a next. This +guide will attempt to clarify when features are universal or when they are +specific to a certain parser. + +- [HTML Elements](#html-elements) +- [Headings](#headings) +- [Simple Text Styles](#simple-text-styles) +- [Paragraphs](#paragraphs) +- [Lists](#lists) +- [Code blocks](#code-blocks) +- [Horizontal rule](#horizontal-rule) +- [Links](#links) +- [Images](#images) +- [Miscellany](#miscellany) + +## HTML Elements +Markdown is a superset of HTML, so any HTML file is valid Markdown. ```markdown -<!-- Markdown is a superset of HTML, so any HTML file is valid Markdown, that -means we can use HTML elements in Markdown, such as the comment element, and -they won't be affected by a markdown parser. However, if you create an HTML -element in your markdown file, you cannot use markdown syntax within that -element's contents. --> +<!--This means we can use HTML elements in Markdown, such as the comment element, +and they won't be affected by a markdown parser. However, if you create an HTML element +in your markdown file, you cannot use markdown syntax within that element's contents.--> +``` -<!-- Markdown also varies in implementation from one parser to a next. This -guide will attempt to clarify when features are universal or when they are -specific to a certain parser. --> +## Headings -<!-- Headers --> -<!-- You can create HTML elements <h1> through <h6> easily by prepending the -text you want to be in that element by a number of hashes (#) --> +You can create HTML elements `<h1>` through `<h6>` easily by prepending the +text you want to be in that element by a number of hashes (#). + +```markdown # This is an <h1> ## This is an <h2> ### This is an <h3> #### This is an <h4> ##### This is an <h5> ###### This is an <h6> +``` +Markdown also provides us with two alternative ways of indicating h1 and h2. -<!-- Markdown also provides us with two alternative ways of indicating h1 and h2 --> +```markdown This is an h1 ============= This is an h2 ------------- +``` + +## Simple text styles -<!-- Simple text styles --> -<!-- Text can be easily styled as italic or bold using markdown --> +Text can be easily styled as italic or bold using markdown. +```markdown *This text is in italics.* _And so is this text._ @@ -50,15 +70,20 @@ __And so is this text.__ ***This text is in both.*** **_As is this!_** *__And this!__* +``` -<!-- In Github Flavored Markdown, which is used to render markdown files on -Github, we also have strikethrough: --> +In GitHub Flavored Markdown, which is used to render markdown files on +GitHub, we also have strikethrough: +```markdown ~~This text is rendered with strikethrough.~~ +``` +## Paragraphs -<!-- Paragraphs are a one or multiple adjacent lines of text separated by one or -multiple blank lines. --> +Paragraphs are a one or multiple adjacent lines of text separated by one or +multiple blank lines. +```markdown This is a paragraph. I'm typing in a paragraph isn't this fun? Now I'm in paragraph 2. @@ -66,16 +91,20 @@ I'm still in paragraph 2 too! I'm in paragraph three! +``` -<!-- Should you ever want to insert an HTML <br /> tag, you can end a paragraph -with two or more spaces and then begin a new paragraph. --> +Should you ever want to insert an HTML <br /> tag, you can end a paragraph +with two or more spaces and then begin a new paragraph. +```markdown I end with two spaces (highlight me to see them). There's a <br /> above me! +``` -<!-- Block quotes are easy and done with the > character. --> +Block quotes are easy and done with the > character. +```markdown > This is a block quote. You can either > manually wrap your lines and put a `>` before every line or you can let your lines get really long and wrap on their own. > It doesn't make a difference so long as they start with a `>`. @@ -84,9 +113,12 @@ There's a <br /> above me! >> of indentation? > How neat is that? -<!-- Lists --> -<!-- Unordered lists can be made using asterisks, pluses, or hyphens --> +``` +## Lists +Unordered lists can be made using asterisks, pluses, or hyphens. + +```markdown * Item * Item * Another item @@ -102,159 +134,194 @@ or - Item - Item - One last item +``` -<!-- Ordered lists are done with a number followed by a period --> +Ordered lists are done with a number followed by a period. +```markdown 1. Item one 2. Item two 3. Item three +``` -<!-- You don't even have to label the items correctly and markdown will still -render the numbers in order, but this may not be a good idea --> +You don't even have to label the items correctly and markdown will still +render the numbers in order, but this may not be a good idea. +```markdown 1. Item one 1. Item two 1. Item three -<!-- (This renders the same as the above example) --> +``` +(This renders the same as the above example) -<!-- You can also use sublists --> +You can also use sublists +```markdown 1. Item one 2. Item two 3. Item three * Sub-item * Sub-item 4. Item four +``` -<!-- There are even task lists. This creates HTML checkboxes. --> +There are even task lists. This creates HTML checkboxes. +```markdown Boxes below without the 'x' are unchecked HTML checkboxes. - [ ] First task to complete. - [ ] Second task that needs done This checkbox below will be a checked HTML checkbox. - [x] This task has been completed +``` + +## Code blocks -<!-- Code blocks --> -<!-- You can indicate a code block (which uses the <code> element) by indenting -a line with four spaces or a tab --> +You can indicate a code block (which uses the `<code>` element) by indenting +a line with four spaces or a tab. +```markdown This is code So is this +``` -<!-- You can also re-tab (or add an additional four spaces) for indentation -inside your code --> +You can also re-tab (or add an additional four spaces) for indentation +inside your code +```markdown my_array.each do |item| puts item end +``` -<!-- Inline code can be created using the backtick character ` --> +Inline code can be created using the backtick character ` +```markdown John didn't even know what the `go_to()` function did! +``` -<!-- In Github Flavored Markdown, you can use a special syntax for code --> +In GitHub Flavored Markdown, you can use a special syntax for code -\`\`\`ruby <!-- except remove those backslashes when you do this, just ```ruby ! --> +<pre> +<code class="highlight">```ruby def foobar puts "Hello world!" end -\`\`\` <!-- here too, no backslashes, just ``` --> +```</code></pre> + +The above text doesn't require indenting, plus GitHub will use syntax +highlighting of the language you specify after the \`\`\` -<!-- The above text doesn't require indenting, plus Github will use syntax -highlighting of the language you specify after the ``` --> +## Horizontal rule -<!-- Horizontal rule (<hr />) --> -<!-- Horizontal rules are easily added with three or more asterisks or hyphens, -with or without spaces. --> +Horizontal rules (`<hr/>`) are easily added with three or more asterisks or hyphens, +with or without spaces. +```markdown *** --- - - - **************** +``` -<!-- Links --> -<!-- One of the best things about markdown is how easy it is to make links. Put -the text to display in hard brackets [] followed by the url in parentheses () --> +## Links -[Click me!](http://test.com/) +One of the best things about markdown is how easy it is to make links. Put +the text to display in hard brackets [] followed by the url in parentheses () -<!-- You can also add a link title using quotes inside the parentheses --> +```markdown +[Click me!](http://test.com/) +``` +You can also add a link title using quotes inside the parentheses. +```markdown [Click me!](http://test.com/ "Link to Test.com") +``` +Relative paths work too. -<!-- Relative paths work too. --> - +```markdown [Go to music](/music/). +``` -<!-- Markdown also supports reference style links --> +Markdown also supports reference style links. -[Click this link][link1] for more info about it! -[Also check out this link][foobar] if you want to. +<pre><code class="highlight">[<span class="nv">Click this link</span>][<span class="ss">link1</span>] for more info about it! +[<span class="nv">Also check out this link</span>][<span class="ss">foobar</span>] if you want to. -[link1]: http://test.com/ "Cool!" -[foobar]: http://foobar.biz/ "Alright!" +[<span class="nv">link1</span>]: <span class="sx">http://test.com/</span> <span class="nn">"Cool!"</span> +[<span class="nv">foobar</span>]: <span class="sx">http://foobar.biz/</span> <span class="nn">"Alright!"</span></code></pre> -<!-- The title can also be in single quotes or in parentheses, or omitted +The title can also be in single quotes or in parentheses, or omitted entirely. The references can be anywhere in your document and the reference IDs -can be anything so long as they are unique. --> +can be anything so long as they are unique. -<!-- There is also "implicit naming" which lets you use the link text as the id --> +There is also "implicit naming" which lets you use the link text as the id. -[This][] is a link. +<pre><code class="highlight">[<span class="nv">This</span>][] is a link. -[this]: http://thisisalink.com/ +[<span class="nv">this</span>]: <span class="sx">http://thisisalink.com/</span></code></pre> -<!-- But it's not that commonly used. --> +But it's not that commonly used. -<!-- Images --> -<!-- Images are done the same way as links but with an exclamation point in front! --> +## Images +Images are done the same way as links but with an exclamation point in front! +```markdown  +``` -<!-- And reference style works as expected --> - -![This is the alt-attribute.][myimage] +And reference style works as expected. -[myimage]: relative/urls/cool/image.jpg "if you need a title, it's here" +<pre><code class="highlight">![<span class="nv">This is the alt-attribute.</span>][<span class="ss">myimage</span>] -<!-- Miscellany --> -<!-- Auto-links --> +[<span class="nv">myimage</span>]: <span class="sx">relative/urls/cool/image.jpg</span> <span class="nn">"if you need a title, it's here"</span></code></pre> +## Miscellany +### Auto-links +```markdown <http://testwebsite.com/> is equivalent to [http://testwebsite.com/](http://testwebsite.com/) +``` -<!-- Auto-links for emails --> +### Auto-links for emails +```markdown <foo@bar.com> +``` -<!-- Escaping characters --> +### Escaping characters +```markdown I want to type *this text surrounded by asterisks* but I don't want it to be in italics, so I do this: \*this text surrounded by asterisks\*. +``` -<!-- Keyboard keys --> -<!-- In Github Flavored Markdown, you can use a <kbd> tag to represent keyboard keys --> +### Keyboard keys +In GitHub Flavored Markdown, you can use a `<kbd>` tag to represent keyboard keys. + +```markdown Your computer crashed? Try sending a <kbd>Ctrl</kbd>+<kbd>Alt</kbd>+<kbd>Del</kbd> +``` +### Tables -<!-- Tables --> -<!-- Tables are only available in Github Flavored Markdown and are slightly -cumbersome, but if you really want it: --> +Tables are only available in GitHub Flavored Markdown and are slightly +cumbersome, but if you really want it: +```markdown | Col1 | Col2 | Col3 | | :----------- | :------: | ------------: | | Left-aligned | Centered | Right-aligned | | blah | blah | blah | +``` +or, for the same results -<!-- or, for the same results --> - +```markdown Col 1 | Col2 | Col3 :-- | :-: | --: Ugh this is so ugly | make it | stop - -<!-- The end! --> - ``` +--- For more info, check out John Gruber's official post of syntax [here](http://daringfireball.net/projects/markdown/syntax) and Adam Pritchard's great cheatsheet [here](https://github.com/adam-p/markdown-here/wiki/Markdown-Cheatsheet). diff --git a/matlab.html.markdown b/matlab.html.markdown index 0cbc6f57..ddc0cb40 100644 --- a/matlab.html.markdown +++ b/matlab.html.markdown @@ -1,10 +1,11 @@ --- language: Matlab +filename: learnmatlab.mat contributors: - ["mendozao", "http://github.com/mendozao"] - ["jamesscottbrown", "http://jamesscottbrown.com"] - ["Colton Kohnke", "http://github.com/voltnor"] - + - ["Claudson Martins", "http://github.com/claudsonm"] --- MATLAB stands for MATrix LABoratory. It is a powerful numerical computing language commonly used in engineering and mathematics. @@ -14,6 +15,7 @@ If you have any feedback please feel free to reach me at [osvaldo.t.mendoza@gmail.com](mailto:osvaldo.t.mendoza@gmail.com). ```matlab +%% Code sections start with two percent signs. Section titles go on the same line. % Comments start with a percent sign. %{ @@ -71,7 +73,7 @@ c = exp(a)*sin(pi/2) % c = 7.3891 % Calling functions can be done in either of two ways: % Standard function syntax: -load('myFile.mat', 'y') % arguments within parantheses, spererated by commas +load('myFile.mat', 'y') % arguments within parentheses, separated by commas % Command syntax: load myFile.mat y % no parentheses, and spaces instead of commas % Note the lack of quote marks in command form: inputs are always passed as @@ -122,6 +124,7 @@ x(2:end) % ans = 32 53 7 1 x = [4; 32; 53; 7; 1] % Column vector x = [1:10] % x = 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 +x = [1:2:10] % Increment by 2, i.e. x = 1 3 5 7 9 % Matrices A = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9] @@ -204,6 +207,8 @@ transpose(A) % Transpose the matrix, which is the same as: A one ctranspose(A) % Hermitian transpose the matrix % (the transpose, followed by taking complex conjugate of each element) +A' % Concise version of complex transpose +A.' % Concise version of transpose (without taking complex conjugate) @@ -253,6 +258,8 @@ axis equal % Set aspect ratio so data units are the same in every direction scatter(x, y); % Scatter-plot hist(x); % Histogram +stem(x); % Plot values as stems, useful for displaying discrete data +bar(x); % Plot bar graph z = sin(x); plot3(x,y,z); % 3D line plot @@ -261,7 +268,7 @@ pcolor(A) % Heat-map of matrix: plot as grid of rectangles, coloured by value contour(A) % Contour plot of matrix mesh(A) % Plot as a mesh surface -h = figure % Create new figure object, with handle f +h = figure % Create new figure object, with handle h figure(h) % Makes the figure corresponding to handle h the current figure close(h) % close figure with handle h close all % close all open figure windows @@ -272,7 +279,7 @@ clf clear % clear current figure window, and reset most figure properties % Properties can be set and changed through a figure handle. % You can save a handle to a figure when you create it. -% The function gcf returns a handle to the current figure +% The function get returns a handle to the current figure h = plot(x, y); % you can save a handle to a figure when you create it set(h, 'Color', 'r') % 'y' yellow; 'm' magenta, 'c' cyan, 'r' red, 'g' green, 'b' blue, 'w' white, 'k' black @@ -329,7 +336,7 @@ double_input(6) % ans = 12 % anonymous function. Useful when quickly defining a function to pass to % another function (eg. plot with fplot, evaluate an indefinite integral % with quad, find roots with fzero, or find minimum with fminsearch). -% Example that returns the square of it's input, assigned to to the handle sqr: +% Example that returns the square of it's input, assigned to the handle sqr: sqr = @(x) x.^2; sqr(10) % ans = 100 doc function_handle % find out more @@ -399,7 +406,7 @@ exp(x) sqrt(x) log(x) log10(x) -abs(x) +abs(x) %If x is complex, returns magnitude min(x) max(x) ceil(x) @@ -410,6 +417,14 @@ rand % Uniformly distributed pseudorandom numbers randi % Uniformly distributed pseudorandom integers randn % Normally distributed pseudorandom numbers +%Complex math operations +abs(x) % Magnitude of complex variable x +phase(x) % Phase (or angle) of complex variable x +real(x) % Returns the real part of x (i.e returns a if x = a +jb) +imag(x) % Returns the imaginary part of x (i.e returns b if x = a+jb) +conj(x) % Returns the complex conjugate + + % Common constants pi NaN @@ -459,11 +474,14 @@ length % length of a vector sort % sort in ascending order sum % sum of elements prod % product of elements -mode % modal value +mode % modal value median % median value mean % mean value std % standard deviation perms(x) % list all permutations of elements of x +find(x) % Finds all non-zero elements of x and returns their indexes, can use comparison operators, + % i.e. find( x == 3 ) returns indexes of elements that are equal to 3 + % i.e. find( x >= 3 ) returns indexes of elements greater than or equal to 3 % Classes diff --git a/ms-my/coffeescript-my.html.markdown b/ms-my/coffeescript-my.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..9820a561 --- /dev/null +++ b/ms-my/coffeescript-my.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,105 @@ +--- +language: coffeescript +contributors: + - ["Tenor Biel", "http://github.com/L8D"] + - ["Xavier Yao", "http://github.com/xavieryao"] +filename: coffeescript-ms.coffee +translators: + - ["hack1m", "https://github.com/hack1m"] +lang: ms-my +--- + +CoffeeScript adalah bahasa kecil yang menyusun/kompil satu-per-satu menjadi setara JavaScript, dan tidak ada interpretasi di runtime. +Sebagai salah satu pengganti kepada JavaScript, CoffeeScript mencuba yang terbaik untuk output kod JavaScript yang mudah dibaca, cantik-dicetak dan berfungsi lancar, yang mana berfungsi baik pada setiap runtime JavaScript. + +Lihat juga [Laman sesawang CoffeeScript](http://coffeescript.org/), yang mana ada tutorial lengkap untuk CoffeeScript. + +```coffeescript +# CoffeeScript adalah bahasa hipster. +# Ia beredar mengikut trend kebanyakkan bahasa moden. +# Jadi komen sama seperti Ruby dan Python, ia menggunakan simbol nombor. + +### +Blok komen seperti ini, dan ia terjemah terus ke '/ *'s dan '* /'s +untuk keputusan kod JavaScript. + +Sebelum meneruskan anda perlu faham kebanyakkan daripada +JavaScript adalah semantik. +### + +# Menetapkan: +number = 42 #=> var number = 42; +opposite = true #=> var opposite = true; + +# Bersyarat: +number = -42 if opposite #=> if(opposite) { number = -42; } + +# Fungsi: +square = (x) -> x * x #=> var square = function(x) { return x * x; } + +fill = (container, liquid = "coffee") -> + "Filling the #{container} with #{liquid}..." +#=>var fill; +# +#fill = function(container, liquid) { +# if (liquid == null) { +# liquid = "coffee"; +# } +# return "Filling the " + container + " with " + liquid + "..."; +#}; + +# Julat: +list = [1..5] #=> var list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; + +# Objek: +math = + root: Math.sqrt + square: square + cube: (x) -> x * square x +#=> var math = { +# "root": Math.sqrt, +# "square": square, +# "cube": function(x) { return x * square(x); } +# }; + +# Splats: +race = (winner, runners...) -> + print winner, runners +#=>race = function() { +# var runners, winner; +# winner = arguments[0], runners = 2 <= arguments.length ? __slice.call(arguments, 1) : []; +# return print(winner, runners); +# }; + +# Kewujudan: +alert "I knew it!" if elvis? +#=> if(typeof elvis !== "undefined" && elvis !== null) { alert("I knew it!"); } + +# Pemahaman array: +cubes = (math.cube num for num in list) +#=>cubes = (function() { +# var _i, _len, _results; +# _results = []; +# for (_i = 0, _len = list.length; _i < _len; _i++) { +# num = list[_i]; +# _results.push(math.cube(num)); +# } +# return _results; +# })(); + +foods = ['broccoli', 'spinach', 'chocolate'] +eat food for food in foods when food isnt 'chocolate' +#=>foods = ['broccoli', 'spinach', 'chocolate']; +# +#for (_k = 0, _len2 = foods.length; _k < _len2; _k++) { +# food = foods[_k]; +# if (food !== 'chocolate') { +# eat(food); +# } +#} +``` + +## Sumber tambahan + +- [Smooth CoffeeScript](http://autotelicum.github.io/Smooth-CoffeeScript/) +- [CoffeeScript Ristretto](https://leanpub.com/coffeescript-ristretto/read) diff --git a/ms-my/javascript-my.html.markdown b/ms-my/javascript-my.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..90e37133 --- /dev/null +++ b/ms-my/javascript-my.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,588 @@ +--- +language: javascript +contributors: + - ["Adam Brenecki", "http://adam.brenecki.id.au"] + - ["Ariel Krakowski", "http://www.learneroo.com"] +filename: javascript-ms.js +translators: + - ["abdalim", "https://github.com/abdalim"] +lang: ms-my +--- + +Javascript dicipta oleh Brendan Eich dari Netscape pada 1995. Pada awalnya, ia +dicipta sebagai bahasa skrip yang ringkas untuk laman web, melengkapi penggunaan +Java untuk aplikasi web yang lebih rumit, namun begitu, integrasi rapat pada +halaman web dan sokongan tersedia dalam pelayar web telah menyebabkan ia menjadi +lebih kerap digunakan berbanding Java pada bahagian hadapan laman web. + +Namun begitu, Javascript tidak terhad pada pelayar web; Node.js, sebuah projek +yang menyediakan 'runtime' berdiri sendiri untuk enjin V8 Google Chrome sedang +kian mendapat sambutan yang hangat. + +```js +// Komentar adalah seperti dalam C. Komentar sebaris bermula dengan dua sengkang +/* dan komentar banyak baris bermula dengan sengkang-bintang + dan berakhir dengan bintang-sengkang */ + +// Pernyataan boleh ditamatkan dengan ';' +doStuff(); + +// ... tetapi ia tidak wajib, kerana koma bertitik secara automatik akan +// dimasukkan dimana tempat yang ada baris baru, kecuali dalam kes - kes +// tertentu. +doStuff() + +// Disebabkan kes - kes itu boleh menyebabkan hasil yang tidak diduga, kami +// akan sentiasa menggunakan koma bertitik dalam panduan ini. + +/////////////////////////////////// +// 1. Nombor, String dan Operator + +// Javascript mempunyai satu jenis nombor (iaitu 64-bit IEEE 754 double). +// Double mempunyai 52-bit mantissa, iaitu ia cukup untuk menyimpan integer +// sehingga 9✕10¹⁵ secara tepatnya. +3; // = 3 +1.5; // = 1.5 + +// Sebahagian aritmetic asas berfungsi seperti yang anda jangkakan. +1 + 1; // = 2 +0.1 + 0.2; // = 0.30000000000000004 +8 - 1; // = 7 +10 * 2; // = 20 +35 / 5; // = 7 + +// Termasuk pembahagian tidak rata. +5 / 2; // = 2.5 + +// Dan pembahagian modulo. +10 % 2; // = 0 +30 % 4; // = 2 +18.5 % 7; // = 4.5 + +// Operasi bitwise juga boleh digunakan; bila anda melakukan operasi bitwise, +// float anda akan ditukarkan kepada int bertanda *sehingga* 32 bit. +1 << 2; // = 4 + +// Keutamaan ditekankan menggunakan kurungan. +(1 + 3) * 2; // = 8 + +// Terdapat tiga nilai nombor-tidak-nyata istimewa +Infinity; // hasil operasi seperti 1/0 +-Infinity; // hasil operasi seperti -1/0 +NaN; // hasil operasi seperti 0/0, bermaksud 'Bukan Sebuah Nombor' + +// Terdapat juga jenis boolean +true; +false; + +// Talian dicipta dengan ' atau ''. +'abc'; +"Hello, world"; + +// Penafian menggunakan simbol ! +!true; // = tidak benar +!false; // = benar + +// Sama ialah === +1 === 1; // = benar +2 === 1; // = tidak benar + +// Tidak sama ialah !== +1 !== 1; // = tidak benar +2 !== 1; // = benar + +// Lagi perbandingan +1 < 10; // = benar +1 > 10; // = tidak benar +2 <= 2; // = benar +2 >= 2; // = benar + +// Talian disambungkan dengan + +"Hello " + "world!"; // = "Hello world!" + +// dan dibandingkan dengan < dan > +"a" < "b"; // = benar + +// Paksaan jenis dilakukan untuk perbandingan menggunakan dua sama dengan... +"5" == 5; // = benar +null == undefined; // = benar + +// ...melainkan anda menggunakan === +"5" === 5; // = tidak benar +null === undefined; // = tidak benar + +// ...yang boleh menghasilkan keputusan yang pelik... +13 + !0; // 14 +"13" + !0; // '13true' + +// Anda boleh akses huruf dalam perkataan dengan `charAt` +"This is a string".charAt(0); // = 'T' + +// ...atau menggunakan `substring` untuk mendapatkan bahagian yang lebih besar. +"Hello world".substring(0, 5); // = "Hello" + +// `length` adalah ciri, maka jangan gunakan (). +"Hello".length; // = 5 + +// Selain itu, terdapat juga `null` dan `undefined`. +null; // digunakan untuk menandakan bukan-nilai yang disengajakan +undefined; // digunakan untuk menandakan nilai yang tidak wujud pada waktu ini (walaupun `undefined` adalah nilai juga) + +// false, null, undefined, NaN, 0 dan "" adalah tidak benar; semua selain itu adalah benar. +// Peringatan, 0 adalah tidak benar dan "0" adalah benar, walaupun 0 == "0". + +/////////////////////////////////// +// 2. Pembolehubah, Array dan Objek + +// Pembolehubah digunakan dengan kata kunci 'var'. Javascript ialah sebuah +// bahasa aturcara yang jenisnya dinamik, maka anda tidak perlu spesifikasikan +// jenis pembolehubah. Penetapan menggunakan satu '=' karakter. +var someVar = 5; + +// jika anda tinggalkan kata kunci var, anda tidak akan dapat ralat... +someOtherVar = 10; + +// ...tetapi pembolehubah anda akan dicipta di dalam skop global, bukan di +// dalam skop anda menciptanya. + +// Pembolehubah yang dideklarasikan tanpa ditetapkan sebarang nilai akan +// ditetapkan kepada undefined. +var someThirdVar; // = undefined + +// jika anda ingin mendeklarasikan beberapa pembolehubah, maka anda boleh +// menggunakan koma sebagai pembahagi +var someFourthVar = 2, someFifthVar = 4; + +// Terdapat cara mudah untuk melakukan operasi - operasi matematik pada +// pembolehubah: +someVar += 5; // bersamaan dengan someVar = someVar +5; someVar sama dengan 10 sekarang +someVar *= 10; // sekarang someVar bernilai 100 + +// dan cara lebih mudah untuk penambahan atau penolakan 1 +someVar++; // sekarang someVar ialah 101 +someVar--; // kembali kepada 100 + +// Array adalah senarai nilai yang tersusun, yang boleh terdiri daripada +// pembolehubah pelbagai jenis. +var myArray = ["Hello", 45, true]; + +// Setiap ahli array boleh diakses menggunakan syntax kurungan-petak. +// Indeks array bermula pada sifar. +myArray[1]; // = 45 + +// Array boleh diubah dan mempunyai panjang yang tidak tetap dan boleh ubah. +myArray.push("World"); +myArray.length; // = 4 + +// Tambah/Ubah di index yang spesifik +myArray[3] = "Hello"; + +// Objek javascript adalah sama dengan "dictionaries" atau "maps" dalam bahasa +// aturcara yang lain: koleksi pasangan kunci-nilai yang tidak mempunyai +// sebarang susunan. +var myObj = {key1: "Hello", key2: "World"}; + +// Kunci adalah string, tetapi 'quote' tidak diperlukan jika ia adalah pengecam +// javascript yang sah. Nilai boleh mempunyai sebarang jenis. +var myObj = {myKey: "myValue", "my other key": 4}; + +// Ciri - ciri objek boleh juga diakses menggunakan syntax subskrip (kurungan- +// petak), +myObj["my other key"]; // = 4 + +// ... atau menggunakan syntax titik, selagi kuncinya adalah pengecam yang sah. +myObj.myKey; // = "myValue" + +// Objek adalah boleh diubah; nilai boleh diubah dan kunci baru boleh ditambah. +myObj.myThirdKey = true; + +// Jika anda cuba untuk akses nilai yang belum ditetapkan, anda akan mendapat +// undefined. +myObj.myFourthKey; // = undefined + +/////////////////////////////////// +// 3. Logik dan Struktur Kawalan + +// Syntax untuk bahagian ini adalah hampir sama dengan Java. + +// Struktur `if` berfungsi seperti yang anda jangkakan. +var count = 1; +if (count == 3){ + // dinilai jika count ialah 3 +} else if (count == 4){ + // dinilai jika count ialah 4 +} else { + // dinilai jika count bukan 3 atau 4 +} + +// Sama juga dengan `while`. +while (true){ + // Sebuah ulangan yang tidak terhingga! + // An infinite loop! +} + +// Ulangan do-while adalah sama dengan ulangan while, kecuali ia akan diulang +// sekurang-kurangnya sekali. +var input; +do { + input = getInput(); +} while (!isValid(input)) + +// Ulangan `for` adalah sama dengan C dan Java: +// Persiapan; kondisi untuk bersambung; pengulangan. +for (var i = 0; i < 5; i++){ + // akan berulang selama 5 kali +} + +// Pernyataan ulangan For/In akan mengulang setiap ciri seluruh jaringan +// 'prototype' +var description = ""; +var person = {fname:"Paul", lname:"Ken", age:18}; +for (var x in person){ + description += person[x] + " "; +} + +// Jika anda cuma mahu mengambil kira ciri - ciri yang ditambah pada objek it +// sendiri dan bukan 'prototype'nya, sila gunakan semakan hasOwnProperty() +var description = ""; +var person = {fname:"Paul", lname:"Ken", age:18}; +for (var x in person){ + if (person.hasOwnProperty(x)){ + description += person[x] + " "; + } +} + +// for/in tidak sepatutnya digunakan untuk mengulang sebuah Array di mana +// indeks susunan adalah penting. +// Tiada sebarang jaminan bahawa for/in akan mengembalikan indeks dalam +// mana - mana susunan + +// && adalah logikal dan, || adalah logikal atau +if (house.size == "big" && house.colour == "blue"){ + house.contains = "bear"; +} +if (colour == "red" || colour == "blue"){ + // warna adalah sama ada 'red' atau 'blue' +} + +// && dan || adalah "lintar pintas", di mana ia berguna untuk menetapkan +// nilai asal. +var name = otherName || "default"; + + +// Pernyataan `switch` menyemak persamaan menggunakan `===`. +// gunakan pernyataan `break` selepas setiap kes +// atau tidak, kes - kes selepas kes yang betul akan dijalankan juga. +grade = 'B'; +switch (grade) { + case 'A': + console.log("Great job"); + break; + case 'B': + console.log("OK job"); + break; + case 'C': + console.log("You can do better"); + break; + default: + console.log("Oy vey"); + break; +} + + +/////////////////////////////////// +// 4. Functions, Skop dan Closures + +// Function javascript dideklarasikan dengan kata kunci `function`. +function myFunction(thing){ + return thing.toUpperCase(); +} +myFunction("foo"); // = "FOO" + +// Perhatikan yang nilai yang dikembalikan mesti bermula pada baris yang sama +// dengan kata kunci `return`, jika tidak, anda akan sentiasa mengembalikan +// `undefined` disebabkan kemasukan 'semicolon' secara automatik. Sila berjaga - +// jaga dengan hal ini apabila menggunakan Allman style. +function myFunction(){ + return // <- semicolon dimasukkan secara automatik di sini + {thisIsAn: 'object literal'} +} +myFunction(); // = undefined + +// Function javascript adalah objek kelas pertama, maka ia boleh diberikan +// nama pembolehubah yang lain dan diberikan kepada function yang lain sebagai +// input - sebagai contoh, apabila membekalkan pengendali event: +function myFunction(){ + // kod ini akan dijalankan selepas 5 saat +} +setTimeout(myFunction, 5000); +// Nota: setTimeout bukan sebahagian daripada bahasa JS, tetapi ia disediakan +// oleh pelayar web dan Node.js. + +// Satu lagi function yang disediakan oleh pelayar web adalah setInterval +function myFunction(){ + // kod ini akan dijalankan setiap 5 saat +} +setInterval(myFunction, 5000); + +// Objek function tidak perlu dideklarasikan dengan nama - anda boleh menulis +// function yang tidak bernama didalam input sebuah function lain. +setTimeout(function(){ + // kod ini akan dijalankan dalam 5 saat +}, 5000); + +// Javascript mempunyai skop function; function mempunyai skop mereka +// tersendiri tetapi blok tidak. +if (true){ + var i = 5; +} +i; // = 5 - bukan undefined seperti yang anda jangkakan di dalam bahasa blok-skop + +// Ini telah menyebabkan corak biasa iaitu "immediately-executing anonymous +// functions", yang mengelakkan pembolehubah sementara daripada bocor ke +// skop global. +(function(){ + var temporary = 5; + // Kita boleh akses skop global dengan menetapkan nilai ke "objek global", + // iaitu dalam pelayar web selalunya adalah `window`. Objek global mungkin + // mempunyai nama yang berlainan dalam alam bukan pelayar web seperti Node.js. + window.permanent = 10; +})(); +temporary; // akan menghasilkan ralat ReferenceError +permanent; // = 10 + +// Salah satu ciri terhebat Javascript ialah closure. Jika sebuah function +// didefinisikan di dalam sebuah function lain, function yang di dalam akan +// mempunyai akses kepada semua pembolehubah function yang di luar, mahupun +// selepas function yang di luar tersebut selesai. +function sayHelloInFiveSeconds(name){ + var prompt = "Hello, " + name + "!"; + // Function dalam diletakkan di dalam skop lokal secara asal, seperti + // ia dideklarasikan dengan `var`. + function inner(){ + alert(prompt); + } + setTimeout(inner, 5000); + // setTimeout adalah tak segerak atau asinkroni, maka function sayHelloInFiveSeconds akan selesai serta merta, dan setTimeout akan memanggil + // inner selepas itu. Walaubagaimanapun, disebabkan inner terletak didalam + // sayHelloInFiveSeconds, inner tetap mempunyai akses kepada pembolehubah + // `prompt` apabila ia dipanggil. +} +sayHelloInFiveSeconds("Adam"); // akan membuka sebuah popup dengan "Hello, Adam!" selepas 5s + +/////////////////////////////////// +// 5. Lagi tentang Objek, Constructor dan Prototype + +// Objek boleh mengandungi function. +var myObj = { + myFunc: function(){ + return "Hello world!"; + } +}; +myObj.myFunc(); // = "Hello world!" + +// Apabila function sesebuah object dipanggil, ia boleh mengakses objek asalnya +// dengan menggunakan kata kunci `this`. +myObj = { + myString: "Hello world!", + myFunc: function(){ + return this.myString; + } +}; +myObj.myFunc(); // = "Hello world!" + +// Nilai sebenar yang ditetapkan kepada this akan ditentukan oleh bagaimana +// sesebuah function itu dipanggil, bukan dimana ia didefinisikan. Oleh it, +// sesebuah function tidak akan berfungsi jika ia dipanggil bukan pada konteks +// objeknya. +var myFunc = myObj.myFunc; +myFunc(); // = undefined + +// Sebaliknya, sebuah function boleh ditetapkan kepada objek dan mendapat akses +// kepada objek itu melalui `this`, walaupun ia tidak ditetapkan semasa ia +// didefinisikan. +var myOtherFunc = function(){ + return this.myString.toUpperCase(); +} +myObj.myOtherFunc = myOtherFunc; +myObj.myOtherFunc(); // = "HELLO WORLD!" + +// Kita juga boleh menentukan konteks untuk sebuah function dijalankan apabila +// ia dipanggil menggunakan `call` atau `apply`. + +var anotherFunc = function(s){ + return this.myString + s; +} +anotherFunc.call(myObj, " And Hello Moon!"); // = "Hello World! And Hello Moon!" + +// Function `apply` adalah hampir sama, tetapi ia mengambil sebuah array +// sebagai senarai input. + +anotherFunc.apply(myObj, [" And Hello Sun!"]); // = "Hello World! And Hello Sun!" + +// Ini sangat berguna apabila menggunakan sebuah function yang menerima senarai +// input dan anda mahu menggunakan sebuah array sebagai input. + +Math.min(42, 6, 27); // = 6 +Math.min([42, 6, 27]); // = NaN (uh-oh!) +Math.min.apply(Math, [42, 6, 27]); // = 6 + +// Tetapi, `call` dan `apply` adalah hanya sementara, sebagaimana hidup ini. +// Apabila kita mahu ia kekal, kita boleh menggunakan `bind`. + +var boundFunc = anotherFunc.bind(myObj); +boundFunc(" And Hello Saturn!"); // = "Hello World! And Hello Saturn!" + +// `bind` boleh juga digunakan untuk menggunakan sebuah function tidak +// sepenuhnya (curry). + +var product = function(a, b){ return a * b; } +var doubler = product.bind(this, 2); +doubler(8); // = 16 + +// Apabila anda memanggil sebuah function dengan kata kunci `new`, sebuah +// objek baru akan dicipta dan dijadikan tersedia kepada function itu melalui +// kata kunci `this`. Function yang direka bentuk untuk dipanggil sebegitu rupa +// dikenali sebagai constructors. + +var MyConstructor = function(){ + this.myNumber = 5; +} +myNewObj = new MyConstructor(); // = {myNumber: 5} +myNewObj.myNumber; // = 5 + +// Setiap objek JavaScript mempunyai `prototype`. Apabila anda akses sesuatu +// ciri sebuah objek yang tidak wujud dalam objek sebenar itu, interpreter akan +// mencari ciri itu didalam `prototype`nya. + +// Sebahagian implementasi JS membenarkan anda untuk akses prototype sebuah +// objek pada ciri istimewa `__proto__`. Walaupun ini membantu dalam menerangkan +// mengenai prototypes, ia bukan sebahagian dari piawai; kita akan melihat +// cara - cara piawai untuk menggunakan prototypes nanti. +var myObj = { + myString: "Hello world!" +}; +var myPrototype = { + meaningOfLife: 42, + myFunc: function(){ + return this.myString.toLowerCase() + } +}; + +myObj.__proto__ = myPrototype; +myObj.meaningOfLife; // = 42 + +// Ini berfungsi untuk function juga. +myObj.myFunc(); // = "hello world!" + +// Sudah pasti, jika ciri anda bukan pada prototype anda, prototype kepada +// prototype anda akan disemak, dan seterusnya. +myPrototype.__proto__ = { + myBoolean: true +}; +myObj.myBoolean; // = true + +// Tiada penyalinan terlibat disini; setiap objek menyimpan rujukan kepada +// prototypenya sendiri. Ini bermaksud, kita boleh mengubah prototypenya dan +// pengubahsuaian itu akan dilihat dan berkesan dimana sahaja. +myPrototype.meaningOfLife = 43; +myObj.meaningOfLife; // = 43 + +// Kami menyatakan yang `__proto__` adalah bukan piawai, dan tiada cara rasmi +// untuk mengubah prototype sesebuah objek. Walaubagaimanapun, terdapat dua +// cara untuk mencipta objek baru dengan sesebuah prototype. + +// Yang pertama ialah Object.create, yang merupakan tambahan terbaru pada JS, +// dan oleh itu tiada dalam semua implementasi buat masa ini. +var myObj = Object.create(myPrototype); +myObj.meaningOfLife; // = 43 + +// Cara kedua, yang boleh digunakan dimana sahaja, adalah berkaitan dengan +// constructor. Constructors mempunyai sebuah ciri yang dipanggil prototype. +// Ini *bukan* prototype constructor terbabit; tetapi, ia adalah prototype yang +// diberikan kepada objek baru apabila ia dicipta menggunakan constructor dan +// kata kunci new. +MyConstructor.prototype = { + myNumber: 5, + getMyNumber: function(){ + return this.myNumber; + } +}; +var myNewObj2 = new MyConstructor(); +myNewObj2.getMyNumber(); // = 5 +myNewObj2.myNumber = 6 +myNewObj2.getMyNumber(); // = 6 + +// Jenis yang terbina sedia seperti string dan nombor juga mempunyai constructor +// yang mencipta objek pembalut yang serupa. +var myNumber = 12; +var myNumberObj = new Number(12); +myNumber == myNumberObj; // = true + +// Kecuali, mereka sebenarnya tak sama sepenuhnya. +typeof myNumber; // = 'number' +typeof myNumberObj; // = 'object' +myNumber === myNumberObj; // = false +if (0){ + // Kod ini tidak akan dilaksanakan, kerana 0 adalah tidak benar. +} + +// Walaubagaimanapun, pembalut objek dan jenis terbina yang biasa berkongsi +// prototype, maka sebagai contoh, anda sebenarnya boleh menambah fungsi +// kepada string. +String.prototype.firstCharacter = function(){ + return this.charAt(0); +} +"abc".firstCharacter(); // = "a" + +// Fakta ini selalu digunakan dalam "polyfilling", iaitu melaksanakan fungsi +// baru JavaScript didalam subset JavaScript yang lama, supaya ia boleh +// digunakan di dalam persekitaran yang lama seperti pelayar web yang lama. + +// Sebagai contoh, kami menyatakan yang Object.create belum lagi tersedia +// di semua implementasi, tetapi kita masih boleh menggunakannya dengan polyfill: +if (Object.create === undefined){ // jangan ganti jika ia sudah wujud + Object.create = function(proto){ + // buat satu constructor sementara dengan prototype yang betul + var Constructor = function(){}; + Constructor.prototype = proto; + // kemudian gunakannya untuk mencipta objek baru yang diberikan + // prototype yang betul + return new Constructor(); + } +} +``` +## Bacaan Lanjut + +[Mozilla Developer Network][1] menyediakan dokumentasi yang sangat baik untuk +JavaScript kerana ia digunakan di dalam pelayar - pelayar web. Tambahan pula, +ia adalah sebuah wiki, maka, sambil anda belajar lebih banyak lagi, anda boleh +membantu orang lain dengan berkongsi pengetahuan anda. + +[A re-introduction to JavaScript][2] oleh MDN meliputi semua konsep yang +diterangkan di sini dengan lebih terperinci. Panduan ini menerangkan bahasa +aturcara JavaScript dengan agak mudah; jika anda mahu belajar lebih lanjut +tentang menggunakan JavaScript didalam laman web, mulakan dengan mempelajari +tentang [Document Object Model][3]. + +[Learn Javascript by Example and with Challenges][4] adalah variasi panduan ini +dengan cabaran yang tersedia pakai. + +[JavaScript Garden][5] pula adalah panduan yang lebih terperinci mengenai +semua bahagian bahasa aturcara ini yang bertentangan dengan naluri atau +kebiasaan. + +[JavaScript: The Definitive Guide][6] adalah panduan klasik dan buku rujukan. + +Selain daripada penyumbang terus kepada artikel ini, sebahagian kandungannya +adalah adaptasi daripada tutorial Python Louie Dinh di dalam laman web ini, +dan [JS Tutorial][7] di Mozilla Developer Network. + + +[1]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript +[2]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript +[3]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Using_the_W3C_DOM_Level_1_Core +[4]: http://www.learneroo.com/modules/64/nodes/350 +[5]: http://bonsaiden.github.io/JavaScript-Garden/ +[6]: http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596805527/ +[7]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript diff --git a/ms-my/json-my.html.markdown b/ms-my/json-my.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..2d2da519 --- /dev/null +++ b/ms-my/json-my.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,102 @@ +--- +language: json +filename: learnjson-ms.json +contributors: + - ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"] + - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] + - ["himanshu", "https://github.com/himanshu81494"] + - ["Michael Neth", "https://github.com/infernocloud"] +translators: + - ["abdalim", "https://github.com/abdalim"] +lang: ms-my +--- + +Disebabkan JSON adalah format pertukaran-data yang sangat ringkas, panduan ini +kemungkinan besar adalah Learn X in Y Minutes yang paling mudah. + +JSON dalam bentuk paling aslinya sebenarnya tidak mempunyai sebarang komentar, +tetapi kebanyakan pembaca menerima komen dalam bentuk C (`\\`,`/* */`). Beberapa +pembaca juga bertoleransi terhadap koma terakhir (iaitu koma selepas elemen +terakhir di dalam array atau selepas ciri terakhir sesuatu objek), tetapi semua +ini harus dielakkan dan dijauhkan untuk keserasian yang lebih baik. + +Untuk tujuan ini bagaimanapun, semua di dalam panduan ini adalah 100% JSON yang +sah. Luckily, it kind of speaks for itself. + +Sebuah nilai JSON harus terdiri dari salah satu, iaitu, nombor, string, array, +objek atau salah satu dari nama literal berikut: true, false, null. + +Pelayar web yang menyokong adalah: Firefox 3.5+, Internet Explorer 8.0+, Chrome +1.0+, Opera 10.0+, dan Safari 4.0+. + +Sambungan fail untuk fail - fail JSON adalah ".json" dan jenis MIME untuk teks +JSON adalah "application/json". + +Banyak bahasa aturcara mempunyai fungsi untuk menyirikan (mengekod) dan +menyah-sirikan (men-dekod) data JSON kepada struktur data asal. Javascript +mempunyai sokongon tersirat untuk memanipulasi teks JSON sebagai data. + +Maklumat lebih lanjut boleh dijumpai di http://www.json.org/ + +JSON dibina pada dua struktur: +* Sebuah koleksi pasangan nama/nilai. Di dalam pelbagai bahasa aturcara, ini +direalisasikan sebagai objek, rekod, "struct", "dictionary", "hash table", +senarai berkunci, atau "associative array". +* Sebuah senarai nilai yang tersusun. Dalam kebanyakan bahasa aturcara, ini +direalisasikan sebagai array, vektor, senarai atau urutan. + +Sebuah objek dengan pelbagai pasangan nama/nilai. + +```json +{ + "kunci": "nilai", + + "kekunci": "harus sentiasa dibalut dengan 'double quotes'", + "nombor": 0, + "strings": "Hellø, wørld. Semua unicode dibenarkan, bersama \"escaping\".", + "ada bools?": true, + "tiada apa - apa": null, + + "nombor besar": 1.2e+100, + + "objek": { + "komen": "Sebahagian besar struktur akan terdiri daripada objek.", + + "array": [0, 1, 2, 3, "Array boleh mempunyai sebarang jenis data di dalamnya.", 5], + + "objek lain": { + "komen": "Objek boleh dibina dengan pelbagai lapisan, sangat berguna." + } + }, + + "kebendulan": [ + { + "punca potassium": ["pisang"] + }, + [ + [1, 0, 0, 0], + [0, 1, 0, 0], + [0, 0, 1, "neo"], + [0, 0, 0, 1] + ] + ], + + "stail alternatif": { + "komen": "cuba lihat ini!" + , "posisi koma": "tidak mengapa - selagi ia adalah sebelum nama atau kunci seterusnya, maka ia sah" + , "komen lain": "sungguh bagus" + } +} +``` + +Sebuah array sahaja yang mengandungi nilai - nilai juga adalah JSON yang sah. + +```json +[1, 2, 3, "text", true] +``` + +Objek - objek boleh menjadi sebahagian dari array juga. + +```json +[{"nama": "Abe", "umur": 25}, {"nama": "Jemah", "umur": 29}, {"name": "Yob", "umur": 31}] +``` diff --git a/nim.html.markdown b/nim.html.markdown index 79271732..4901ebfe 100644 --- a/nim.html.markdown +++ b/nim.html.markdown @@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ that gives the programmer power without compromises on runtime efficiency. Nim is efficient, expressive, and elegant. -```nimrod +```javascript var # Declare (and assign) variables, letter: char = 'n' # with or without type annotations lang = "N" & "im" diff --git a/nl-nl/brainfuck-nl.html.markdown b/nl-nl/bf.html.markdown index 6062b24c..016e2ba2 100644 --- a/nl-nl/brainfuck-nl.html.markdown +++ b/nl-nl/bf.html.markdown @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ --- -language: brainfuck +language: bf contributors: - ["Prajit Ramachandran", "http://prajitr.github.io/"] - ["Mathias Bynens", "http://mathiasbynens.be/"] diff --git a/nl-nl/json.html.markdown b/nl-nl/json.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..bedfb70a --- /dev/null +++ b/nl-nl/json.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +language: json +filename: learnjson-nl.json +contributors: + - ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"] + - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] +translators: + - ["Mathieu De Coster", "https://github.com/m-decoster"] +lang: nl-nl +--- + +Aangezien JSON een extreem eenvoudig datauitwisselingsformaat is, zal dit waarschijnlijk +de meest eenvoudige Learn X in Y Minutes ooit zijn. + +Puur JSON heeft geen commentaar, maar de meeste parsers zullen commentaar in de stijl +van C (`//`, `/* */`) aanvaarden. In dit voorbeeld zal alles 100% correcte JSON zijn. +Gelukkig spreekt het meeste voor zichzelf. + +```json +{ + "key": "value", + + "keys": "moeten altijd tussen dubbele aanhalingstekens staan", + "getallen": 0, + "strings": "Hellø, world. Alle Unicode-karakters zijn toegelaten, zo ook \"escaping\".", + "heeft json booleans?": true, + "niets": null, + + "groot getal": 1.2e+100, + + "objecten": { + "commentaar": "De meeste structuur wordt gemaakt met objecten.", + + "array": [0, 1, 2, 3, "Arrays kunnen eender wat bevatten.", 5], + + "nog een object": { + "commentaar": "Hoe handig, we kunnen objecten nesten." + } + }, + + "dwaasheid": [ + { + "bronnen van kalium": ["bananen"] + }, + [ + [1, 0, 0, 0], + [0, 1, 0, 0], + [0, 0, 1, "neo"], + [0, 0, 0, 1] + ] + ], + + "alternatieve stijl": { + "commentaar": "kijk hier eens naar!" + , "komma locatie": "maakt niet uit - zo lang het voor de value komt, is alles in orde" + , "nog commentaar": "hoe leuk" + }, + + "dat was kort": "Je bent klaar. Je kent nu alles dat JSON kan aanbieden." +} +``` diff --git a/nl-nl/xml-nl.html.markdown b/nl-nl/xml-nl.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..930f7cf4 --- /dev/null +++ b/nl-nl/xml-nl.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,134 @@ +--- +language: xml +filename: learnxml-nl.xml +contributors: + - ["Joo Farias", "https://github.com/JoaoGFarias"] +translators: + - ["Frank van Gemeren", "https://github.com/frvge"] +lang: nl-nl +--- + +XML is een markuptaal die ontwikkeld is om data in te bewaren en data mee te +verzenden. + +Anders dan HTML specificeert XML niet hoe data getoond of geformatteerd moet worden. +Het bevat de data slechts. + +* XML Syntax + +```xml +<!-- Dit is commentaar in XML --> + +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> +<boekenwinkel> + <boek categorie="KOKEN"> + <title taal="nl">Alledaags Italiaans</titel> + <auteur>Giada De Laurentiis</auteur> + <jaar>2005</jaar> + <prijs>30.00</prijs> + </boek> + <boek categorie="KINDEREN"> + <titel taal="nl">Harry Potter</titel> + <auteur>J K. Rowling</auteur> + <jaar>2005</jaar> + <prijs>29.99</prijs> + </boek> + <boek categorie="WEB"> + <titel taal="en">Learning XML</titel> + <auteur>Erik T. Ray</auteur> + <jaar>2003</jaar> + <prijs>39.95</prijs> + </boek> +</boekenwinkel> + +<!-- Hierboven staat een standaard XML bestand. + Het begint met een declaratie die optionele metadata bevat. + + XML werkt met een boomstructuur. De stamknoop hierboven is 'boekenwinkel'. + Deze heeft drie kinderen die allemaal 'boek' zijn. Deze knopen hebben op + hun beurt weer kinderen, enzovoort... + + Knopen hebben open- en sluittags. Kinderen zijn knopen die zich tussen de + open- en sluittags van hun ouders bevinden. --> + +<!-- XML bevat two soorten data: + 1 - Attributen -> Dit is metadata van een knoop. + Deze informatie wordt meestal door de XML parser gebruikt om de data op + de juiste manier op te slaan. Je herkent het door de syntax in de vorm + van naam="waarde" in de open tag. + 2 - Elementen -> Dit is de pure data + Deze gegevens worden door de parser uit het XML bestand gehaald. + Elementen staan tussen de open- en sluittags. --> + + +<!-- Hieronder staat een element met twee attributen --> +<bestand type="gif" id="4293">computer.gif</bestand> + + +``` + +* Grammaticaal correcte documenten x Validatie + +Een XML document is "grammaticaal correct" of "well-formatted" als de +syntax correct is. Het is ook mogelijk om meer structuur in het document +aan te brengen met document definities zoals DTD en XML Schema. + +Een XML document dat aan een document definitie voldoet wordt "valide" volgens +die document definitie genoemd. + +Met deze gereedschappen kan je de XML data buiten je applicatie logica +controleren. + +```xml + +<!-- Hieronder staat een versimpelde versie voor een boekenwinkel document, + met een toevoeging van een DTD definitie. --> + +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> +<!DOCTYPE note SYSTEM "boekenwinkel.dtd"> +<boekenwinkel> + <boek categorie="KOKEN"> + <titel>Alledaags Italiaans</titel> + <prijs>30.00</prijs> + </boek> +</boekenwinkel> + +<!-- De DTD kan er als volgt uitzien:--> + +<!DOCTYPE note +[ +<!ELEMENT boekenwinkel (boek+)> +<!ELEMENT boek (titel,prijs)> +<!ATTLIST boek categorie CDATA "Literatuur"> +<!ELEMENT titel (#PCDATA)> +<!ELEMENT prijs (#PCDATA)> +]> + + +<!-- De DTD begint met een declaratie. + Hierna volgt de declaratie van de stamknoop, die 1 of meer 'boek' kinderen + moet bevatten. + Elk 'boek' moet precies 1 'titel' en 'prijs' element bevatten en een attribuut + 'categorie' hebben waarvan 'Literatuur' de standaard waarde is. + De 'titel' en 'prijs' knopen bevatten parsed character data.--> + +<!-- De DTD kan ook in het XML bestand zelf gedeclareerd worden.--> + +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE note +[ +<!ELEMENT boekenwinkel (boek+)> +<!ELEMENT boek (titel,prijs)> +<!ATTLIST boek categorie CDATA "Literatuur"> +<!ELEMENT titel (#PCDATA)> +<!ELEMENT prijs (#PCDATA)> +]> + +<boekenwinkel> + <boek categorie="KOKEN"> + <titel>Alledaags Italiaans</titel> + <prijs>30.00</prijs> + </boek> +</boekenwinkel> +```
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/objective-c.html.markdown b/objective-c.html.markdown index f130ea0c..097cb846 100644 --- a/objective-c.html.markdown +++ b/objective-c.html.markdown @@ -1,13 +1,12 @@ --- - language: Objective-C contributors: - ["Eugene Yagrushkin", "www.about.me/yagrushkin"] - ["Yannick Loriot", "https://github.com/YannickL"] - ["Levi Bostian", "https://github.com/levibostian"] - ["Clayton Walker", "https://github.com/cwalk"] + - ["Fernando Valverde", "http://visualcosita.xyz"] filename: LearnObjectiveC.m - --- Objective-C is the main programming language used by Apple for the OS X and iOS operating systems and their respective frameworks, Cocoa and Cocoa Touch. @@ -20,6 +19,10 @@ It is a general-purpose, object-oriented programming language that adds Smalltal Multi-line comments look like this */ +// XCode supports pragma mark directive that improve jump bar readability +#pragma mark Navigation Functions // New tag on jump bar named 'Navigation Functions' +#pragma mark - Navigation Functions // Same tag, now with a separator + // Imports the Foundation headers with #import // Use <> to import global files (in general frameworks) // Use "" to import local files (from project) @@ -148,13 +151,13 @@ int main (int argc, const char * argv[]) [mutableDictionary setObject:@"value1" forKey:@"key1"]; [mutableDictionary setObject:@"value2" forKey:@"key2"]; [mutableDictionary removeObjectForKey:@"key1"]; - + // Change types from Mutable To Immutable //In general [object mutableCopy] will make the object mutable whereas [object copy] will make the object immutable NSMutableDictionary *aMutableDictionary = [aDictionary mutableCopy]; NSDictionary *mutableDictionaryChanged = [mutableDictionary copy]; - - + + // Set object NSSet *set = [NSSet setWithObjects:@"Hello", @"Hello", @"World", nil]; NSLog(@"%@", set); // prints => {(Hello, World)} (may be in different order) @@ -599,6 +602,52 @@ int main (int argc, const char * argv[]) { @end +// Starting in Xcode 7.0, you can create Generic classes, +// allowing you to provide greater type safety and clarity +// without writing excessive boilerplate. +@interface Result<__covariant A> : NSObject + +- (void)handleSuccess:(void(^)(A))success + failure:(void(^)(NSError *))failure; + +@property (nonatomic) A object; + +@end + +// we can now declare instances of this class like +Result<NSNumber *> *result; +Result<NSArray *> *result; + +// Each of these cases would be equivalent to rewriting Result's interface +// and substituting the appropriate type for A +@interface Result : NSObject +- (void)handleSuccess:(void(^)(NSArray *))success + failure:(void(^)(NSError *))failure; +@property (nonatomic) NSArray * object; +@end + +@interface Result : NSObject +- (void)handleSuccess:(void(^)(NSNumber *))success + failure:(void(^)(NSError *))failure; +@property (nonatomic) NSNumber * object; +@end + +// It should be obvious, however, that writing one +// Class to solve a problem is always preferable to writing two + +// Note that Clang will not accept generic types in @implementations, +// so your @implemnation of Result would have to look like this: + +@implementation Result + +- (void)handleSuccess:(void (^)(id))success + failure:(void (^)(NSError *))failure { + // Do something +} + +@end + + /////////////////////////////////////// // Protocols /////////////////////////////////////// diff --git a/ocaml.html.markdown b/ocaml.html.markdown index 8faab297..a346550c 100644 --- a/ocaml.html.markdown +++ b/ocaml.html.markdown @@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ let fact_4 = factorial (5-1) ;; let sqr2 = sqr (-2) ;; (* Every function must have at least one argument. - Since some funcions naturally don't take any arguments, there's + Since some functions naturally don't take any arguments, there's "unit" type for it that has the only one value written as "()" *) let print_hello () = print_endline "hello world" ;; diff --git a/perl.html.markdown b/perl.html.markdown index 1b86f410..61e8cd0e 100644 --- a/perl.html.markdown +++ b/perl.html.markdown @@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ language: perl filename: learnperl.pl contributors: - ["Korjavin Ivan", "http://github.com/korjavin"] + - ["Dan Book", "http://github.com/Grinnz"] --- Perl 5 is a highly capable, feature-rich programming language with over 25 years of development. @@ -14,6 +15,15 @@ Perl 5 runs on over 100 platforms from portables to mainframes and is suitable f ```perl # Single line comments start with a number sign. +#### Strict and warnings + +use strict; +use warnings; + +# All perl scripts and modules should include these lines. Strict causes +# compilation to fail in cases like misspelled variable names, and warnings +# will print warning messages in case of common pitfalls like concatenating +# to an undefined value. #### Perl variable types @@ -37,7 +47,9 @@ my @animals = ("camel", "llama", "owl"); my @numbers = (23, 42, 69); my @mixed = ("camel", 42, 1.23); - +# Array elements are accessed using square brackets, with a $ to indicate +# one value will be returned. +my $second = $animals[1]; ## Hashes # A hash represents a set of key/value pairs: @@ -50,11 +62,39 @@ my %fruit_color = ( apple => "red", banana => "yellow", ); + +# Hash elements are accessed using curly braces, again with the $ sigil. +my $color = $fruit_color{apple}; + # Scalars, arrays and hashes are documented more fully in perldata. # (perldoc perldata). -# More complex data types can be constructed using references, which allow you -# to build lists and hashes within lists and hashes. +#### References + +# More complex data types can be constructed using references, which allow +# you to build arrays and hashes within arrays and hashes. + +my $array_ref = \@array; +my $hash_ref = \%hash; +my @array_of_arrays = (\@array1, \@array2, \@array3); + +# You can also create anonymous arrays or hashes, returning a reference: + +my $fruits = ["apple", "banana"]; +my $colors = {apple => "red", banana => "yellow"}; + +# References can be dereferenced by prefixing the appropriate sigil. + +my @fruits_array = @$fruits; +my %colors_hash = %$colors; + +# As a shortcut, the arrow operator can be used to dereference and access a +# single value. + +my $first = $array_ref->[0]; +my $value = $hash_ref->{banana}; + +# See perlreftut and perlref for more in-depth documentation on references. #### Conditional and looping constructs @@ -105,6 +145,9 @@ for (@elements) { # the Perlish post-condition way again print for @elements; +# iterating through the keys and values of a referenced hash +print $hash_ref->{$_} for keys %$hash_ref; + #### Regular expressions # Perl's regular expression support is both broad and deep, and is the subject @@ -151,11 +194,101 @@ sub logger { # Now we can use the subroutine just as any other built-in function: logger("We have a logger subroutine!"); -``` -#### Using Perl modules +#### Modules + +# A module is a set of Perl code, usually subroutines, which can be used in +# other Perl code. It is usually stored in a file with the extension .pm so +# that Perl can find it. + +package MyModule; +use strict; +use warnings; + +sub trim { + my $string = shift; + $string =~ s/^\s+//; + $string =~ s/\s+$//; + return $string; +} + +1; + +# From elsewhere: + +use MyModule; +MyModule::trim($string); + +# The Exporter module can help with making subroutines exportable, so they +# can be used like this: + +use MyModule 'trim'; +trim($string); + +# Many Perl modules can be downloaded from CPAN (http://www.cpan.org/) and +# provide a range of features to help you avoid reinventing the wheel. A +# number of popular modules like Exporter are included with the Perl +# distribution itself. See perlmod for more details on modules in Perl. + +#### Objects + +# Objects in Perl are just references that know which class (package) they +# belong to, so that methods (subroutines) called on it can be found there. +# The bless function is used in constructors (usually new) to set this up. +# However, you never need to call it yourself if you use a module like Moose +# or Moo (see below). + +package MyCounter; +use strict; +use warnings; + +sub new { + my $class = shift; + my $self = {count => 0}; + return bless $self, $class; +} + +sub count { + my $self = shift; + return $self->{count}; +} + +sub increment { + my $self = shift; + $self->{count}++; +} + +1; + +# Methods can be called on a class or object instance with the arrow operator. + +use MyCounter; +my $counter = MyCounter->new; +print $counter->count, "\n"; # 0 +$counter->increment; +print $counter->count, "\n"; # 1 + +# The modules Moose and Moo from CPAN can help you set up your object classes. +# They provide a constructor and simple syntax for declaring attributes. This +# class can be used equivalently to the one above. + +package MyCounter; +use Moo; # imports strict and warnings + +has 'count' => (is => 'rwp', default => 0, init_arg => undef); + +sub increment { + my $self = shift; + $self->_set_count($self->count + 1); +} + +1; + +# Object-oriented programming is covered more thoroughly in perlootut, and its +# low-level implementation in Perl is covered in perlobj. +``` -Perl modules provide a range of features to help you avoid reinventing the wheel, and can be downloaded from CPAN (http://www.cpan.org/). A number of popular modules are included with the Perl distribution itself. +#### FAQ perlfaq contains questions and answers related to many common tasks, and often provides suggestions for good CPAN modules to use. diff --git a/perl6.html.markdown b/perl6.html.markdown index 45b15f05..5082a433 100644 --- a/perl6.html.markdown +++ b/perl6.html.markdown @@ -1,10 +1,9 @@ --- -name: perl6 category: language language: perl6 filename: learnperl6.pl contributors: - - ["Nami-Doc", "http://github.com/Nami-Doc"] + - ["vendethiel", "http://github.com/vendethiel"] --- Perl 6 is a highly capable, feature-rich programming language made for at @@ -104,7 +103,7 @@ sub say-hello-to(Str $name) { # You can provide the type of an argument ## It can also have optional arguments: sub with-optional($arg?) { # the "?" marks the argument optional - say "I might return `(Any)` (Perl's "null"-like value) if I don't have + say "I might return `(Any)` (Perl's 'null'-like value) if I don't have an argument passed, or I'll return my argument"; $arg; } @@ -374,6 +373,8 @@ say @array[^10]; # you can pass arrays as subscripts and it'll return say join(' ', @array[15..*]); #=> 15 16 17 18 19 # which is equivalent to: say join(' ', @array[-> $n { 15..$n }]); +# Note: if you try to do either of those with an infinite array, +# you'll trigger an infinite loop (your program won't finish) # You can use that in most places you'd expect, even assigning to an array my @numbers = ^20; @@ -735,7 +736,7 @@ try { # You can throw an exception using `die`: die X::AdHoc.new(payload => 'Error !'); -# You can access the last exception with `$!` (usually used in a `CATCH` block) +# You can access the last exception with `$!` (use `$_` in a `CATCH` block) # There are also some subtelties to exceptions. Some Perl 6 subs return a `Failure`, # which is a kind of "unthrown exception". They're not thrown until you tried to look @@ -763,8 +764,9 @@ try { # and `enum`) are actually packages. (Packages are the lowest common denominator) # Packages are important - especially as Perl is well-known for CPAN, # the Comprehensive Perl Archive Network. -# You usually don't use packages directly: you use `class Package::Name::Here;`, -# or if you only want to export variables/subs, you can use `module`: +# You're not supposed to use the package keyword, usually: +# you use `class Package::Name::Here;` to declare a class, +# or if you only want to export variables/subs, you can use `module`: module Hello::World { # Bracketed form # If `Hello` doesn't exist yet, it'll just be a "stub", # that can be redeclared as something else later. @@ -774,11 +776,6 @@ unit module Parse::Text; # file-scoped form grammar Parse::Text::Grammar { # A grammar is a package, which you could `use` } -# NOTE for Perl 5 users: even though the `package` keyword exists, -# the braceless form is invalid (to catch a "perl5ism"). This will error out: -# package Foo; # because Perl 6 will think the entire file is Perl 5 -# Just use `module` or the brace version of `package`. - # You can use a module (bring its declarations into scope) with `use` use JSON::Tiny; # if you installed Rakudo* or Panda, you'll have this module say from-json('[1]').perl; #=> [1] @@ -806,9 +803,8 @@ module Foo::Bar { my sub unavailable { # `my sub` is the default say "Can't access me from outside, I'm my !"; } + say ++$n; # increment the package variable and output its value } - - say ++$n; # lexically-scoped variables are still available } say $Foo::Bar::n; #=> 1 Foo::Bar::inc; #=> 2 @@ -870,8 +866,16 @@ LEAVE { say "Runs everytime you leave a block, even when an exception PRE { say "Asserts a precondition at every block entry, before ENTER (especially useful for loops)" } +# exemple: +for 0..2 { + PRE { $_ > 1 } # This is going to blow up with "Precondition failed" +} + POST { say "Asserts a postcondition at every block exit, after LEAVE (especially useful for loops)" } +for 0..2 { + POST { $_ < 2 } # This is going to blow up with "Postcondition failed" +} ## * Block/exceptions phasers sub { @@ -1239,14 +1243,14 @@ so 'foo!' ~~ / <-[ a..z ] + [ f o ]> + /; # True (the + doesn't replace the left # Group: you can group parts of your regexp with `[]`. # These groups are *not* captured (like PCRE's `(?:)`). so 'abc' ~~ / a [ b ] c /; # `True`. The grouping does pretty much nothing -so 'fooABCABCbar' ~~ / foo [ A B C ] + bar /; +so 'foo012012bar' ~~ / foo [ '01' <[0..9]> ] + bar /; # The previous line returns `True`. -# We match the "ABC" 1 or more time (the `+` was applied to the group). +# We match the "012" 1 or more time (the `+` was applied to the group). # But this does not go far enough, because we can't actually get back what # we matched. # Capture: We can actually *capture* the results of the regexp, using parentheses. -so 'fooABCABCbar' ~~ / foo ( A B C ) + bar /; # `True`. (using `so` here, `$/` below) +so 'fooABCABCbar' ~~ / foo ( 'A' <[A..Z]> 'C' ) + bar /; # `True`. (using `so` here, `$/` below) # So, starting with the grouping explanations. # As we said before, our `Match` object is available as `$/`: @@ -1325,7 +1329,7 @@ so 'ayc' ~~ / a [ b | y ] c /; # `True`. Obviously enough ... -### Extra: the MAIN subroutime +### Extra: the MAIN subroutine # The `MAIN` subroutine is called when you run a Perl 6 file directly. # It's very powerful, because Perl 6 actually parses the arguments # and pass them as such to the sub. It also handles named argument (`--foo`) diff --git a/php.html.markdown b/php.html.markdown index 5bc2ddce..6c2b38c8 100644 --- a/php.html.markdown +++ b/php.html.markdown @@ -53,6 +53,8 @@ $int1 = 12; // => 12 $int2 = -12; // => -12 $int3 = 012; // => 10 (a leading 0 denotes an octal number) $int4 = 0x0F; // => 15 (a leading 0x denotes a hex literal) +// Binary integer literals are available since PHP 5.4.0. +$int5 = 0b11111111; // 255 (a leading 0b denotes a binary number) // Floats (aka doubles) $float = 1.234; @@ -104,7 +106,8 @@ END; echo 'This string ' . 'is concatenated'; // Strings can be passed in as parameters to echo -echo 'Multiple', 'Parameters', 'Valid'; +echo 'Multiple', 'Parameters', 'Valid'; // Returns 'MultipleParametersValid' + /******************************** * Constants @@ -115,10 +118,12 @@ echo 'Multiple', 'Parameters', 'Valid'; // a valid constant name starts with a letter or underscore, // followed by any number of letters, numbers, or underscores. -define("FOO", "something"); +define("FOO", "something"); + +// access to a constant is possible by calling the choosen name without a $ +echo FOO; // Returns 'something' +echo 'This outputs ' . FOO; // Returns 'This ouputs something' -// access to a constant is possible by direct using the choosen name -echo 'This outputs '.FOO; /******************************** @@ -137,6 +142,9 @@ $associative = ['One' => 1, 'Two' => 2, 'Three' => 3]; echo $associative['One']; // prints 1 +// Add an element to an associative array +$associative['Four'] = 4; + // List literals implicitly assign integer keys $array = ['One', 'Two', 'Three']; echo $array[0]; // => "One" @@ -159,9 +167,9 @@ echo('Hello World!'); print('Hello World!'); // The same as echo -// echo is actually a language construct, so you can drop the parentheses. +// echo and print are language constructs too, so you can drop the parentheses echo 'Hello World!'; -print 'Hello World!'; // So is print +print 'Hello World!'; $paragraph = 'paragraph'; @@ -219,7 +227,11 @@ assert($a !== $d); assert(1 === '1'); assert(1 !== '1'); -// spaceship operator since PHP 7 +// 'Spaceship' operator (since PHP 7) +// Returns 0 if values on either side are equal +// Returns 1 if value on the left is greater +// Returns -1 if the value on the right is greater + $a = 100; $b = 1000; @@ -445,6 +457,16 @@ function parameters() { parameters('Hello', 'World'); // Hello | 0 - Hello | 1 - World | +// Since PHP 5.6 you can get a variable number of arguments +function variable($word, ...$list) { + echo $word . " || "; + foreach ($list as $item) { + echo $item . ' | '; + } +} + +variable("Separate", "Hello", "World") // Separate || Hello | World | + /******************************** * Includes */ @@ -517,10 +539,23 @@ class MyClass print 'MyClass'; } - //final keyword would make a function unoverridable + // final keyword would make a function unoverridable final function youCannotOverrideMe() { } + + // Magic Methods + + // what to do if Object is treated as a String + public function __toString() { + return $property; + } + + // opposite to __construct() + // called when object is no longer referenced + public function __destruct() { + print "Destroying"; + } /* * Declaring class properties or methods as static makes them accessible without @@ -716,7 +751,7 @@ $cls = new SomeOtherNamespace\MyClass(); /********************** * Late Static Binding * -* / +*/ class ParentClass { public static function who() { @@ -748,6 +783,37 @@ I'm a ParentClass But I'm ChildClass */ +/********************** +* Magic constants +* +*/ + +// Get current class name. Must be used inside a class declaration. +echo "Current class name is " . __CLASS__; + +// Get full path directory of a file +echo "Current directory is " . __DIR__; + + // Typical usage + require __DIR__ . '/vendor/autoload.php'; + +// Get full path of a file +echo "Current file path is " . __FILE__; + +// Get current function name +echo "Current function name is " . __FUNCTION__; + +// Get current line number +echo "Current line number is " . __LINE__; + +// Get the name of the current method. Only returns a value when used inside a trait or object declaration. +echo "Current method is " . __METHOD__; + +// Get the name of the current namespace +echo "Current namespace is " . __NAMESPACE__; + +// Get the name of the current trait. Only returns a value when used inside a trait or object declaration. +echo "Current namespace is " . __TRAIT__; /********************** * Error Handling diff --git a/pl-pl/brainfuck-pl.html.markdown b/pl-pl/bf-pl.html.markdown index 69d814c4..801f1a9a 100644 --- a/pl-pl/brainfuck-pl.html.markdown +++ b/pl-pl/bf-pl.html.markdown @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ --- -language: brainfuck +language: bf contributors: - ["Prajit Ramachandran", "http://prajitr.github.io/"] - ["Mathias Bynens", "http://mathiasbynens.be/"] diff --git a/pl-pl/perl-pl.html.markdown b/pl-pl/perl-pl.html.markdown index 9e8ade5b..029ca006 100644 --- a/pl-pl/perl-pl.html.markdown +++ b/pl-pl/perl-pl.html.markdown @@ -163,7 +163,7 @@ z repozytorium CPAN do zrealizowania konkretnego zadania. #### Do doczytania - - [perl-tutorial](http://perl-tutorial.org/) - - [Naucz się Perla na www.perl.com](http://www.perl.org/learn.html) - - [perldoc](http://perldoc.perl.org/) - - wbudowane w Perla: `perldoc perlintro`
\ No newline at end of file + - [perl-tutorial](http://perl-tutorial.org/) + - [Naucz się Perla na www.perl.com](http://www.perl.org/learn.html) + - [perldoc](http://perldoc.perl.org/) + - wbudowane w Perla: `perldoc perlintro` diff --git a/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown b/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown index ade1d7ca..023c3e6b 100644 --- a/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown +++ b/pl-pl/python-pl.html.markdown @@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ działać w wersjach 2.x. Dla wersji 3.x znajdziesz odpowiedni artykuł na stron # Pojedyncze komentarze oznaczamy takim symbolem. """ Wielolinijkowe napisy zapisywane są przy użyciu - trzech znaków cudzysłowiu i często + potrójnych cudzysłowów i często wykorzystywane są jako komentarze. """ @@ -47,11 +47,11 @@ działać w wersjach 2.x. Dla wersji 3.x znajdziesz odpowiedni artykuł na stron 10 * 2 # => 20 35 / 5 # => 7 -# Dzielenie może być kłopotliwe. Poniższe to dzielenie +# Dzielenie może być kłopotliwe. Poniższe działanie to dzielenie # całkowitoliczbowe(int) i wynik jest automatycznie zaokrąglany. 5 / 2 # => 2 -# Aby to naprawić musimy powiedzieć nieco o liczbach zmiennoprzecinkowych. +# Aby to naprawić, musimy powiedzieć nieco o liczbach zmiennoprzecinkowych. 2.0 # To liczba zmiennoprzecinkowa, tzw. float 11.0 / 4.0 # => 2.75 ahhh...znacznie lepiej @@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ działać w wersjach 2.x. Dla wersji 3.x znajdziesz odpowiedni artykuł na stron # Operator modulo - wyznaczanie reszty z dzielenia 7 % 3 # => 1 -# Potęgowanie (x do potęgi ytej) +# Potęgowanie (x do potęgi y-tej) 2**4 # => 16 # Wymuszanie pierwszeństwa w nawiasach @@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ False or True #=> True # Prawda 2 == True #=> False k1 == True #=> True -# aby zanegować użyj "not" +# aby zanegować, użyj "not" not True # => False not False # => True @@ -112,7 +112,7 @@ not False # => True # Napisy można dodawać! "Witaj " + "świecie!" # => "Witaj świecie!" -# ... a nawet mnożone +# ... a nawet mnożyć "Hej" * 3 # => "HejHejHej" # Napis może być traktowany jako lista znaków @@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ not False # => True # Jednak nowszym sposobem formatowania jest metoda "format". # Ta metoda jest obecnie polecana: "{0} są {1}".format("napisy", "fajne") -# Jeśli nie chce ci się liczyć użyj słów kluczowych. +# Jeśli nie chce ci się liczyć, użyj słów kluczowych. "{imie} chce zjeść {jadlo}".format(imie="Bob", jadlo="makaron") # None jest obiektem @@ -135,12 +135,12 @@ None # => None "etc" is None # => False None is None # => True -# Operator 'is' testuje identyczność obiektów. To nie jest zbyt +# Operator 'is' testuje identyczność obiektów. Nie jest to zbyt # pożyteczne, gdy działamy tylko na prostych wartościach, # ale przydaje się, gdy mamy do czynienia z obiektami. -# None, 0, i pusty napis "" są odpowiednikami logicznego False. -# Wszystkie inne wartości są True +# None, 0 i pusty napis "" są odpowiednikami logicznego False. +# Wszystkie inne wartości są uznawane za prawdę (True) bool(0) # => False bool("") # => False @@ -149,20 +149,20 @@ bool("") # => False ## 2. Zmienne i zbiory danych #################################################### -# Python ma wyrażenie wypisujące "print" we wszystkich wersjach 2.x, ale -# zostało usunięte z wersji 3. -print "Jestem Python. Miło poznać!" -# Python ma też funkcję "print" dostępną w wersjach 2.7 and 3... +# Python ma instrukcję wypisującą "print" we wszystkich wersjach 2.x, ale +# została ona usunięta z wersji 3. +print "Jestem Python. Miło Cię poznać!" +# Python ma też funkcję "print" dostępną w wersjach 2.7 i 3... # ale w 2.7 musisz dodać import (odkomentuj): # from __future__ import print_function print("Ja też jestem Python! ") # Nie trzeba deklarować zmiennych przed przypisaniem. -jakas_zmienna = 5 # Konwencja mówi: używaj małych znaków i kładki _ +jakas_zmienna = 5 # Konwencja mówi: używaj małych liter i znaków podkreślenia _ jakas_zmienna # => 5 # Próba dostępu do niezadeklarowanej zmiennej da błąd. -# Przejdź do sekcji Obsługa wyjątków po więcej... +# Przejdź do sekcji Obsługa wyjątków, aby dowiedzieć się więcej... inna_zmienna # Wyrzuca nazwę błędu # "if" może być użyte jako wyrażenie @@ -173,7 +173,7 @@ li = [] # Możesz zacząć od wypełnionej listy inna_li = [4, 5, 6] -# Dodaj na koniec używając "append" +# Dodaj na koniec, używając "append" li.append(1) # li to teraz [1] li.append(2) # li to teraz [1, 2] li.append(4) # li to teraz [1, 2, 4] @@ -185,7 +185,7 @@ li.append(3) # li to znowu [1, 2, 4, 3]. # Dostęp do list jak do każdej tablicy li[0] # => 1 -# Użyj = aby nadpisać wcześniej wypełnione miejsca w liście +# Aby nadpisać wcześniej wypełnione miejsca w liście, użyj znaku = li[0] = 42 li[0] # => 42 li[0] = 1 # Uwaga: ustawiamy starą wartość @@ -195,7 +195,7 @@ li[-1] # => 3 # Jeżeli wyjdziesz poza zakres... li[4] # ... zobaczysz IndexError -# Możesz tworzyć wyniki. +# Możesz też tworzyć wycinki. li[1:3] # => [2, 4] # Bez początku li[2:] # => [4, 3] @@ -213,12 +213,12 @@ del li[2] # li to teraz [1, 2, 3] # Listy można dodawać li + inna_li # => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] -# Uwaga: wartości poszczególnych list się nie zmieniają. +# Uwaga: wartości oryginalnych list li i inna_li się nie zmieniają. # Do łączenia list użyj "extend()" li.extend(other_li) # li to teraz [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] -# Sprawdź czy jest w liście używając "in" +# Sprawdź, czy element jest w liście używając "in" 1 in li # => True # "len()" pokazuje długość listy @@ -238,7 +238,7 @@ tup[:2] # => (1, 2) # Można rozpakować krotki i listy do poszczególych zmiennych a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) # a to teraz 1, b jest 2, a c to 3 -# Jeżeli zapomnisz nawiasów automatycznie tworzone są krotki +# Jeżeli zapomnisz nawiasów, automatycznie tworzone są krotki d, e, f = 4, 5, 6 # Popatrz jak prosto zamienić wartości e, d = d, e # d to teraz 5 a e to 4 @@ -252,28 +252,28 @@ pelen_slownik = {"raz": 1, "dwa": 2, "trzy": 3} # Podglądany wartość pelen_slownik["one"] # => 1 -# Wypisz wszystkie klucze używając "keys()" +# Wypisz wszystkie klucze, używając "keys()" pelen_slownik.keys() # => ["trzy", "dwa", "raz"] -# Uwaga: słowniki nie gwarantują kolejności występowania kluczy. +# Uwaga: słowniki nie zapamiętują kolejności kluczy. # A teraz wszystkie wartości "values()" pelen_slownik.values() # => [3, 2, 1] # Uwaga: to samo dotyczy wartości. -# Sprawdzanie czy występuje to "in" +# Sprawdzanie czy klucz występuje w słowniku za pomocą "in" "raz" in pelen_slownik # => True 1 in pelen_slownik # => False # Próba dobrania się do nieistniejącego klucza da KeyError pelen_slownik["cztery"] # KeyError -# Użyj "get()" method aby uniknąć KeyError +# Użyj metody "get()", aby uniknąć błędu KeyError pelen_slownik.get("raz") # => 1 pelen_slownik.get("cztery") # => None # Metoda get zwraca domyślną wartość gdy brakuje klucza pelen_slownik.get("one", 4) # => 1 pelen_slownik.get("cztery", 4) # => 4 -# zauważ, że pelen_slownik.get("cztery") jest wciąż => None +# zauważ, że pelen_slownik.get("cztery") wciąż zwraca => None # (get nie ustawia wartości słownika) # przypisz wartość do klucza podobnie jak w listach @@ -284,12 +284,12 @@ pelen_slownik.setdefault("piec", 5) # pelen_slownik["piec"] daje 5 pelen_slownik.setdefault("piec", 6) # pelen_slownik["piec"] to wciąż 5 -# Teraz zbiory (set) ... cóż zbiory (to po prostu listy ale bez potórzeń) +# Teraz zbiory (set) - działają jak zwykłe listy, ale bez potórzeń pusty_zbior = set() # Inicjalizujemy "set()" pewnymi wartościami jakis_zbior = set([1, 2, 2, 3, 4]) # jakis_zbior to teraz set([1, 2, 3, 4]) -# kolejność nie jest gwarantowana, nawet gdy wydaje się posortowane +# kolejność nie jest zachowana, nawet gdy wydaje się posortowane inny_zbior = set([4, 3, 2, 2, 1]) # inny_zbior to set([1, 2, 3, 4]) # Od Pythona 2.7 nawiasy klamrowe {} mogą być użyte do deklarowania zbioru @@ -298,7 +298,7 @@ pelen_zbior = {1, 2, 2, 3, 4} # => {1, 2, 3, 4} # Dodaj więcej elementów przez "add()" pelen_zbior.add(5) # pelen_zbior is now {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} -# Znajdź przecięcie zbiorów używając & +# Znajdź przecięcie (część wspólną) zbiorów, używając & inny_zbior = {3, 4, 5, 6} pelen_zbior & other_set # => {3, 4, 5} @@ -317,32 +317,32 @@ pelen_zbior | other_set # => {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ## 3. Kontrola przepływu #################################################### -# Tworzymy zmienną some_var -some_var = 5 +# Tworzymy zmienną jakas_zm +jakas_zm = 5 -# Tutaj widzisz wyrażenie warunkowe "if". Wcięcia są ważne Pythonie! -# wypisze "some_var jest mniejsza niż 10" -if some_var > 10: - print("some_var jest wieksza niż 10") -elif some_var < 10: # This elif clause is optional. - print("some_var jest mniejsza niż 10") -else: # This is optional too. - print("some_var jest równa 10") +# Tutaj widzisz wyrażenie warunkowe "if". Wcięcia w Pythonie są ważne! +# Poniższy kod wypisze "jakas_zm jest mniejsza niż 10" +if jakas_zm > 10: + print("jakas_zm jest wieksza niż 10") +elif some_var < 10: # Opcjonalna klauzula elif + print("jakas_zm jest mniejsza niż 10") +else: # Również opcjonalna klauzula else + print("jakas_zm jest równa 10") """ -Pętla for iteruje po elementach listy wypisując: +Pętla for iteruje po elementach listy, wypisując: pies to ssak kot to ssak mysz to ssak """ for zwierze in ["pies", "kot", "mysz"]: - # Możesz użyć % aby stworzyć sformatowane napisy - print("%s to ssak" % zwierze) + # Użyj metody format, aby umieścić wartość zmiennej w ciągu + print("{0} to ssak".format(zwierze)) """ "range(liczba)" zwraca listę liczb -od zera do danej liczby: +z przedziału od zera do wskazanej liczby (bez niej): 0 1 2 @@ -352,7 +352,7 @@ for i in range(4): print(i) """ -While to pętla która jest wykonywana dopóki spełniony jest warunek: +While to pętla, która jest wykonywana, dopóki spełniony jest warunek: 0 1 2 @@ -363,46 +363,46 @@ while x < 4: print(x) x += 1 # Skrót od x = x + 1 -# Wyjątki wyłapujemy używając try, except +# Wyjątki wyłapujemy, używając try i except # Działa w Pythonie 2.6 i wyższych: try: - # Użyj "raise" aby wyrzucić wyjąte + # Użyj "raise" aby wyrzucić wyjątek raise IndexError("To błąd indeksu") except IndexError as e: - pass # Pass to brak reakcji na błąd. Zazwyczaj nanosisz tu poprawki. + pass # Pass to brak reakcji na błąd. Zwykle opisujesz tutaj, jak program ma się zachować w przypadku błędu. except (TypeError, NameError): - pass # kilka wyjątków może być przechwyce razem. + pass # kilka wyjątków można przechwycić jednocześnie. else: # Opcjonalna część bloku try/except. Musi wystąpić na końcu print "Wszystko ok!" # Zadziała tylko, gdy program nie napotka wyjatku. #################################################### -## 4. Funkcjie +## 4. Funkcje #################################################### -# Użyj "def" aby stworzyć nową funkcję +# Użyj "def", aby stworzyć nową funkcję def dodaj(x, y): - print("x to %s a y to %s" % (x, y)) - return x + y # słówko kluczowe return zwraca wynik działania + print("x to %s, a y to %s" % (x, y)) + return x + y # słowo kluczowe return zwraca wynik działania -# Tak wywołuje się funkcję z parametrami (args): -dodaj(5, 6) # => wypisze "x to 5 a y to 6" i zwróci 11 +# Tak wywołuje się funkcję z parametrami: +dodaj(5, 6) # => wypisze "x to 5, a y to 6" i zwróci 11 # Innym sposobem jest wywołanie z parametrami nazwanymi. dodaj(y=6, x=5) # tutaj kolejność podania nie ma znaczenia. -# Można też stworzyć funkcję, które przyjmują różną ilość parametrów -# nienazwanych args, co będzie interpretowane jako krotka jeśli nie użyjesz * +# Można też stworzyć funkcję, które przyjmują zmienną liczbę parametrów pozycyjnych, +# które zostaną przekazana jako krotka, pisząc w definicji funkcji "*args" def varargs(*args): return args varargs(1, 2, 3) # => (1, 2, 3) -# Można też stworzyć funkcję, które przyjmują różną ilość parametrów -# nazwanych kwargs, które będa interpretowane jako słownik jeśli nie dasz ** +# Można też stworzyć funkcję, które przyjmują zmienną liczbę parametrów +# nazwanych kwargs, które zostaną przekazane jako słownik, pisząc w definicji funkcji "**kwargs" def keyword_args(**kwargs): return kwargs @@ -410,12 +410,12 @@ def keyword_args(**kwargs): keyword_args(wielka="stopa", loch="ness") # => {"wielka": "stopa", "loch": "ness"} -# Możesz też to pomieszać +# Możesz też przyjmować jednocześnie zmienną liczbę parametrów pozycyjnych i nazwanych def all_the_args(*args, **kwargs): print(args) print(kwargs) """ -all_the_args(1, 2, a=3, b=4) wyrzuci: +all_the_args(1, 2, a=3, b=4) wypisze: (1, 2) {"a": 3, "b": 4} """ @@ -435,7 +435,7 @@ def pass_all_the_args(*args, **kwargs): print varargs(*args) print keyword_args(**kwargs) -# Zakres widoczności +# Zasięg zmiennych x = 5 def setX(num): @@ -461,14 +461,14 @@ def rob_dodawacz(x): dodaj_10 = rob_dodawacz(10) dodaj_10(3) # => 13 -# Są również funkcje nienazwane "lambda" +# Są również funkcje anonimowe "lambda" (lambda x: x > 2)(3) # => True -# Są także wbudowane funkcje wysokiego poziomu +# Python ma też wbudowane funkcje wyższego rzędu (przyjmujące inną funkcje jako parametr) map(add_10, [1, 2, 3]) # => [11, 12, 13] filter(lambda x: x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) # => [6, 7] -# Można używać wyrażeń listowych do mapowania (map) i filtrowania (filter) +# Można używać wyrażeń listowych (list comprehensions) do mapowania i filtrowania [add_10(i) for i in [1, 2, 3]] # => [11, 12, 13] [x for x in [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] if x > 5] # => [6, 7] @@ -485,18 +485,18 @@ class Czlowiek(object): # Podstawowa inicjalizacja - wywoływana podczas tworzenia instacji. # Zauważ, że podwójne podkreślenia przed i za nazwą oznaczają - # obietky lub atrybuty, który żyją tylko w kontrolowanej przez - # użytkownika przestrzeni nazw. Nie używaj ich we własnych metodach. + # specjalne obiekty lub atrybuty wykorzystywane wewnętrznie przez Pythona. + # Nie używaj ich we własnych metodach. def __init__(self, nazwa): # przypisz parametr "nazwa" do atrybutu instancji self.nazwa = nazwa - # Metoda instancji. Wszystkie metody biorą "self" jako pierwszy argument + # Metoda instancji. Wszystkie metody przyjmują "self" jako pierwszy argument def mow(self, wiadomosc): return "%s: %s" % (self.nazwa, wiadomosc) # Metoda klasowa współdzielona przez instancje. - # Ma wywołującą klasę jako pierwszy argument. + # Przyjmuje wywołującą klasę jako pierwszy argument. @classmethod def daj_gatunek(cls): return cls.gatunek @@ -540,7 +540,8 @@ print(ceil(3.7)) # => 4.0 print(floor(3.7)) # => 3.0 # Można zaimportować wszystkie funkcje z danego modułu. -# Ostrzeżenie: nie jest to polecane. +# Uwaga: nie jest to polecane, bo później w kodzie trudno połapać się, +# która funkcja pochodzi z którego modułu. from math import * # Można skracać nazwy modułów. @@ -550,7 +551,7 @@ math.sqrt(16) == m.sqrt(16) # => True from math import sqrt math.sqrt == m.sqrt == sqrt # => True -# Moduły pythona to zwykłe skrypty napisane w tym języku. Możesz +# Moduły Pythona to zwykłe skrypty napisane w tym języku. Możesz # pisać własne i importować je. Nazwa modułu to nazwa pliku. # W ten sposób sprawdzisz jakie funkcje wchodzą w skład modułu. @@ -568,14 +569,16 @@ def podwojne_liczby(iterowalne): yield i + i # Generatory tworzą wartości w locie. -# W przeciwienstwie do wygenerowania wartości raz i ich zachowania, -# powstają one na bieżąco, w wyniku iteracji. To oznacza, że wartości -# większe niż 15 nie będą przetworzone w funkcji "podwojne_liczby". +# Zamiast generować wartości raz i zapisywać je (np. w liście), +# generator tworzy je na bieżąco, w wyniku iteracji. To oznacza, +# że w poniższym przykładzie wartości większe niż 15 nie będą przetworzone +# w funkcji "podwojne_liczby". # Zauważ, że xrange to generator, który wykonuje tę samą operację co range. # Stworzenie listy od 1 do 900000000 zajęłoby sporo czasu i pamięci, -# a xrange tworzy obiekt generatora zamiast tworzyć całą listę jak range. -# Użyto podkreślinika, aby odróżnić nazwę zmiennej od słówka kluczowego -# Pythona. +# a xrange tworzy obiekt generatora zamiast budować całą listę jak range. + +# Aby odróżnić nazwę zmiennej od nazwy zarezerwowanej w Pythonie, używamy +# zwykle na końcu znaku podkreślenia xrange_ = xrange(1, 900000000) # poniższa pętla będzie podwajać liczby aż do 30 @@ -587,7 +590,7 @@ for i in podwojne_liczby(xrange_): # Dekoratory # w tym przykładzie "beg" jest nakładką na "say" -# Beg wywołuje say. Jeśli say_please jest prawdziwe wtedy wzracana wartość +# Beg wywołuje say. Jeśli say_please jest prawdziwe, wtedy zwracana wartość # zostanie zmieniona from functools import wraps diff --git a/pl-pl/ruby-pl.html.markdown b/pl-pl/ruby-pl.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..73b1a7d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/pl-pl/ruby-pl.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,593 @@ +--- +language: ruby +filename: learnruby.rb +contributors: + - ["David Underwood", "http://theflyingdeveloper.com"] + - ["Joel Walden", "http://joelwalden.net"] + - ["Luke Holder", "http://twitter.com/lukeholder"] + - ["Tristan Hume", "http://thume.ca/"] + - ["Nick LaMuro", "https://github.com/NickLaMuro"] + - ["Marcos Brizeno", "http://www.about.me/marcosbrizeno"] + - ["Ariel Krakowski", "http://www.learneroo.com"] + - ["Dzianis Dashkevich", "https://github.com/dskecse"] + - ["Levi Bostian", "https://github.com/levibostian"] + - ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"] + - ["Gabriel Halley", "https://github.com/ghalley"] + - ["Persa Zula", "http://persazula.com"] +translators: + - ["Marcin Klocek", "https://github.com/mklocek"] +lang: pl-pl +--- + +```ruby +# To jest komentarz + +=begin +To jest wielolinijkowy komentarz +Nikt ich nie używa +Ty też nie powinieneś +=end + +# Przede wszystkim: Wszystko jest obiektem. + +# Liczby są obiektami + +3.class #=> Fixnum + +3.to_s #=> "3" + + +# Trochę podstawowej arytmetyki +1 + 1 #=> 2 +8 - 1 #=> 7 +10 * 2 #=> 20 +35 / 5 #=> 7 +2**5 #=> 32 +5 % 3 #=> 2 +5 ^ 6 #=> 3 + +# Arytmetyka jest zastąpeniem składni +# metod wywoływanych na obiektach +1.+(3) #=> 4 +10.* 5 #=> 50 + +# Wartości specjalne są obiektami +nil # To na prawdę jest niczym +true # prawda +false # fałsz + +nil.class #=> NilClass +true.class #=> TrueClass +false.class #=> FalseClass + +# Równość +1 == 1 #=> true +2 == 1 #=> false + +# Nierówność +1 != 1 #=> false +2 != 1 #=> true + +# jedyną 'fałszywą' wartością poza false, jest nil + +!nil #=> true +!false #=> true +!0 #=> false + +# Więcej porównań +1 < 10 #=> true +1 > 10 #=> false +2 <= 2 #=> true +2 >= 2 #=> true + +# Operatory logiczne +true && false #=> false +true || false #=> true +!true #=> false + +# Istnieją alternatywne wersje operatorów logicznych ze znacznie mniejszym +# pierwszeństwem. Używane są by kontrolować wyrażenia w łańcuchach wyrażeń +# aż jedno z nich wróci true lub false. + +# `zrob_cos_innego` wywołaj tylko wtedy gdy `zrob_cos` zakończy się sukcesem. +zrob_cos_innego() and zrob_cos() +# `log_error` wywołaj tylko wtedy gdy `zrob_cos` nie zakończy się sukcesem. +zrob_cos() or log_error() + + +# Stringi są obiektami + +'Jestem stringiem.'.class #=> String +"Ja również jestem stringiem.".class #=> String + +wypelnienie = 'użyć interpolacji stringa' +"Potrafię #{wypelnienie} używając podwójnych cudzysłowów." +#=> "Potrafię użyć interpolacji stringa używając podwójnych cudzysłowów." + +# Staraj się zapisywać stringi za pomocą apostrof, zamiast cudzysłowów tam, gdzie to możliwe +# Cudzysłowy wykonują dodatkowe wewnętrzne operacje + + +# Łączenie stringów, ale nie liczb +'hej ' + 'świecie' #=> "hej świecie" +'hej ' + 3 #=> TypeError: can't convert Fixnum into String +'hej ' + 3.to_s #=> "hej 3" + +# Łączenie stringów i operatorów +'hej ' * 3 #=> "hej hej hej " + +# Dodawanie do stringa +'hej' << ' świecie' #=> "hej świecie" + +# wydrukowanie wartości wraz z nową linią na końcu +puts "Drukuję!" +#=> Drukuję! +#=> nil + +# wydrukowanie wartości bez nowej linii na końcu +print "Drukuję!" +#=> Drukuję! => nill + +# Zmienne +x = 25 #=> 25 +x #=> 25 + +# Zauważ, że przypisanie zwraca przypisywaną wartość +# To znaczy, że możesz wykonać wielokrotne przypisanie: + +x = y = 10 #=> 10 +x #=> 10 +y #=> 10 + +# Zwyczajowo, używaj notacji nazwa_zmiennej dla nazw zmiennych +nazwa_zmiennej = true + +# Używaj opisowych nazw zmiennych +sciezka_do_projektu = '/dobra/nazwa/' +sciezka = '/zla/nazwa/' + +# Symbole (są obiektami) +# Symbole są niezmiennymi, wielokrotnie używanymi stałymi reprezentowanymi wewnętrznie jako +# liczby całkowite. Często używane są zamiast stringów w celu wydajniejszego przekazywania danych + +:oczekujacy.class #=> Symbol + +status = :oczekujacy + +status == :oczekujacy #=> true + +status == 'oczekujacy' #=> false + +status == :zatwierdzony #=> false + +# Tablice + +# To jest tablica +array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] + +# Tablice mogą zwierać różne typy danych + +[1, 'hej', false] #=> [1, "hej", false] + +# Tablice mogę być indeksowane +# Od początku +tablica[0] #=> 1 +tablica.first #=> 1 +tablica[12] #=> nil + +# Podobnie jak przy arytmetyce, dostęp poprzez [zmienna] +# jest tylko czytelniejszą składnią +# dla wywoływania metody [] na obiekcie +tablica.[] 0 #=> 1 +tablica.[] 12 #=> nil + +# Od końca +tablica[-1] #=> 5 +tablica.last #=> 5 + +# Z początkowym indeksem i długością +tablica[2, 3] #=> [3, 4, 5] + +# Odwrotność tablicy +a=[1,2,3] +a.reverse! #=> [3,2,1] + +# Lub zakres +array[1..3] #=> [2, 3, 4] + +# Dodawanie do tablicy w taki sposób +tablica << 6 #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] +# Lub taki +tablica.push(6) #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] + +# Sprawdzanie, czy tablica zawiera element +tablica.include?(1) #=> true + +# Hasze są Ruby'owymi podstawowymi słownikami z parami klucz/wartość. +# Hasze są zapisywane za pomocą nawiasów klamrowych +hasz = { 'kolor' => 'zielony', 'numer' => 5 } + +hasz.keys #=> ['kolor', 'numer'] + +# Można szybko sprawdzić zawartość hasza za pomocą kluczy: +hasz['kolor'] #=> 'zielony' +hasz['numer'] #=> 5 + +# Sprawdzenie wartośći dla nieistniejącego klucza zwraca nil: +hasz['nic tutaj nie ma'] #=> nil + +# Od wersji 1.9, Ruby posiada specjalną składnię, gdy używamy symboli jako kluczy: + +nowy_hasz = { stan: 3, akcja: true } + +nowy_hasz.keys #=> [:stan, :akcja] + +# Sprawdzenie istnienia kluczy i wartości w haszu +new_hash.has_key?(:defcon) #=> true +new_hash.has_value?(3) #=> true + +# Wskazówka: Zarówno tablice, jak i hasze, są policzalne +# Współdzielą wiele metod takich jak each, map, count, i inne + +# Instrukcje warunkowe + +if true + 'wyrażenie if' +elsif false + 'wyrażenie if, opcjonalne' +else + 'wyrażenie else, również opcjonalne' +end + +for licznik in 1..5 + puts "powtórzenie #{licznik}" +end +#=> powtórzenie 1 +#=> powtórzenie 2 +#=> powtórzenie 3 +#=> powtórzenie 4 +#=> powtórzenie 5 + +# JEDNAKŻE, Nikt nie używa pętli for. +# Zamiast tego, powinno się używać metody "each" i podawać jej blok. +# Blok jest kawałkiem kodu, który możesz podać metodzie podobnej do "each". +# Jest analogiczny do wyrażeń lambda, funkcji anonimowych lub zamknięć w innych +# językach programowania. +# +# Metoda "each" danego zakresu, wykonuje blok dla każdego elementu w zakresie. +# Do bloku zostaje przekazany licznik jako parametr. +# Wykonanie metody "each" z przekazaniem bloku wygląda następująco: + +(1..5).each do |licznik| + puts "powtórzenie #{licznik}" +end +#=> powtórzenie 1 +#=> powtórzenie 2 +#=> powtórzenie 3 +#=> powtórzenie 4 +#=> powtórzenie 5 + +# Możesz również otoczyć blok nawiasami klamrowymi: +(1..5).each { |licznik| puts "powtórzenie #{licznik}" } + +# Zawartość struktur danych również może być powtarzana używając each. +tablica.each do |element| + puts "#{element} jest częścią tablicy" +end +hasz.each do |klucz, wartosc| + puts "#{klucz} jest #{wartosc}" +end + +# Jeśli nadal potrzebujesz indeksum, możesz użyć "each_with_index" i zdefiniować +# zmienną odpowiadającą indeksowi +tablica.each_with_index do |element, indeks| + puts "#{element} jest numerem #{indeks} w tablicy" +end + +licznik = 1 +while licznik <= 5 do + puts "powtórzenie #{licznik}" + licznik += 1 +end +#=> powtórzenie 1 +#=> powtórzenie 2 +#=> powtórzenie 3 +#=> powtórzenie 4 +#=> powtórzenie 5 + +# W Ruby istnieje dużo pomocnych funkcji wykonujących pętle, +# na przykład "map", "reduce", "inject" i wiele innych. Map, +# w każdym wywołaniu, pobiera tablicę, na której wykonuję pętlę, +# wykonuje kod zapisany za pomocą bloku i zwraca całkowicie nową tablicę. +tablica = [1,2,3,4,5] +podwojone = tablica.map do |element| + element * 2 +end +puts podwojona +#=> [2,4,6,8,10] +puts tablica +#=> [1,2,3,4,5] + +ocena = 2 + +case ocena +when 1 + puts 'Dobra robota, masz wolne' +when 2 + puts 'Następnym razem będziesz miał więcej szczęścia' +when 3 + puts 'Możesz to zrobić lepiej' +when 4 + puts 'Przebrnąłeś' +when 5 + puts 'Oblałeś!' +else + puts 'Inny system oceniania?' +end +#=> "Następnym razem będziesz miał więcej szczęścia" + +# case może również użwać zakresów +ocena = 82 +case ocena +when 90..100 + puts 'Hurra!' +when 80...90 + puts 'Dobra robota' +else + puts 'Oblałeś!' +end +#=> "Dobra robota" + +# obsługa błędów: +begin + # kod, który może wywołać wyjątek + raise NoMemoryError, 'Zabrakło pamięci.' +rescue NoMemoryError => zmienna_wyjatku + puts 'Został wywołany NoMemoryError', zmienna_wyjatku +rescue RuntimeError => inna_zmienna_wyjatku + puts 'Teraz został wywołany RuntimeError' +else + puts 'To zostanie uruchomione, jeśli nie wystąpi żaden wyjątek' +ensure + puts 'Ten kod wykona się zawsze' +end + +# Funkcje + +def podwojenie(x) + x * 2 +end + +# Funkcje (i wszystkie bloki) zawsze zwracają wartość ostatniego wyrażenia +podwojenie(2) #=> 4 + +# Okrągłe nawiady są opcjonalne, gdy wynik jest jednoznaczny +podwojenie 3 #=> 6 + +podwojenie podwojenie 3 #=> 12 + +def suma(x, y) + x + y +end + +# Argumenty metod są oddzielone przecinkami +suma 3, 4 #=> 7 + +suma suma(3, 4), 5 #=> 12 + +# yield +# Wszystkie metody mają ukryty, opcjonalny parametr bloku, +# który może być wykonany używając słowa kluczowego 'yield' + +def otoczenie + puts '{' + yield + puts '}' +end + +otoczenie { puts 'hej świecie' } + +# { +# hej świecie +# } + + +# Możesz przekazać blok do funkcji +# "&" oznacza referencję to przekazanego bloku +def goscie(&blok) + blok.call 'jakis_argument' +end + +# Możesz przekazać listę argumentów, które będę przekonwertowane na tablicę +# Do tego służy operator ("*") +def goscie(*tablica) + tablica.each { |gosc| puts gosc } +end + +# Definiowanie klas używając słowa kluczowego class +class Czlowiek + + # Zmienna klasowa. Jest współdzielona przez wszystkie instancje tej klasy. + @@gatunek = 'H. sapiens' + + # Podstawowe inicjalizowanie + def initialize(imie, wiek = 0) + # Przypisanie argumentu do zmiennej danej instancji o nazwie "imie" + @imie = imie + # Jeśli nie podano wieku, zostanie użyta domyślna wartość z listy argumentów. + @wiek = wiek + end + + # Podstawowa metoda przypisująca wartość + def imie=(imie) + @imie = imie + end + + # Podstawowa metoda pobierająca wartość + def imie + @imie + end + + # Powyższa funkcjonalność może być zastąpiona używając metody attr_accessor w taki sposób + attr_accessor :imie + + # Metody przypisujące/pobierające mogą być stworzone indywidualnie + attr_reader :imie + attr_writer :imie + + # Metody klasowe używają self aby odróżnić się od metody instancji. + # To może być wywołane na klasie, nie na instancji. + def self.powiedz(wiadomosc) + puts wiadomosc + end + + def gatunek + @@gatunek + end +end + + +# Tworzenie instancji klasy +jim = Czlowiek.new('Jim Halpert') + +dwight = Czlowiek.new('Dwight K. Schrute') + +# Wywołajmy parę metod +jim.gatunek #=> "H. sapiens" +jim.imie #=> "Jim Halpert" +jim.imie = "Jim Halpert II" #=> "Jim Halpert II" +jim.imie #=> "Jim Halpert II" +dwight.gatunek #=> "H. sapiens" +dwight.imie #=> "Dwight K. Schrute" + +# Wywołanie metody klasowej +Czlowiek.powiedz('Cześć') #=> "Cześć" + +# Zasięg zmiennej jest definiowany poprzez jej nazwę. +# Zmienne, które zaczynają się na $ mają zasięg globalny +$zmienna = "Jestem zmienną globalną" +defined? $zmienna #=> "global-variable" + +# Zmienne zczynające się na @ mają zasięg danej instancji +@zmienna = "Jestem zmienną instancji" +defined? @zmienna #=> "instance-variable" + +# Zmienne, które zaczynają się na @@ mają zasięg danej klasy +@@zmienna = "Jestem zmienną klasową" +defined? @@zmienna #=> "class variable" + +# Zmienne, które zaczynają się na dużą literę, są stałymi +Zmienna = "Jestem stałą" +defined? Zmienna #=> "constant" + +# Klasa jest również obiektem w ruby. Może więc mieć zmienne instancji. +# Zmienna klasowa może być współdzielona między klasą i jej potomstwem. + +# podstawowa klasa +class Czlowiek + @@cokolwiek = 0 + + def self.cokolwiek + @@cokolwiek + end + + def self.cokolwiek=(wartosc) + @@cokolwiek = wartosc + end +end + +# klasa pochodna +class Pracownik < Czlowiek +end + +Czlowiek.cokolwiek # 0 +Pracownik.cokolwiek # 0 + +Czlowiek.cokolwiek = 2 # 2 +Pracownik.cokolwiek # 2 + +# Zmienna instancji danej klasy nie jest współdzielona przez jej potomstwo. + +class Czlowiek + @cos = 0 + + def self.cos + @cos + end + + def self.cos=(wartosc) + @cos = wartosc + end +end + +class Doktor < Czlowiek +end + +Czlowiek.cos # 0 +Doktor.cos # nil + +module PrzykladowyModul + def cokolwiek + 'cokolwiek' + end +end + +# Włączanie modułów łączy ich metody z metodami instancji klasy +# Rozszerzanie modułów łączy ich metody z metodami klasy + +class Osoba + include PrzykladowyModul +end + +class Ksiazka + extend PrzykladowyModul +end + +Osoba.cokolwiek # => NoMethodError: undefined method `cokolwiek' for Osoba:Class +Osoba.new.cokolwiek # => 'cokolwiek' +Ksiazka.cokolwiek # => 'cokolwiek' +Ksiazka.new.cokolwiek # => NoMethodError: undefined method `cokolwiek' + +# Gdy włączamy lub rozszerzamy muduły, wykonywane są tzw. wywołania zwrotne + +module PrzykladowyModul + def self.included(baza) + baza.extend(MotodyKlasowe) + baza.send(:include, MetodyInstancji) + end + + module MotodyKlasowe + def cos + 'cos' + end + end + + module MetodyInstancji + def xyz + 'xyz' + end + end +end + +class Cokolwiek + include PrzykladowyModul +end + +Cokolwiek.cos # => 'cos' +Cokolwiek.xyz # => NoMethodError: undefined method `xyz' +Cokolwiek.new.cos # => NoMethodError: undefined method `cos' +Cokolwiek.new.xyz # => 'qux' +``` + +## Dodatkowe źródła +### Polskie + +- [Dokumentacja](https://www.ruby-lang.org/pl/documentation/quickstart/) + +### Angielskie + +- [Learn Ruby by Example with Challenges](http://www.learneroo.com/modules/61/nodes/338) - A variant of this reference with in-browser challenges. +- [Official Documentation](http://www.ruby-doc.org/core-2.1.1/) +- [Ruby from other languages](https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/documentation/ruby-from-other-languages/) +- [Programming Ruby](http://www.amazon.com/Programming-Ruby-1-9-2-0-Programmers/dp/1937785491/) - An older [free edition](http://ruby-doc.com/docs/ProgrammingRuby/) is available online. +- [Ruby Style Guide](https://github.com/bbatsov/ruby-style-guide) - A community-driven Ruby coding style guide. diff --git a/pl-pl/xml-pl.html.markdown b/pl-pl/xml-pl.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7cce138f --- /dev/null +++ b/pl-pl/xml-pl.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,137 @@ +--- +language: xml +filename: learnxml-pl.xml +contributors: + - ["João Farias", "https://github.com/JoaoGFarias"] +translators: + - ["Tomasz Janiszewski", "https://github.com/janisz"] +lang: pl-pl +--- + +XML (_Extensible Markup Language_) to rozszerzalny język znaczników, stworzony +do przechowywania i transportu danych. + +W przeciwieństwie do HTML, XML nie specyfikuje w jaki sposób wyświetlić dane, a +tylko je przechowuje. + +* Składnia XML + +```xml +<!-- Komentarze w XML wyglądają jak ten --> + +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> +<ksiegarnia> + <ksiazka kategoria="GOTOWANIE"> + <tytul lang="pl">Codzienny Włoski</tytul> + <autor>Giada De Laurentiis</autor> + <rok>2005</rok> + <cena>30.00</cena> + </ksiazka> + <ksiazka kategoria="DZIECI"> + <tytul lang="pl">Harry Potter</tytul> + <autor>J K. Rowling</autor> + <rok>2005</rok> + <cena>29.99</cena> + </ksiazka> + <ksiazka kategoria="WEB"> + <tytul lang="pl">Nauka XML</tytul> + <autor>Erik T. Ray</autor> + <rok>2003</rok> + <cena>39.95</cena> + </ksiazka> +</ksiegarnia> + +<!-- Powyżej jest typowy plik XML. + Zaczyna się od deklaracji zawierającej metadane (opcjonalne). + + XML używa drzewiastej struktury. Powyżej, głównym wierzchołkiem jest + 'ksiegarnia' , która zawiera trzy (3) węzły potomne, wszystkie 'ksiazki', + które zawierają swoje węzły potomne, i tak dalej... + + Węzły są tworzone używające otwierających/zamykających znaczników. + Węzły potomne znajdują się pomiędzy otwierającym i zamykającym znacznikiem. +--> + +<!-- XML przechowuje dwa typy danych + 1 - Atrybuty -> metadane o węźle + Zazwyczaj parser XML używa tych informacji do przechowywania danych we + właściwy sposób. Atrybuty nadawane są poprzez wpisanie ich w otwierajacym + znaczniku. + 2 - Elementy -> to są czyste dane. + Dane, które parser otrzymuje z pliku XML. + Elementy są deklarowane pomiędzy otwierajacym i zamykającym znacznikiem, + bez nawiasów. --> + +<!-- Poniższy element ma dwa atrybuty --> +<plik type="gif" id="4293">komputer.gif</plik> + + +``` + +* Dobrze sformatowany dokument i walidacja + +Dokument XML jest dobrze sformatowany gdy jest syntaktycznie poprawny. +Jednakże możliwe jest wstrzykiwanie większej liczby ograniczeń w dokumencie, +używając definicji takich jak DTD i XML Schema. + +Dokument XML, który jest zgodny ze swoją definicją jest poprawny. + + +Korzystając z tych narzędzi możesz sprawdzić dane zawarte w dokumencie poza +logiką aplikacji. + +```xml + + +<!-- Poniżej jest uproszczona wersja dokumentu księgarni, + z dodatkową definicją DTD.--> + +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> +<!DOCTYPE notatka SYSTEM "Ksiegarnia.dtd"> +<ksiegarnia> + <ksiazka kategoria="GOTOWANIE"> + <tytul >Everyday Italian</tytul> + <cena>30.00</cena> + </ksiazka> +</ksiegarnia> + +<!-- DTD może wyglądać następująco:--> + +<!DOCTYPE notatka +[ +<!ELEMENT ksiegarnia (ksiazka+)> +<!ELEMENT ksiazka (tytul,cena)> +<!ATTLIST ksiazka kategoria CDATA "Literatura"> +<!ELEMENT tytul (#PCDATA)> +<!ELEMENT cena (#PCDATA)> +]> + + +<!-- DTD zaczyna się od deklaracji + Zaczynając od góry, główny węzeł jest zadeklarowany jako wymagający jednego + lub więcej węzłów potomnych typu 'ksiżka'. + Każda 'ksiażka' powinna zawierać dokładnie jeden 'tytuł' i 'cene' oraz atrybut + 'kategoria' z 'literaturą' jako wartość domyślna. + 'tytuł' i 'cena' to pola typu parsowalnych zmiennyc znakowych, co oznacza że + użyte znaczniki zostaną zinterpretowane < zamienione <. --> + +<!-- DTD moze być deklarowane wewnątrz pliku XML. --> + +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE notatka +[ +<!ELEMENT ksiegarnia (ksiazka+)> +<!ELEMENT ksiazka (tytul,cena)> +<!ATTLIST ksiazka kategoria CDATA "Literatura"> +<!ELEMENT tytul (#PCDATA)> +<!ELEMENT cena (#PCDATA)> +]> + +<ksiegarnia> + <ksiazka kategoria="GOTOWANIE"> + <tytul >Everyday Italian</tytul> + <cena>30.00</cena> + </ksiazka> +</ksiegarnia> +``` diff --git a/powershell.html.markdown b/powershell.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..fc944b85 --- /dev/null +++ b/powershell.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,330 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: powershell +contributors: + - ["Wouter Van Schandevijl", "https://github.com/laoujin"] +filename: LearnPowershell.ps1 +--- + +PowerShell is the Windows scripting language and configuration management +framework from Microsoft built on the .NET Framework. Windows 7 and up ship +with PowerShell. +Nearly all examples below can be a part of a shell script or executed directly +in the shell. + +A key difference with Bash is that it is mostly objects that you manipulate +rather than plain text. + +[Read more here.](https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb978526.aspx) + +If you are uncertain about your environment: + +``` +Get-ExecutionPolicy -List +Set-ExecutionPolicy AllSigned +# Execution policies include: +# - Restricted: Scripts won't run. +# - RemoteSigned: Downloaded scripts run only if signed by a trusted publisher. +# - AllSigned: Scripts need to be signed by a trusted publisher. +# - Unrestricted: Run all scripts. +help about_Execution_Policies # for more info + +# Current PowerShell version: +$PSVersionTable +``` + +Getting help: + +``` +# Find commands +Get-Command about_* # alias: gcm +Get-Command -Verb Add +Get-Alias ps +Get-Alias -Definition Get-Process + +Get-Help ps | less # alias: help +ps | Get-Member # alias: gm + +Show-Command Get-EventLog # Display GUI to fill in the parameters + +Update-Help # Run as admin +``` + +The tutorial starts here: + +``` +# As you already figured, comments start with # + +# Simple hello world example: +echo Hello world! +# echo is an alias for Write-Output (=cmdlet) +# Most cmdlets and functions follow the Verb-Noun naming convention + +# Each command starts on a new line, or after a semicolon: +echo 'This is the first line'; echo 'This is the second line' + +# Declaring a variable looks like this: +$aString="Some string" +# Or like this: +$aNumber = 5 -as [double] +$aList = 1,2,3,4,5 +$aString = $aList -join '--' # yes, -split exists also +$aHashtable = @{name1='val1'; name2='val2'} + +# Using variables: +echo $aString +echo "Interpolation: $aString" +echo "`$aString has length of $($aString.Length)" +echo '$aString' +echo @" +This is a Here-String +$aString +"@ +# Note that ' (single quote) won't expand the variables! +# Here-Strings also work with single quote + +# Builtin variables: +# There are some useful builtin variables, like +echo "Booleans: $TRUE and $FALSE" +echo "Empty value: $NULL" +echo "Last program's return value: $?" +echo "Exit code of last run Windows-based program: $LastExitCode" +echo "The last token in the last line received by the session: $$" +echo "The first token: $^" +echo "Script's PID: $PID" +echo "Full path of current script directory: $PSScriptRoot" +echo 'Full path of current script: ' + $MyInvocation.MyCommand.Path +echo "FUll path of current directory: $Pwd" +echo "Bound arguments in a function, script or code block: $PSBoundParameters" +echo "Unbound arguments: $($Args -join ', ')." +# More builtins: `help about_Automatic_Variables` + +# Inline another file (dot operator) +. .\otherScriptName.ps1 + + +### Control Flow +# We have the usual if structure: +if ($Age -is [string]) { + echo 'But.. $Age cannot be a string!' +} elseif ($Age -lt 12 -and $Age -gt 0) { + echo 'Child (Less than 12. Greater than 0)' +} else { + echo 'Adult' +} + +# Switch statements are more powerfull compared to most languages +$val = "20" +switch($val) { + { $_ -eq 42 } { "The answer equals 42"; break } + '20' { "Exactly 20"; break } + { $_ -like 's*' } { "Case insensitive"; break } + { $_ -clike 's*'} { "clike, ceq, cne for case sensitive"; break } + { $_ -notmatch '^.*$'} { "Regex matching. cnotmatch, cnotlike, ..."; break } + { 'x' -contains 'x'} { "FALSE! -contains is for lists!"; break } + default { "Others" } +} + +# The classic for +for($i = 1; $i -le 10; $i++) { + "Loop number $i" +} +# Or shorter +1..10 | % { "Loop number $_" } + +# PowerShell also offers +foreach ($var in 'val1','val2','val3') { echo $var } +# while () {} +# do {} while () +# do {} until () + +# Exception handling +try {} catch {} finally {} +try {} catch [System.NullReferenceException] { + echo $_.Exception | Format-List -Force +} + + +### Providers +# List files and directories in the current directory +ls # or `dir` +cd ~ # goto home + +Get-Alias ls # -> Get-ChildItem +# Uh!? These cmdlets have generic names because unlike other scripting +# languages, PowerShell does not only operate in the current directory. +cd HKCU: # go to the HKEY_CURRENT_USER registry hive + +# Get all providers in your session +Get-PSProvider + + +### Pipeline +# Cmdlets have parameters that control their execution: +Get-ChildItem -Filter *.txt -Name # Get just the name of all txt files +# Only need to type as much of a parameter name until it is no longer ambiguous +ls -fi *.txt -n # -f is not possible because -Force also exists +# Use `Get-Help Get-ChildItem -Full` for a complete overview + +# Results of the previous cmdlet can be passed to the next as input. +# `$_` is the current object in the pipeline object. +ls | Where-Object { $_.Name -match 'c' } | Export-CSV export.txt +ls | ? { $_.Name -match 'c' } | ConvertTo-HTML | Out-File export.html + +# If you get confused in the pipeline use `Get-Member` for an overview +# of the available methods and properties of the pipelined objects: +ls | Get-Member +Get-Date | gm + +# ` is the line continuation character. Or end the line with a | +Get-Process | Sort-Object ID -Descending | Select-Object -First 10 Name,ID,VM ` + | Stop-Process -WhatIf + +Get-EventLog Application -After (Get-Date).AddHours(-2) | Format-List + +# Use % as a shorthand for ForEach-Object +(a,b,c) | ForEach-Object ` + -Begin { "Starting"; $counter = 0 } ` + -Process { "Processing $_"; $counter++ } ` + -End { "Finishing: $counter" } + +# Get-Process as a table with three columns +# The third column is the value of the VM property in MB and 2 decimal places +# Computed columns can be written more verbose as: +# `@{name='lbl';expression={$_}` +ps | Format-Table ID,Name,@{n='VM(MB)';e={'{0:n2}' -f ($_.VM / 1MB)}} -autoSize + + +### Functions +# The [string] attribute is optional. +function foo([string]$name) { + echo "Hey $name, have a function" +} + +# Calling your function +foo "Say my name" + +# Functions with named parameters, parameter attributes, parsable documention +<# +.SYNOPSIS +Setup a new website +.DESCRIPTION +Creates everything your new website needs for much win +.PARAMETER siteName +The name for the new website +.EXAMPLE +New-Website -Name FancySite -Po 5000 +New-Website SiteWithDefaultPort +New-Website siteName 2000 # ERROR! Port argument could not be validated +('name1','name2') | New-Website -Verbose +#> +function New-Website() { + [CmdletBinding()] + param ( + [Parameter(ValueFromPipeline=$true, Mandatory=$true)] + [Alias('name')] + [string]$siteName, + [ValidateSet(3000,5000,8000)] + [int]$port = 3000 + ) + BEGIN { Write-Verbose 'Creating new website(s)' } + PROCESS { echo "name: $siteName, port: $port" } + END { Write-Verbose 'Website(s) created' } +} + + +### It's all .NET +# A PS string is in fact a .NET System.String +# All .NET methods and properties are thus available +'string'.ToUpper().Replace('G', 'ggg') +# Or more powershellish +'string'.ToUpper() -replace 'G', 'ggg' + +# Unsure how that .NET method is called again? +'string' | gm + +# Syntax for calling static .NET methods +[System.Reflection.Assembly]::LoadWithPartialName('Microsoft.VisualBasic') + +# Note that .NET functions MUST be called with parentheses +# while PS functions CANNOT be called with parentheses. +# If you do call a cmdlet/PS function with parentheses, +# it is the same as passing a single parameter list +$writer = New-Object System.IO.StreamWriter($path, $true) +$writer.Write([Environment]::NewLine) +$writer.Dispose() + +### IO +# Reading a value from input: +$Name = Read-Host "What's your name?" +echo "Hello, $Name!" +[int]$Age = Read-Host "What's your age?" + +# Test-Path, Split-Path, Join-Path, Resolve-Path +# Get-Content filename # returns a string[] +# Set-Content, Add-Content, Clear-Content +Get-Command ConvertTo-*,ConvertFrom-* + + +### Useful stuff +# Refresh your PATH +$env:PATH = [System.Environment]::GetEnvironmentVariable("Path", "Machine") + + ";" + [System.Environment]::GetEnvironmentVariable("Path", "User") + +# Find Python in path +$env:PATH.Split(";") | Where-Object { $_ -like "*python*"} + +# Change working directory without having to remember previous path +Push-Location c:\temp # change working directory to c:\temp +Pop-Location # change back to previous working directory +# Aliases are: pushd and popd + +# Unblock a directory after download +Get-ChildItem -Recurse | Unblock-File + +# Open Windows Explorer in working directory +ii . + +# Any key to exit +$host.UI.RawUI.ReadKey() +return + +# Create a shortcut +$WshShell = New-Object -comObject WScript.Shell +$Shortcut = $WshShell.CreateShortcut($link) +$Shortcut.TargetPath = $file +$Shortcut.WorkingDirectory = Split-Path $file +$Shortcut.Save() +``` + + +Configuring your shell + +``` +# $Profile is the full path for your `Microsoft.PowerShell_profile.ps1` +# All code there will be executed when the PS session starts +if (-not (Test-Path $Profile)) { + New-Item -Type file -Path $Profile -Force + notepad $Profile +} +# More info: `help about_profiles` +# For a more usefull shell, be sure to check the project PSReadLine below +``` + +Interesting Projects + +* [Channel9](https://channel9.msdn.com/Search?term=powershell%20pipeline#ch9Search&lang-en=en) PowerShell tutorials +* [PSGet](https://github.com/psget/psget) NuGet for PowerShell +* [PSReadLine](https://github.com/lzybkr/PSReadLine/) A bash inspired readline implementation for PowerShell (So good that it now ships with Windows10 by default!) +* [Posh-Git](https://github.com/dahlbyk/posh-git/) Fancy Git Prompt (Recommended!) +* [PSake](https://github.com/psake/psake) Build automation tool +* [Pester](https://github.com/pester/Pester) BDD Testing Framework +* [Jump-Location](https://github.com/tkellogg/Jump-Location) Powershell `cd` that reads your mind +* [PowerShell Community Extensions](http://pscx.codeplex.com/) (Dead) + +Not covered + +* WMI: Windows Management Intrumentation (Get-CimInstance) +* Multitasking: Start-Job -scriptBlock {...}, +* Code Signing +* Remoting (Enter-PSSession/Exit-PSSession; Invoke-Command) diff --git a/pt-br/amd.html.markdown b/pt-br/amd.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..690fc8da --- /dev/null +++ b/pt-br/amd.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,218 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: amd +contributors: + - ["Frederik Ring", "https://github.com/m90"] +translators: + - ["Felipe Tarijon", "http://nanoincub.com/"] +lang: ptr-br +filename: learnamd-pt.js +--- + +## Começando com AMD + +A API de Definição de Módulos Assíncrona **Asynchronous Module Definition** +especifica um mecanismo para definição de módulos em JavaScript para os quais o +módulo e suas dependências podem ser carregados de forma assíncrona. Isso é +particularmente bem adequado para o ambiente do browser onde o carregamento de +módulos de forma síncrona fica sujeito a problemas de performance, usabilidade, +debugging e problemas de acesso em requisições cross-domain. + +### Conceito básico +```javascript +// O básico da API de AMD consiste de nada mais que dois métodos: `define` e `require` +// e isso é tudo sobre a definição de módulo e consumo: +// `define(id?, dependências?, factory)` define um módulo +// `require(dependências, callback)` importa uma série de dependências e +// consome elas no callback passado como parâmetro. + +// Vamos começar usando o define para definir um novo módulo +// que não tem dependências. Nós vamos fazer isso passando um nome +// e uma função factory para definir: +define('awesomeAMD', function(){ + var isAMDAwesome = function(){ + return true; + }; + // O valor retornado da função de factory do módulo é + // o que os outros módulos ou chamadas de require irão + // receber quando requisitarem nosso módulo `awesomeAMD`. + // O valor exportado pode ser qualquer coisa, (construtor) funções, + // objetos, primitives, até mesmo undefined (apesar de que não irão ajudar muito). + return isAMDAwesome; +}); + +// Agora, vamos definir outro módulo que depende do nosso módulo `awesomeAMD`. +// Perceba que existe um argumento adicional definindo nossas dependências do +// módulo agora: +define('loudmouth', ['awesomeAMD'], function(awesomeAMD){ + // dependências serão passadas como argumentos da factory + // na ordem que elas forem especificadas + var tellEveryone = function(){ + if (awesomeAMD()){ + alert('Isso é tãaaao loko!'); + } else { + alert('Bem estúpido, né não?'); + } + }; + return tellEveryone; +}); + +// Agora que nós sabemos como usar o define, vamos usar o `require` para +// começar nosso programa. A assinatura do `require` é `(arrayDedependências, callback)`. +require(['loudmouth'], function(loudmouth){ + loudmouth(); +}); + +// Para fazer esse tutorial executável, vamos implementar uma versão muito básica +// (não-assíncrona) de AMD bem aqui nesse lugar: +function define(nome, deps, factory){ + // perceba como os módulos sem dependências são manipulados + define[nome] = require(factory ? deps : [], factory || deps); +} + +function require(deps, callback){ + var args = []; + // primeiro vamos recuperar todas as dependências necessárias + // pela chamada requerida + for (var i = 0; i < deps.length; i++){ + args[i] = define[deps[i]]; + } + // corresponder todas as dependências da função de callback + return callback.apply(null, args); +} +// você pode ver esse código em ação aqui: http://jsfiddle.net/qap949pd/ +``` + +### Uso na vida real com require.js + +Em contraste com o exemplo introdutório, `require.js` (a biblioteca mais popular de AMD) na verdade implementa o **A** do **AMD**, permitindo que você carregue os módulos e suas +dependências via XHR: + +```javascript +/* file: app/main.js */ +require(['modules/algumaClasse'], function(AlgumaClasse){ + // o callback é deferido até que a dependencia seja carregada + var coisa = new AlgumaClasse(); +}); +console.log('Então aqui estamos nós, esperando!'); // isso vai rodar primeiro +``` + +Por convenção, você geralmente guarda um módulo em um arquivo. `require.js` pode resolver nome de módulos baseado no caminho das pastas, então você não precisa nomear os seus módulos, mas sim simplesmente referenciar eles usando sua origem. No exemplo `algumaClasse` é adotado a pasta `modules`, relativa a configuração da sua `baseUrl`: + +* app/ + * main.js + * modules/ + * algumaClasse.js + * algunsHelpers.js + * ... + * daos/ + * coisas.js + * ... + +Isso significa que nós podemos definir `algumaClasse` sem especificar o id de um módulo: + +```javascript +/* arquivo: app/modules/algumaClasse.js */ +define(['daos/coisas', 'modules/algunsHelpers'], function(coisasDao, helpers){ + // definição de módulo, claro, irá acontecer também de forma assíncrona + function AlgumaClasse(){ + this.metodo = function(){/**/}; + // ... + } + return AlgumaClasse; +}); +``` +Para alterar o comportamento padrão de mapeamento de caminho de pastas utilize +`requirejs.config(configObj)` em seu `main.js`: + +```javascript +/* arquivo: main.js */ +requirejs.config({ + baseUrl : 'app', + paths : { + // você pode também carregar módulos de outros locais + jquery : '//ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.11.1/jquery.min', + coolLibFromBower : '../bower_components/cool-lib/coollib' + } +}); +require(['jquery', 'coolLibFromBower', 'modules/algunsHelpers'], function($, coolLib, helpers){ + // um arquivo `main` precisa chamar o require pelo menos uma vez, + // caso contrário, o código jamais rodará + coolLib.facaAlgoDoidoCom(helpers.transform($('#foo'))); +}); +``` +Apps baseados em `require.js` geralmente terão u´m único ponto de acesso (`main.js`) que é passado à tag script do `require.js` como um data-attribute. Ele vai ser automaticamente carregado e executado com o carregamento da página: + +```html +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html> +<head> + <title>Umas 100 tags de script? Nunca mais!</title> +</head> +<body> + <script src="require.js" data-main="app/main"></script> +</body> +</html> +``` + +### Otimizando um projeto inteiro utilizando r.js + +Muitas pessoas preferem usar AMD para sanar a organização do código durante o desenvolvimento, mas continuam querendo colocar um único arquivo de script em produção ao invés de realizarem centenas de requisições XHRs no carregamento da página. + +`require.js` vem com um script chamado `r.js` (que você vai provavelmente rodar em node.js, embora Rhino suporte também) que você pode analisar o gráfico de dependências de seu projeto, e fazer em um único arquivo contendo todos os seus módulos (corretamente nomeados), minificados e prontos para serem consumidos. + +Instale-o utilizando `npm`: +```shell +$ npm install requirejs -g +``` + +Agora você pode alimentá-lo com um arquivo de configuração: +```shell +$ r.js -o app.build.js +``` + +Para o nosso exemplo acima a configuração pode ser essa: +```javascript +/* file : app.build.js */ +({ + name : 'main', // nome do ponto de acesso + out : 'main-built.js', // nome o arquivo para gravar a saída + baseUrl : 'app', + paths : { + // `empty:` fala para o r.js que isso ainda deve ser baixado da CDN, usando + // o local especificado no `main.js` + jquery : 'empty:', + coolLibFromBower : '../bower_components/cool-lib/coollib' + } +}) +``` + +Para usar o arquivo gerado, em produção, simplesmente troque o `data-main`: +```html +<script src="require.js" data-main="app/main-built"></script> +``` + +Uma incrível e detalhada visão geral [de build options](https://github.com/jrburke/r.js/blob/master/build/example.build.js) está disponível no repositório do GitHub. + +### Tópicos não abordados nesse tutorial +* [Plugins de carregamento / transforms](http://requirejs.org/docs/plugins.html) +* [CommonJS style carregamento e exportação](http://requirejs.org/docs/commonjs.html) +* [Configuração avançada](http://requirejs.org/docs/api.html#config) +* [Shim configuration (carregando módulos sem AMD)](http://requirejs.org/docs/api.html#config-shim) +* [Carregando e otimizando CSS com require.js](http://requirejs.org/docs/optimization.html#onecss) +* [Usando almond.js para builds](https://github.com/jrburke/almond) + +### Outras leituras: + +* [Especificação oficial](https://github.com/amdjs/amdjs-api/wiki/AMD) +* [Por quê AMD?](http://requirejs.org/docs/whyamd.html) +* [Universal Module Definition](https://github.com/umdjs/umd) + +### Implementações: + +* [require.js](http://requirejs.org) +* [dojo toolkit](http://dojotoolkit.org/documentation/tutorials/1.9/modules/) +* [cujo.js](http://cujojs.com/) +* [curl.js](https://github.com/cujojs/curl) +* [lsjs](https://github.com/zazl/lsjs) +* [mmd](https://github.com/alexlawrence/mmd) diff --git a/pt-br/asymptotic-notation-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/asymptotic-notation-pt.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..2e299d09 --- /dev/null +++ b/pt-br/asymptotic-notation-pt.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,159 @@ +--- +category: Algorithms & Data Structures +name: Asymptotic Notation +contributors: + - ["Jake Prather", "http://github.com/JakeHP"] +translators: + - ["João Farias", "https://github.com/JoaoGFarias"] +lang: pt-br +--- + +# Notação Assintótica + +## O que é? + +Notação Assintótica é uma linguagem que nos permite analisar o tempo de execução + de um algoritmo através da indentificação de seu comportamento com o + crescimento da entrada oferecida. Isso também é conhecido como taxa de + crescimento do algoritmo. O algoritmo de repente torna-se lento quando o + tamanho da entrada cresce? O algoritmo mantém, em geral, seu tempo de execução + rápido mesmo com aumento da entrada? Notação Assintótica nos dá a habilidade de + responder estas questões. + +## Quais são as alternativas para responder a estas questões? + +Um modo seria contar o número de operações primitivas com diferentes tamanhos de + entrada. Apesar desta ser uma solução válida, o trabalho que ela requer, mesmo para algoritmos simples, não a justifica. + + Outro modo é fisicamente medir a quantidade de tempo que um algoritmo requer + para terminar com diferentes tamanhos de entrada. Entretanto, a precisão e + relatividade (tempo obtido seria relativo apenas à máquina onde ocorreu a + execução) deste método está limitado a variáveis de ambiente, como hardware, + poder de processamento, etc. + +## Tipos de Notação Assintótica + +Na primeira seção desse documento, descrevemos como Notação Assintótica identifica o comportamento de um algoritmo + a medida que o tamanho da entrada cresce. Imaginemos um algoritmo como uma função + *f*, *n* como o tamanho da entrada e *f(n)* sendo o tempo de execução. Então, + para dado algoritmo *f*, com entrada de tamanho *n*, você terá tempo de execução + *f(n)*. Isto resulta em um gráfico onde a coordernada Y é o tempo de execução +, a coordernada X representa o tamanho da entrada e os pontos representao o tempo +de execução para dado tamanho de entrada. + +Você pode representar a função, ou o algoritmo, com Notação Assintótica de várias +maneiras. Você pode representar um algoritmo nas formas de Melhor Caso, Pior Caso +ou Caso Médio. +A maneira mais comum de analisar um algoritmo é pelo Pior Caso. Você tipicamente +não avalia o melhor caso, porque essas condições não são atingidas com frequência. +Um bom exemplo disto seria em algoritmos de ordenação; especificamente, na adição +de elementos à árvores. O melhor caso na maioria de algoritmos pode ser de apenas +uma operação. Entretanto, na maioria dos casos, o elemento a ser adicionado terá +que percorrer a árvore de forma apropriada, o que pode causar a analise de um +ramo inteiro. +Este é o pior caso, e isto é o que você está se preparando. + +### Tipos de funções, limites e simplificação + +``` +Função Logarítmica - log n +Função Linear - an + b +Função Quadrática - an^2 + bn + c +Função Polinomial - an^z + . . . + an^2 + a*n^1 + a*n^0, onde *z* é uma constante +Função Exponencial - a^n, onde a é alguma constante +``` +Estas são as funções básicas de crescimento usadas em várias notações. A lista + começa com a de crescimento mais lento (logarítima, a de execução mais rápida) +e segue para a de crescimento mais rápido (exponencial, de execução mais lenta). +Repare que enquando *n*, a entrada, cresce, cada uma dessas funções cresce mais +rápido que quadrático, polinimial e exponencial, comparadas com logaritma e linear. + +Uma nota extremamente importante para notações é tentar usar os termos mais simples. +Isto significa descartar constantes e termos de ordem mais baixa, pois quando o +tamanho da entrada cresce para o infinito (limites matemáticos), os termos de ordem +mais baixa e constantes tornam-se irrelevantes. Por exemplo, se você tiver uma +constante muito grande, 2^9001, a simplificação não afeterá sua notação. + +Já que queremos as formas mais simples, mudemos nossa tabela um pouco... + +``` +Função Logarítmica - log n +Função Linear - n +Função Quadrática - n^2 +Função Polinomial - n^z, onde *z* é uma constante +Função Exponencial - a^n, onde *a* é uma constante +``` + +### Big-O + +Big-O, também escrita como O, é uma Notação Assintótica para o pior caso. Digamos +*f(n)* seja o tempo de exeução de um algoritmo e *g(n)) um tempo de complexidade +arbritário que você quer relacionar com seu algoritmo. *f(n)* é O(g(n)), se, para +quando constante real c (c > 0), *f(n)* <= *c g(n)* para todo tamanho de entrada +n (n > 0). + + +*Exemplo 1* + +``` +f(n) = 3log n + 100 +g(n) = log n +``` + +`f(n)` é O(g(n))? + +`3 log n + 100` é O(log n)? + +Vejamos a definição de Big-O: + +``` +3log n + 100 <= c * log n +``` + +Há alguma constante c que satisfaça a definição para todo n? + +``` +3log n + 100 <= 150 * log n, n > 2 (Indefinido em n = 1) +``` + +Sim! A definição de Big-I for atentida, portante `f(n)` é `O(g(n))`. + +*Exemplo 2* + +``` +f(n) = 3*n^2 +g(n) = n +``` + +`f(n)` é O(g(n))? + +`3 * n^2` é O(n)? +Vejamos a definição de Big-O: + +``` +3 * n^2 <= c * n +``` + +Há alguma constante c que satisfaça a definição para todo n? + +Não, não há. `f(n)` não é O(g(n)). + +### Big-Omega +Big-Omega, também escrita como Ω, é uma Notação Assintótica para o melhor caso. + +`f(n)`é Ω(g(n)), se para qualquer constante real c (c > 0), `f(n)` é >= `c g(n)` para todo tamanho de entrada n (n > 0). + +Sinta-se livre para adicionar mais exemplos. Big-O é a notação primária usada para medir complexidade de algoritmos. + +### Notas Finais +É difícil manter esse tipo de tópico curto e você deveria ler os livros e artigos listados abaixo. Eles cobrem muito mais profundamente definições e exemplos. Mais x='Algoritms & Data Structures' virá; teremos um documento sobre analisar código em breve. + +## Livros + +* [Algorithms](http://www.amazon.com/Algorithms-4th-Robert-Sedgewick/dp/032157351X) +* [Algorithm Design](http://www.amazon.com/Algorithm-Design-Foundations-Analysis-Internet/dp/0471383651) + +## Artigos Online + +* [MIT](http://web.mit.edu/16.070/www/lecture/big_o.pdf) +* [KhanAcademy](https://www.khanacademy.org/computing/computer-science/algorithms/asymptotic-notation/a/asymptotic-notation) diff --git a/pt-br/bash-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/bash-pt.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a604e7b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/pt-br/bash-pt.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,282 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: bash +contributors: + - ["Max Yankov", "https://github.com/golergka"] + - ["Darren Lin", "https://github.com/CogBear"] + - ["Alexandre Medeiros", "http://alemedeiros.sdf.org"] + - ["Denis Arh", "https://github.com/darh"] + - ["akirahirose", "https://twitter.com/akirahirose"] + - ["Anton Strömkvist", "http://lutic.org/"] +translators: + - ["Davidson Mizael", "https://github.com/davidsonmizael"] +filename: LearnBash-pt_br.sh +lang: pt-br +--- + +Tutorial de shell em português + +Bash é o nome do shell do Unix, que também é distribuido como shell do sistema +operacional GNU e como shell padrão para Linux e Mac OS X. Praticamente todos +os exemplos abaixo podem fazer parte de um shell script e pode ser executados +diretamente no shell. + +[Leia mais sobre](http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/bashref.html) + +```bash +#!/bin/bash +# A primeira linha do script é o shebang, que conta para o sistema como executar +# o script: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shebang_(Unix) +# Como você já deve ter percebido, comentários começam com #. +# Shebang também é um comentário. + +# Exemplo simples de hello world: +echo Hello World! + +# Cada comando começa com uma nova linha, ou após um ponto virgula: +echo 'Essa é a primeira linha'; echo 'Essa é a segunda linha' + +# A declaração de variáveis é mais ou menos assim +Variavel="Alguma string" + +# Mas não assim: +Variavel = "Alguma string" +# Bash interpretará Variavel como um comando e tentará executar e lhe retornar +# um erro porque o comando não pode ser encontrado. + +# Ou assim: +Variavel= 'Alguma string' +# Bash interpretará 'Alguma string' como um comando e tentará executar e lhe retornar +# um erro porque o comando não pode ser encontrado. (Nesse caso a a parte 'Variavel=' +# é vista com uma declaração de variável valida apenas para o escopo do comando 'Uma string'). + +# Usando a variável: +echo $Variavel +echo "$Variavel" +echo '$Variavel' +# Quando você usa a variável em si — declarando valor, exportando, etc — você escreve +# seu nome sem o $. Se você quer usar o valor da variável você deve usar o $. +# Note que ' (aspas simples) não expandirão as variáveis! + +# Substituição de strings em variáveis +echo ${Variavel/Alguma/Uma} +# Isso substituirá a primeira ocorrência de "Alguma" por "Uma" + +# Substring de uma variável +Tamanho=7 +echo ${Variavel:0:Tamanho} +# Isso retornará apenas os 7 primeiros caractéres da variável + +# Valor padrão de uma variável +echo ${Foo:-"ValorPadraoSeFooNaoExistirOuEstiverVazia"} +# Isso funciona para nulo (Foo=) e (Foo=""); zero (Foo=0) retorna 0. +# Note que isso apenas retornar o valor padrão e não mudar o valor da variável. + +# Variáveis internas +# Tem algumas variáveis internas bem uteis, como +echo "O ultimo retorno do programa: $?" +echo "PID do script: $$" +echo "Numero de argumentos passados para o script $#" +echo "Todos os argumentos passados para o script $@" +echo "Os argumentos do script em variáveis diferentes: $1, $2..." + +# Lendo o valor do input: +echo "Qual o seu nome?" +read Nome # Note que nós não precisamos declarar a variável +echo Ola, $Nome + +# Nós temos a estrutura if normal: +# use 'man test' para mais infomações para as condicionais +if [ $Nome -ne $USER ] +then + echo "Seu nome não é o seu username" +else + echo "Seu nome é seu username" +fi + +# Tem também execução condicional +echo "Sempre executado" || echo "Somente executado se o primeiro falhar" +echo "Sempre executado" && "Só executado se o primeiro NÃO falhar" + +# Para usar && e || com o if, você precisa multiplicar os pares de colchetes +if [ $Nome == "Estevao"] && [ $Idade -eq 15] +then + echo "Isso vai rodar se $Nome é igual Estevao E $Idade é 15." +fi + +fi [ $Nome == "Daniela" ] || [ $Nome = "Jose" ] +then + echo "Isso vai rodar se $Nome é Daniela ou Jose." +fi + +# Expressões são denotadas com o seguinte formato +echo $(( 10 + 5)) + +# Diferentemente das outras linguagens de programação, bash é um shell, então ele +# funciona no diretório atual. Você pode listar os arquivos e diretórios no diretório +# atual com o comando ls: +ls + +#Esse comando tem opções que controlam sua execução +ls -l # Lista todo arquivo e diretorio em linhas separadas + +# Os resultados do comando anterior pode ser passado para outro comando como input. +# O comando grep filtra o input com o padrão passado. É assim que listamos apenas +# os arquivos .txt no diretório atual: +ls -l | grep "\.txt" + +# Você pode redirecionar o comando de input e output (stdin, stdout e stderr). +# Lê o stdin até ^EOF$ e sobrescreve hello.py com as linhas entre "EOF": +cat > hello.py << EOF +#!/usr/bin/env python +from __future__ imprt print_function +import sys +print("#stdout", file=sys.stdout) +print("stderr", file=sys.stderr) +for line in sys.stdin: + print(line, file=sys.stdout) +EOF + +# Rode hello.py com várias instruções stdin, stdout e stderr: +python hello.py < "input.in" +python hello.py > "ouput.out" +python hello.py 2> "error.err" +python hello.py > "output-and-error.log" 2>&1 +python hello.py > /dev/null 2>&1 +# O erro no output sobrescreverá o arquivo se existir, +# se ao invés disso você quiser complementar, use ">>": +python hello.py >> "output.out" 2>> "error.err" + +# Sobrescreve output.out, complemente para error.err e conta as linhas +info bash 'Basic Shell Features' 'Redirections' > output.out 2>> error.err +wc -l output.out error.err + +#Roda um comando e imprime o desencriptador (e.g. /dev/fd/123) +# veja: man fd +echo <(echo "#helloworld") + +# Sobrescreve ouput.out com "#helloworld": +cat > output.out <(echo "#helloworld") +echo "#helloworld" > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | cat > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | tee output.out > /dev/null + +# Limpa os arquivos temporarios detalhando quais foram deletados (use '-i' para confirmar exlusão) +rm -v output.out error.err output-and-error.log + +# Comando podem ser substituidos por outros comandos usando $( ): +# O comand oa seguir mostra o número de arquivos e diretórios no diretorio atual +echo "Existem $(ls | wc -l) itens aqui." + +# O mesmo pode ser feito usando crase `` mas elas não podem ser aninhadas - dá se +# preferência ao uso do $( ) +echo "Existem `ls | wc -l` itens aqui." + +# Bash usa o comando case que funciona de uma maneira similar ao switch de Java e C++: +case "$Variavel" in + # Lista de parametros para condições que você quer encontrar + 0) echo "Isso é um Zero.";; + 1) echo "Isso é um Um.";; + *) echo "Isso não é null.";; +esac + +# loops for iteragem para quantos argumentos passados: +# O conteudo de $Variavel é exibido três vezes. +for Variavel in {1..3} +do + echo "$Variavel" +done + +# Ou use o loop da "maneira tradicional": +for ((a=1; a <= 3; a++)) +do + echo $a +done + +# Eles também podem ser usados em arquivos... +# Isso irá rodar o comando 'cat' em arquivo1 e arquivo2 +for Variavel in arquivo1 arquivo2 +do + cat "$Variavel" +done + +# ...ou o output de um comando +# Isso irá usar cat no output do ls. +for Output in $(ls) +do + cat "$Output" +done + +# loop while: +while [ true ] +do + echo "corpo do loop aqui..." + break +done + +# Você também pode usar funções +# Definição: +function foo() { + echo "Argumentos funcionam bem assim como os dos scripts: $@" + echo "E: $1 $2..." + echo "Isso é uma função" + return 0 +} + +# ou simplesmente +bar () { + echo "Outro jeito de declarar funções!" + return 0 +} + +# Chamando sua função +foo "Meu nome é" $Nome + +# Existe um monte de comandos úteis que você deveria aprender: +# exibe as 10 ultimas linhas de arquivo.txt +tail -n 10 arquivo.txt +# exibe as primeiras 10 linhas de arquivo.txt +head -n 10 arquivo.txt +# ordena as linhas de arquivo.txt +sort arquivo.txt +# reporta ou omite as linhas repetidas, com -d você as reporta +uniq -d arquivo.txt +# exibe apenas a primeira coluna após o caráctere ',' +cut -d ',' -f 1 arquivo.txt +# substitui todas as ocorrencias de 'okay' por 'legal' em arquivo.txt (é compativel com regex) +sed -i 's/okay/legal/g' file.txt +# exibe para o stdout todas as linhas do arquivo.txt que encaixam com o regex +# O exemplo exibe linhas que começam com "foo" e terminam com "bar" +grep "^foo.*bar$" arquivo.txt +# passe a opção "-c" para ao invês de imprimir o numero da linha que bate com o regex +grep -c "^foo.*bar$" arquivo.txt +# se você quer literalmente procurar por uma string, +# e não pelo regex, use fgrep (ou grep -F) +fgrep "^foo.*bar$" arquivo.txt + + +# Leia a documentação interna do shell Bash com o comando interno 'help': +help +help help +help for +help return +help source +help . + +# Leia a página principal da documentação com man +apropos bash +man 1 bash +man bash + +# Leia a documentação de informação com info (? para ajuda) +apropos info | grep '^info.*(' +man info +info info +info 5 info + +#Leia a documentação informativa do Bash: +info bash +info bash 'Bash Features' +info bash 6 +info --apropos bash +``` diff --git a/pt-br/brainfuck-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/bf.html.markdown index 9e4b458d..d6d7c6e9 100644 --- a/pt-br/brainfuck-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/bf.html.markdown @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ --- -language: brainfuck +language: bf contributors: - ["Prajit Ramachandran", "http://prajitr.github.io/"] - ["Mathias Bynens", "http://mathiasbynens.be/"] diff --git a/pt-br/c-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/c-pt.html.markdown index 43688724..2c274f12 100644 --- a/pt-br/c-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/c-pt.html.markdown @@ -7,29 +7,30 @@ contributors: translators: - ["João Farias", "https://github.com/JoaoGFarias"] - ["Elton Viana", "https://github.com/eltonvs"] + - ["Cássio Böck", "https://github.com/cassiobsilva"] lang: pt-br filename: c-pt.el --- Ah, C. Ainda é **a** linguagem de computação de alta performance. -C é a liguangem de mais baixo nível que a maioria dos programadores -irão usar, e isso dá a ela uma grande velocidade bruta. Apenas fique -antento que este manual de gerenciamento de memória e C vai levanter-te -tão longe quanto você precisa. +C é a linguagem de mais baixo nível que a maioria dos programadores +utilizarão, e isso dá a ela uma grande velocidade bruta. Apenas fique +atento se este manual de gerenciamento de memória e C vai te levar +tão longe quanto precisa. ```c // Comentários de uma linha iniciam-se com // - apenas disponível a partir do C99 /* -Comentários de multiplas linhas se parecem com este. +Comentários de múltiplas linhas se parecem com este. Funcionam no C89 também. */ // Constantes: #define <palavra-chave> #definie DAY_IN_YEAR 365 -//enumarações também são modos de definir constantes. +//enumerações também são modos de definir constantes. enum day {DOM = 1, SEG, TER, QUA, QUI, SEX, SAB}; // SEG recebe 2 automaticamente, TER recebe 3, etc. @@ -54,13 +55,13 @@ int soma_dois_ints(int x1, int x2); // protótipo de função // O ponto de entrada do teu programa é uma função // chamada main, com tipo de retorno inteiro int main() { - // Usa-se printf para escrever na tela, + // Usa-se printf para escrever na tela, // para "saída formatada" // %d é um inteiro, \n é uma nova linha printf("%d\n", 0); // => Imprime 0 // Todos as declarações devem acabar com // ponto e vírgula - + /////////////////////////////////////// // Tipos /////////////////////////////////////// @@ -78,7 +79,7 @@ int main() { // longs tem entre 4 e 8 bytes; longs long tem garantia // de ter pelo menos 64 bits long x_long = 0; - long long x_long_long = 0; + long long x_long_long = 0; // floats são normalmente números de ponto flutuante // com 32 bits @@ -93,7 +94,7 @@ int main() { unsigned int ux_int; unsigned long long ux_long_long; - // caracteres dentro de aspas simples são inteiros + // caracteres dentro de aspas simples são inteiros // no conjunto de caracteres da máquina. '0' // => 48 na tabela ASCII. 'A' // => 65 na tabela ASCII. @@ -104,7 +105,7 @@ int main() { // Se o argumento do operador `sizeof` é uma expressão, então seus argumentos // não são avaliados (exceto em VLAs (veja abaixo)). - // O valor devolve, neste caso, é uma constante de tempo de compilação. + // O valor devolve, neste caso, é uma constante de tempo de compilação. int a = 1; // size_t é um inteiro sem sinal com pelo menos 2 bytes que representa // o tamanho de um objeto. @@ -120,7 +121,7 @@ int main() { // Você pode inicializar um array com 0 desta forma: char meu_array[20] = {0}; - // Indexar um array é semelhante a outras linguages + // Indexar um array é semelhante a outras linguagens // Melhor dizendo, outras linguagens são semelhantes a C meu_array[0]; // => 0 @@ -129,7 +130,7 @@ int main() { printf("%d\n", meu_array[1]); // => 2 // No C99 (e como uma features opcional em C11), arrays de tamanho variável - // VLA (do inglês), podem ser declarados também. O tamanho destes arrays + // VLA (do inglês), podem ser declarados também. O tamanho destes arrays // não precisam ser uma constante de tempo de compilação: printf("Entre o tamanho do array: "); // Pergunta ao usuário pelo tamanho char buf[0x100]; @@ -144,14 +145,14 @@ int main() { // > Entre o tamanho do array: 10 // > sizeof array = 40 - // String são apenas arrays de caracteres terminados por um + // String são apenas arrays de caracteres terminados por um // byte nulo (0x00), representado em string pelo caracter especial '\0'. // (Não precisamos incluir o byte nulo em literais de string; o compilador // o insere ao final do array para nós.) - char uma_string[20] = "Isto é uma string"; + char uma_string[20] = "Isto é uma string"; // Observe que 'é' não está na tabela ASCII // A string vai ser salva, mas a saída vai ser estranha - // Porém, comentários podem conter acentos + // Porém, comentários podem conter acentos printf("%s\n", uma_string); // %s formata a string printf("%d\n", uma_string[17]); // => 0 @@ -175,7 +176,7 @@ int main() { /////////////////////////////////////// // Atalho para multiplas declarações: - int i1 = 1, i2 = 2; + int i1 = 1, i2 = 2; float f1 = 1.0, f2 = 2.0; int a, b, c; @@ -206,7 +207,7 @@ int main() { 2 <= 2; // => 1 2 >= 2; // => 1 - // C não é Python - comparações não se encadeam. + // C não é Python - comparações não se encadeiam. int a = 1; // Errado: int entre_0_e_2 = 0 < a < 2; @@ -231,7 +232,7 @@ int main() { char *s = "iLoveC"; int j = 0; s[j++]; // => "i". Retorna o j-ésimo item de s E DEPOIS incrementa o valor de j. - j = 0; + j = 0; s[++j]; // => "L". Incrementa o valor de j. E DEPOIS retorna o j-ésimo item de s. // o mesmo com j-- e --j @@ -308,7 +309,7 @@ int main() { exit(-1); break; } - + /////////////////////////////////////// // Cast de tipos @@ -327,8 +328,8 @@ int main() { // Tipos irão ter overflow sem aviso printf("%d\n", (unsigned char) 257); // => 1 (Max char = 255 se char tem 8 bits) - // Para determinar o valor máximo de um `char`, de um `signed char` e de - // um `unisigned char`, respectivamente, use as macros CHAR_MAX, SCHAR_MAX + // Para determinar o valor máximo de um `char`, de um `signed char` e de + // um `unisigned char`, respectivamente, use as macros CHAR_MAX, SCHAR_MAX // e UCHAR_MAX de <limits.h> // Tipos inteiros podem sofrer cast para pontos-flutuantes e vice-versa. @@ -341,7 +342,7 @@ int main() { /////////////////////////////////////// // Um ponteiro é uma variável declarada para armazenar um endereço de memória. - // Seu declaração irá também dizer o tipo de dados para o qual ela aponta. Você + // Sua declaração irá também dizer o tipo de dados para o qual ela aponta. Você // Pode usar o endereço de memória de suas variáveis, então, brincar com eles. int x = 0; @@ -363,13 +364,13 @@ int main() { printf("%d\n", *px); // => Imprime 0, o valor de x // Você também pode mudar o valor que o ponteiro está apontando. - // Teremo que cercar a de-referência entre parenteses, pois + // Temos que cercar a de-referência entre parênteses, pois // ++ tem uma precedência maior que *. (*px)++; // Incrementa o valor que px está apontando por 1 printf("%d\n", *px); // => Imprime 1 printf("%d\n", x); // => Imprime 1 - // Arrays são um boa maneira de alocar um bloco contínuo de memória + // Arrays são uma boa maneira de alocar um bloco contínuo de memória int x_array[20]; // Declara um array de tamanho 20 (não pode-se mudar o tamanho int xx; for (xx = 0; xx < 20; xx++) { @@ -379,7 +380,7 @@ int main() { // Declara um ponteiro do tipo int e inicialize ele para apontar para x_array int* x_ptr = x_array; // x_ptr agora aponta para o primeiro elemento do array (o inteiro 20). - // Isto funciona porque arrays são apenas ponteiros para seu primeiros elementos. + // Isto funciona porque arrays são apenas ponteiros para seus primeiros elementos. // Por exemplo, quando um array é passado para uma função ou é atribuído a um // ponteiro, ele transforma-se (convertido implicitamente) em um ponteiro. // Exceções: quando o array é o argumento de um operador `&` (endereço-de): @@ -395,7 +396,7 @@ int main() { printf("%zu, %zu\n", sizeof arr, sizeof ptr); // provavelmente imprime "40, 4" ou "40, 8" // Ponteiros podem ser incrementados ou decrementados baseado no seu tipo - // (isto é chamado aritimética de ponteiros + // (isto é chamado aritmética de ponteiros printf("%d\n", *(x_ptr + 1)); // => Imprime 19 printf("%d\n", x_array[1]); // => Imprime 19 @@ -413,9 +414,9 @@ int main() { // "resultados imprevisíveis" - o programa é dito ter um "comportamento indefinido" printf("%d\n", *(my_ptr + 21)); // => Imprime quem-sabe-o-que? Talvez até quebre o programa. - // Quando termina-se de usar um bloco de memória alocado, você pode liberá-lo, + // Quando se termina de usar um bloco de memória alocado, você pode liberá-lo, // ou ninguém mais será capaz de usá-lo até o fim da execução - // (Isto cham-se "memory leak"): + // (Isto chama-se "memory leak"): free(my_ptr); // Strings são arrays de char, mas elas geralmente são representadas @@ -537,7 +538,7 @@ int area(retan r) return r.largura * r.altura; } -// Se você tiver structus grande, você pode passá-las "por ponteiro" +// Se você tiver structus grande, você pode passá-las "por ponteiro" // para evitar cópia de toda a struct: int area(const retan *r) { @@ -554,8 +555,8 @@ conhecidos. Ponteiros para funções são como qualquer outro ponteiro diretamente e passá-las para por toda parte. Entretanto, a sintaxe de definição por ser um pouco confusa. -Exemplo: use str_reverso através de um ponteiro -*/ +Exemplo: use str_reverso através de um ponteiro +*/ void str_reverso_através_ponteiro(char *str_entrada) { // Define uma variável de ponteiro para função, nomeada f. void (*f)(char *); //Assinatura deve ser exatamente igual à função alvo. @@ -575,7 +576,7 @@ typedef void (*minha_função_type)(char *); // Declarando o ponteiro: // ... -// minha_função_type f; +// minha_função_type f; //Caracteres especiais: '\a' // Alerta (sino) @@ -586,7 +587,7 @@ typedef void (*minha_função_type)(char *); '\r' // Retorno de carroça '\b' // Backspace '\0' // Caracter nulo. Geralmente colocado ao final de string em C. - // oi\n\0. \0 é usado por convenção para marcar o fim da string. + // oi\n\0. \0 é usado por convenção para marcar o fim da string. '\\' // Barra invertida '\?' // Interrogação '\'' // Aspas simples @@ -606,7 +607,7 @@ typedef void (*minha_função_type)(char *); "%p" // ponteiro "%x" // hexadecimal "%o" // octal -"%%" // imprime % +"%%" // imprime % /////////////////////////////////////// // Ordem de avaliação diff --git a/pt-br/csharp.html.markdown b/pt-br/csharp.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..547f4817 --- /dev/null +++ b/pt-br/csharp.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,896 @@ +--- +language: c# +filename: csharp-pt.cs +contributors: + - ["Robson Alves", "http://robsonalves.net/"] +lang: pt-br +--- + +C# é uma linguagem elegante e altamente tipado orientada a objetos que permite aos desenvolvedores criarem uma variedade de aplicações seguras e robustas que são executadas no .NET Framework. + +[Read more here.](http://msdn.microsoft.com/pt-br/library/vstudio/z1zx9t92.aspx) + +```c# +// Comentário de linha única começa com // +/* +Múltipas linhas é desta forma +*/ +/// <summary> +/// Esta é uma documentação comentário XML que pode ser usado para gerar externo +/// documentação ou fornecer ajuda de contexto dentro de um IDE +/// </summary> +//public void MethodOrClassOrOtherWithParsableHelp() {} + +// Especificar qual namespace seu código irá usar +// Os namespaces a seguir são padrões do .NET Framework Class Library +using System; +using System.Collections.Generic; +using System.Dynamic; +using System.Linq; +using System.Net; +using System.Threading.Tasks; +using System.IO; + +// Mas este aqui não é : +using System.Data.Entity; +// Para que consiga utiliza-lo, você precisa adicionar novas referências +// Isso pode ser feito com o gerenciador de pacotes NuGet : `Install-Package EntityFramework` + +// Namespaces são escopos definidos para organizar o códgo em "pacotes" or "módulos" +// Usando este código a partir de outra arquivo de origem: using Learning.CSharp; +namespace Learning.CSharp +{ + // Cada .cs deve conter uma classe com o mesmo nome do arquivo + // você está autorizado a contrariar isto, mas evite por sua sanidade. + public class AprenderCsharp + { + // Sintaxe Básica - Pule para as CARACTERÍSTICAS INTERESSANTES se você ja usou Java ou C++ antes. + public static void Syntax() + { + // Use Console.WriteLine para apresentar uma linha + Console.WriteLine("Hello World"); + Console.WriteLine( + "Integer: " + 10 + + " Double: " + 3.14 + + " Boolean: " + true); + + // Para apresentar sem incluir uma nova linha, use Console.Write + Console.Write("Hello "); + Console.Write("World"); + + /////////////////////////////////////////////////// + // Tpos e Variáveis + // + // Declare uma variável usando <tipo> <nome> + /////////////////////////////////////////////////// + + // Sbyte - Signed 8-bit integer + // (-128 <= sbyte <= 127) + sbyte fooSbyte = 100; + + // Byte - Unsigned 8-bit integer + // (0 <= byte <= 255) + byte fooByte = 100; + + // Short - 16-bit integer + // Signed - (-32,768 <= short <= 32,767) + // Unsigned - (0 <= ushort <= 65,535) + short fooShort = 10000; + ushort fooUshort = 10000; + + // Integer - 32-bit integer + int fooInt = 1; // (-2,147,483,648 <= int <= 2,147,483,647) + uint fooUint = 1; // (0 <= uint <= 4,294,967,295) + + // Long - 64-bit integer + long fooLong = 100000L; // (-9,223,372,036,854,775,808 <= long <= 9,223,372,036,854,775,807) + ulong fooUlong = 100000L; // (0 <= ulong <= 18,446,744,073,709,551,615) + // Numbers default to being int or uint depending on size. + // L is used to denote that this variable value is of type long or ulong + + // Double - Double-precision 64-bit IEEE 754 Floating Point + double fooDouble = 123.4; // Precision: 15-16 digits + + // Float - Single-precision 32-bit IEEE 754 Floating Point + float fooFloat = 234.5f; // Precision: 7 digits + // f is used to denote that this variable value is of type float + + // Decimal - a 128-bits data type, with more precision than other floating-point types, + // suited for financial and monetary calculations + decimal fooDecimal = 150.3m; + + // Boolean - true & false + bool fooBoolean = true; // or false + + // Char - A single 16-bit Unicode character + char fooChar = 'A'; + + // Strings - ao contrário dos anteriores tipos base, que são todos os tipos de valor, + // Uma string é um tipo de referência. Ou seja, você pode configurá-lo como nulo + string fooString = "\"escape\" quotes and add \n (new lines) and \t (tabs)"; + Console.WriteLine(fooString); + + // Você pode acessar todos os caracteres de string com um indexador: + char charFromString = fooString[1]; // => 'e' + // Strings são imutáveis: você não pode fazer fooString[1] = 'X'; + + // Compare strings com sua atual cultura, ignorando maiúsculas e minúsculas + string.Compare(fooString, "x", StringComparison.CurrentCultureIgnoreCase); + + // Formatando, baseado no sprintf + string fooFs = string.Format("Check Check, {0} {1}, {0} {1:0.0}", 1, 2); + + // Datas e formatações + DateTime fooDate = DateTime.Now; + Console.WriteLine(fooDate.ToString("hh:mm, dd MMM yyyy")); + + // Você pode juntar um string em mais de duas linhas com o símbolo @. Para escapar do " use "" + string bazString = @"Here's some stuff +on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried"; + + // Use const ou read-only para fazer uma variável imutável + // os valores da const são calculados durante o tempo de compilação + const int HoursWorkPerWeek = 9001; + + /////////////////////////////////////////////////// + // Estrutura de Dados + /////////////////////////////////////////////////// + + // Matrizes - zero indexado + // O tamanho do array pode ser decidido ainda na declaração + // O formato para declarar uma matriz é o seguinte: + // <tipodado>[] <var nome> = new <tipodado>[<array tamanho>]; + int[] intArray = new int[10]; + + // Outra forma de declarar & inicializar uma matriz + int[] y = { 9000, 1000, 1337 }; + + // Indexando uma matriz - Acessando um elemento + Console.WriteLine("intArray @ 0: " + intArray[0]); + // Matriz são alteráveis + intArray[1] = 1; + + // Listas + // Listas são usadas frequentemente tanto quanto matriz por serem mais flexiveis + // O formato de declarar uma lista é o seguinte: + // List<tipodado> <var nome> = new List<tipodado>(); + List<int> intList = new List<int>(); + List<string> stringList = new List<string>(); + List<int> z = new List<int> { 9000, 1000, 1337 }; // inicializar + // O <> são para genéricos - Confira está interessante seção do material + + // Lista não possuem valores padrão. + // Um valor deve ser adicionado antes e depois acessado pelo indexador + intList.Add(1); + Console.WriteLine("intList @ 0: " + intList[0]); + + // Outras estruturas de dados para conferir: + // Pilha/Fila + // Dicionário (uma implementação de map de hash) + // HashSet + // Read-only Coleção + // Tuple (.Net 4+) + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Operadores + /////////////////////////////////////// + Console.WriteLine("\n->Operators"); + + int i1 = 1, i2 = 2; // Forma curta para declarar diversas variáveis + + // Aritmética é clara + Console.WriteLine(i1 + i2 - i1 * 3 / 7); // => 3 + + // Modulo + Console.WriteLine("11%3 = " + (11 % 3)); // => 2 + + // Comparações de operadores + Console.WriteLine("3 == 2? " + (3 == 2)); // => falso + Console.WriteLine("3 != 2? " + (3 != 2)); // => verdadeiro + Console.WriteLine("3 > 2? " + (3 > 2)); // => verdadeiro + Console.WriteLine("3 < 2? " + (3 < 2)); // => falso + Console.WriteLine("2 <= 2? " + (2 <= 2)); // => verdadeiro + Console.WriteLine("2 >= 2? " + (2 >= 2)); // => verdadeiro + + // Operadores bit a bit (bitwise) + /* + ~ Unário bitwise complemento + << Signed left shift + >> Signed right shift + & Bitwise AND + ^ Bitwise exclusivo OR + | Bitwise inclusivo OR + */ + + // Incrementações + int i = 0; + Console.WriteLine("\n->Inc/Dec-rementation"); + Console.WriteLine(i++); //i = 1. Post-Incrementation + Console.WriteLine(++i); //i = 2. Pre-Incrementation + Console.WriteLine(i--); //i = 1. Post-Decrementation + Console.WriteLine(--i); //i = 0. Pre-Decrementation + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Estrutura de Controle + /////////////////////////////////////// + Console.WriteLine("\n->Control Structures"); + + // Declaração if é como a linguagem C + int j = 10; + if (j == 10) + { + Console.WriteLine("I get printed"); + } + else if (j > 10) + { + Console.WriteLine("I don't"); + } + else + { + Console.WriteLine("I also don't"); + } + + // Operador Ternário + // Um simples if/else pode ser escrito da seguinte forma + // <condição> ? <verdadeiro> : <falso> + int toCompare = 17; + string isTrue = toCompare == 17 ? "True" : "False"; + + // While loop + int fooWhile = 0; + while (fooWhile < 100) + { + //Iterated 100 times, fooWhile 0->99 + fooWhile++; + } + + // Do While Loop + int fooDoWhile = 0; + do + { + // Inicia a interação 100 vezes, fooDoWhile 0->99 + if (false) + continue; // pule a intereção atual para apróxima + + fooDoWhile++; + + if (fooDoWhile == 50) + break; // Interrompe o laço inteiro + + } while (fooDoWhile < 100); + + //estrutura de loop for => for(<declaração para começar>; <condicional>; <passos>) + for (int fooFor = 0; fooFor < 10; fooFor++) + { + //Iterado 10 vezes, fooFor 0->9 + } + + // For Each Loop + // Estrutura do foreach => foreach(<Tipo Iterador> <Nome do Iterador> in <enumerable>) + // O laço foreach percorre sobre qualquer objeto que implementa IEnumerable ou IEnumerable<T> + // Toda a coleção de tipos (Array, List, Dictionary...) no .Net framework + // implementa uma ou mais destas interfaces. + // (O ToCharArray() pode ser removido, por que uma string também implementa IEnumerable) + foreach (char character in "Hello World".ToCharArray()) + { + //Iterated over all the characters in the string + } + + // Switch Case + // Um switch funciona com os tipos de dados byte, short, char, e int. + // Isto também funcional com tipos enumeradors (discutidos em Tipos Enum), + // A classe String, and a few special classes that wrap + // tipos primitívos: Character, Byte, Short, and Integer. + int month = 3; + string monthString; + switch (month) + { + case 1: + monthString = "January"; + break; + case 2: + monthString = "February"; + break; + case 3: + monthString = "March"; + break; + // You can assign more than one case to an action + // But you can't add an action without a break before another case + // (if you want to do this, you would have to explicitly add a goto case x + case 6: + case 7: + case 8: + monthString = "Summer time!!"; + break; + default: + monthString = "Some other month"; + break; + } + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Converting Data Types And Typecasting + /////////////////////////////////////// + + // Converting data + + // Convert String To Integer + // this will throw a FormatException on failure + int.Parse("123");//returns an integer version of "123" + + // try parse will default to type default on failure + // in this case: 0 + int tryInt; + if (int.TryParse("123", out tryInt)) // Function is boolean + Console.WriteLine(tryInt); // 123 + + // Convert Integer To String + // Convert class has a number of methods to facilitate conversions + Convert.ToString(123); + // or + tryInt.ToString(); + + // Casting + // Cast decimal 15 to a int + // and then implicitly cast to long + long x = (int) 15M; + } + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // CLASSES - see definitions at end of file + /////////////////////////////////////// + public static void Classes() + { + // See Declaration of objects at end of file + + // Use new to instantiate a class + Bicycle trek = new Bicycle(); + + // Call object methods + trek.SpeedUp(3); // You should always use setter and getter methods + trek.Cadence = 100; + + // ToString is a convention to display the value of this Object. + Console.WriteLine("trek info: " + trek.Info()); + + // Instantiate a new Penny Farthing + PennyFarthing funbike = new PennyFarthing(1, 10); + Console.WriteLine("funbike info: " + funbike.Info()); + + Console.Read(); + } // End main method + + // CONSOLE ENTRY A console application must have a main method as an entry point + public static void Main(string[] args) + { + OtherInterestingFeatures(); + } + + // + // INTERESTING FEATURES + // + + // DEFAULT METHOD SIGNATURES + + public // Visibility + static // Allows for direct call on class without object + int // Return Type, + MethodSignatures( + int maxCount, // First variable, expects an int + int count = 0, // will default the value to 0 if not passed in + int another = 3, + params string[] otherParams // captures all other parameters passed to method + ) + { + return -1; + } + + // Methods can have the same name, as long as the signature is unique + // A method that differs only in return type is not unique + public static void MethodSignatures( + ref int maxCount, // Pass by reference + out int count) + { + count = 15; // out param must be assigned before control leaves the method + } + + // GENERICS + // The classes for TKey and TValue is specified by the user calling this function. + // This method emulates the SetDefault of Python + public static TValue SetDefault<TKey, TValue>( + IDictionary<TKey, TValue> dictionary, + TKey key, + TValue defaultItem) + { + TValue result; + if (!dictionary.TryGetValue(key, out result)) + return dictionary[key] = defaultItem; + return result; + } + + // You can narrow down the objects that are passed in + public static void IterateAndPrint<T>(T toPrint) where T: IEnumerable<int> + { + // We can iterate, since T is a IEnumerable + foreach (var item in toPrint) + // Item is an int + Console.WriteLine(item.ToString()); + } + + public static void OtherInterestingFeatures() + { + // OPTIONAL PARAMETERS + MethodSignatures(3, 1, 3, "Some", "Extra", "Strings"); + MethodSignatures(3, another: 3); // explicity set a parameter, skipping optional ones + + // BY REF AND OUT PARAMETERS + int maxCount = 0, count; // ref params must have value + MethodSignatures(ref maxCount, out count); + + // EXTENSION METHODS + int i = 3; + i.Print(); // Defined below + + // NULLABLE TYPES - great for database interaction / return values + // any value type (i.e. not a class) can be made nullable by suffixing a ? + // <type>? <var name> = <value> + int? nullable = null; // short hand for Nullable<int> + Console.WriteLine("Nullable variable: " + nullable); + bool hasValue = nullable.HasValue; // true if not null + + // ?? is syntactic sugar for specifying default value (coalesce) + // in case variable is null + int notNullable = nullable ?? 0; // 0 + + // IMPLICITLY TYPED VARIABLES - you can let the compiler work out what the type is: + var magic = "magic is a string, at compile time, so you still get type safety"; + // magic = 9; will not work as magic is a string, not an int + + // GENERICS + // + var phonebook = new Dictionary<string, string>() { + {"Sarah", "212 555 5555"} // Add some entries to the phone book + }; + + // Calling SETDEFAULT defined as a generic above + Console.WriteLine(SetDefault<string,string>(phonebook, "Shaun", "No Phone")); // No Phone + // nb, you don't need to specify the TKey and TValue since they can be + // derived implicitly + Console.WriteLine(SetDefault(phonebook, "Sarah", "No Phone")); // 212 555 5555 + + // LAMBDA EXPRESSIONS - allow you to write code in line + Func<int, int> square = (x) => x * x; // Last T item is the return value + Console.WriteLine(square(3)); // 9 + + // ERROR HANDLING - coping with an uncertain world + try + { + var funBike = PennyFarthing.CreateWithGears(6); + + // will no longer execute because CreateWithGears throws an exception + string some = ""; + if (true) some = null; + some.ToLower(); // throws a NullReferenceException + } + catch (NotSupportedException) + { + Console.WriteLine("Not so much fun now!"); + } + catch (Exception ex) // catch all other exceptions + { + throw new ApplicationException("It hit the fan", ex); + // throw; // A rethrow that preserves the callstack + } + // catch { } // catch-all without capturing the Exception + finally + { + // executes after try or catch + } + + // DISPOSABLE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT - let you handle unmanaged resources easily. + // Most of objects that access unmanaged resources (file handle, device contexts, etc.) + // implement the IDisposable interface. The using statement takes care of + // cleaning those IDisposable objects for you. + using (StreamWriter writer = new StreamWriter("log.txt")) + { + writer.WriteLine("Nothing suspicious here"); + // At the end of scope, resources will be released. + // Even if an exception is thrown. + } + + // PARALLEL FRAMEWORK + // http://blogs.msdn.com/b/csharpfaq/archive/2010/06/01/parallel-programming-in-net-framework-4-getting-started.aspx + var websites = new string[] { + "http://www.google.com", "http://www.reddit.com", + "http://www.shaunmccarthy.com" + }; + var responses = new Dictionary<string, string>(); + + // Will spin up separate threads for each request, and join on them + // before going to the next step! + Parallel.ForEach(websites, + new ParallelOptions() {MaxDegreeOfParallelism = 3}, // max of 3 threads + website => + { + // Do something that takes a long time on the file + using (var r = WebRequest.Create(new Uri(website)).GetResponse()) + { + responses[website] = r.ContentType; + } + }); + + // This won't happen till after all requests have been completed + foreach (var key in responses.Keys) + Console.WriteLine("{0}:{1}", key, responses[key]); + + // DYNAMIC OBJECTS (great for working with other languages) + dynamic student = new ExpandoObject(); + student.FirstName = "First Name"; // No need to define class first! + + // You can even add methods (returns a string, and takes in a string) + student.Introduce = new Func<string, string>( + (introduceTo) => string.Format("Hey {0}, this is {1}", student.FirstName, introduceTo)); + Console.WriteLine(student.Introduce("Beth")); + + // IQUERYABLE<T> - almost all collections implement this, which gives you a lot of + // very useful Map / Filter / Reduce style methods + var bikes = new List<Bicycle>(); + bikes.Sort(); // Sorts the array + bikes.Sort((b1, b2) => b1.Wheels.CompareTo(b2.Wheels)); // Sorts based on wheels + var result = bikes + .Where(b => b.Wheels > 3) // Filters - chainable (returns IQueryable of previous type) + .Where(b => b.IsBroken && b.HasTassles) + .Select(b => b.ToString()); // Map - we only this selects, so result is a IQueryable<string> + + var sum = bikes.Sum(b => b.Wheels); // Reduce - sums all the wheels in the collection + + // Create a list of IMPLICIT objects based on some parameters of the bike + var bikeSummaries = bikes.Select(b=>new { Name = b.Name, IsAwesome = !b.IsBroken && b.HasTassles }); + // Hard to show here, but you get type ahead completion since the compiler can implicitly work + // out the types above! + foreach (var bikeSummary in bikeSummaries.Where(b => b.IsAwesome)) + Console.WriteLine(bikeSummary.Name); + + // ASPARALLEL + // And this is where things get wicked - combines linq and parallel operations + var threeWheelers = bikes.AsParallel().Where(b => b.Wheels == 3).Select(b => b.Name); + // this will happen in parallel! Threads will automagically be spun up and the + // results divvied amongst them! Amazing for large datasets when you have lots of + // cores + + // LINQ - maps a store to IQueryable<T> objects, with delayed execution + // e.g. LinqToSql - maps to a database, LinqToXml maps to an xml document + var db = new BikeRepository(); + + // execution is delayed, which is great when querying a database + var filter = db.Bikes.Where(b => b.HasTassles); // no query run + if (42 > 6) // You can keep adding filters, even conditionally - great for "advanced search" functionality + filter = filter.Where(b => b.IsBroken); // no query run + + var query = filter + .OrderBy(b => b.Wheels) + .ThenBy(b => b.Name) + .Select(b => b.Name); // still no query run + + // Now the query runs, but opens a reader, so only populates are you iterate through + foreach (string bike in query) + Console.WriteLine(result); + + + + } + + } // End LearnCSharp class + + // You can include other classes in a .cs file + + public static class Extensions + { + // EXTENSION FUNCTIONS + public static void Print(this object obj) + { + Console.WriteLine(obj.ToString()); + } + } + + // Class Declaration Syntax: + // <public/private/protected/internal> class <class name>{ + // //data fields, constructors, functions all inside. + // //functions are called as methods in Java. + // } + + public class Bicycle + { + // Bicycle's Fields/Variables + public int Cadence // Public: Can be accessed from anywhere + { + get // get - define a method to retrieve the property + { + return _cadence; + } + set // set - define a method to set a proprety + { + _cadence = value; // Value is the value passed in to the setter + } + } + private int _cadence; + + protected virtual int Gear // Protected: Accessible from the class and subclasses + { + get; // creates an auto property so you don't need a member field + set; + } + + internal int Wheels // Internal: Accessible from within the assembly + { + get; + private set; // You can set modifiers on the get/set methods + } + + int _speed; // Everything is private by default: Only accessible from within this class. + // can also use keyword private + public string Name { get; set; } + + // Enum is a value type that consists of a set of named constants + // It is really just mapping a name to a value (an int, unless specified otherwise). + // The approved types for an enum are byte, sbyte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, or ulong. + // An enum can't contain the same value twice. + public enum BikeBrand + { + AIST, + BMC, + Electra = 42, //you can explicitly set a value to a name + Gitane // 43 + } + // We defined this type inside a Bicycle class, so it is a nested type + // Code outside of this class should reference this type as Bicycle.Brand + + public BikeBrand Brand; // After declaring an enum type, we can declare the field of this type + + // Decorate an enum with the FlagsAttribute to indicate that multiple values can be switched on + [Flags] // Any class derived from Attribute can be used to decorate types, methods, parameters etc + public enum BikeAccessories + { + None = 0, + Bell = 1, + MudGuards = 2, // need to set the values manually! + Racks = 4, + Lights = 8, + FullPackage = Bell | MudGuards | Racks | Lights + } + + // Usage: aBike.Accessories.HasFlag(Bicycle.BikeAccessories.Bell) + // Before .NET 4: (aBike.Accessories & Bicycle.BikeAccessories.Bell) == Bicycle.BikeAccessories.Bell + public BikeAccessories Accessories { get; set; } + + // Static members belong to the type itself rather then specific object. + // You can access them without a reference to any object: + // Console.WriteLine("Bicycles created: " + Bicycle.bicyclesCreated); + public static int BicyclesCreated { get; set; } + + // readonly values are set at run time + // they can only be assigned upon declaration or in a constructor + readonly bool _hasCardsInSpokes = false; // read-only private + + // Constructors are a way of creating classes + // This is a default constructor + public Bicycle() + { + this.Gear = 1; // you can access members of the object with the keyword this + Cadence = 50; // but you don't always need it + _speed = 5; + Name = "Bontrager"; + Brand = BikeBrand.AIST; + BicyclesCreated++; + } + + // This is a specified constructor (it contains arguments) + public Bicycle(int startCadence, int startSpeed, int startGear, + string name, bool hasCardsInSpokes, BikeBrand brand) + : base() // calls base first + { + Gear = startGear; + Cadence = startCadence; + _speed = startSpeed; + Name = name; + _hasCardsInSpokes = hasCardsInSpokes; + Brand = brand; + } + + // Constructors can be chained + public Bicycle(int startCadence, int startSpeed, BikeBrand brand) : + this(startCadence, startSpeed, 0, "big wheels", true, brand) + { + } + + // Function Syntax: + // <public/private/protected> <return type> <function name>(<args>) + + // classes can implement getters and setters for their fields + // or they can implement properties (this is the preferred way in C#) + + // Method parameters can have default values. + // In this case, methods can be called with these parameters omitted + public void SpeedUp(int increment = 1) + { + _speed += increment; + } + + public void SlowDown(int decrement = 1) + { + _speed -= decrement; + } + + // properties get/set values + // when only data needs to be accessed, consider using properties. + // properties may have either get or set, or both + private bool _hasTassles; // private variable + public bool HasTassles // public accessor + { + get { return _hasTassles; } + set { _hasTassles = value; } + } + + // You can also define an automatic property in one line + // this syntax will create a backing field automatically. + // You can set an access modifier on either the getter or the setter (or both) + // to restrict its access: + public bool IsBroken { get; private set; } + + // Properties can be auto-implemented + public int FrameSize + { + get; + // you are able to specify access modifiers for either get or set + // this means only Bicycle class can call set on Framesize + private set; + } + + // It's also possible to define custom Indexers on objects. + // All though this is not entirely useful in this example, you + // could do bicycle[0] which yields "chris" to get the first passenger or + // bicycle[1] = "lisa" to set the passenger. (of this apparent quattrocycle) + private string[] passengers = { "chris", "phil", "darren", "regina" }; + + public string this[int i] + { + get { + return passengers[i]; + } + + set { + return passengers[i] = value; + } + } + + //Method to display the attribute values of this Object. + public virtual string Info() + { + return "Gear: " + Gear + + " Cadence: " + Cadence + + " Speed: " + _speed + + " Name: " + Name + + " Cards in Spokes: " + (_hasCardsInSpokes ? "yes" : "no") + + "\n------------------------------\n" + ; + } + + // Methods can also be static. It can be useful for helper methods + public static bool DidWeCreateEnoughBycles() + { + // Within a static method, we only can reference static class members + return BicyclesCreated > 9000; + } // If your class only needs static members, consider marking the class itself as static. + + + } // end class Bicycle + + // PennyFarthing is a subclass of Bicycle + class PennyFarthing : Bicycle + { + // (Penny Farthings are those bicycles with the big front wheel. + // They have no gears.) + + // calling parent constructor + public PennyFarthing(int startCadence, int startSpeed) : + base(startCadence, startSpeed, 0, "PennyFarthing", true, BikeBrand.Electra) + { + } + + protected override int Gear + { + get + { + return 0; + } + set + { + throw new InvalidOperationException("You can't change gears on a PennyFarthing"); + } + } + + public static PennyFarthing CreateWithGears(int gears) + { + var penny = new PennyFarthing(1, 1); + penny.Gear = gears; // Oops, can't do this! + return penny; + } + + public override string Info() + { + string result = "PennyFarthing bicycle "; + result += base.ToString(); // Calling the base version of the method + return result; + } + } + + // Interfaces only contain signatures of the members, without the implementation. + interface IJumpable + { + void Jump(int meters); // all interface members are implicitly public + } + + interface IBreakable + { + bool Broken { get; } // interfaces can contain properties as well as methods & events + } + + // Class can inherit only one other class, but can implement any amount of interfaces + class MountainBike : Bicycle, IJumpable, IBreakable + { + int damage = 0; + + public void Jump(int meters) + { + damage += meters; + } + + public bool Broken + { + get + { + return damage > 100; + } + } + } + + /// <summary> + /// Used to connect to DB for LinqToSql example. + /// EntityFramework Code First is awesome (similar to Ruby's ActiveRecord, but bidirectional) + /// http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/data/jj193542.aspx + /// </summary> + public class BikeRepository : DbContext + { + public BikeRepository() + : base() + { + } + + public DbSet<Bicycle> Bikes { get; set; } + } +} // End Namespace +``` + +## Topics Not Covered + + * Attributes + * async/await, yield, pragma directives + * Web Development + * ASP.NET MVC & WebApi (new) + * ASP.NET Web Forms (old) + * WebMatrix (tool) + * Desktop Development + * Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) (new) + * Winforms (old) + +## Further Reading + + * [DotNetPerls](http://www.dotnetperls.com) + * [C# in Depth](http://manning.com/skeet2) + * [Programming C#](http://shop.oreilly.com/product/0636920024064.do) + * [LINQ](http://shop.oreilly.com/product/9780596519254.do) + * [MSDN Library](http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/618ayhy6.aspx) + * [ASP.NET MVC Tutorials](http://www.asp.net/mvc/tutorials) + * [ASP.NET Web Matrix Tutorials](http://www.asp.net/web-pages/tutorials) + * [ASP.NET Web Forms Tutorials](http://www.asp.net/web-forms/tutorials) + * [Windows Forms Programming in C#](http://www.amazon.com/Windows-Forms-Programming-Chris-Sells/dp/0321116208) + * [C# Coding Conventions](http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/vstudio/ff926074.aspx) diff --git a/pt-br/css-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/css-pt.html.markdown index ed6f6c4c..b1fbd961 100644 --- a/pt-br/css-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/css-pt.html.markdown @@ -159,11 +159,11 @@ seletor { color: # FF66EE; /* Formato hexadecimal longo */ color: tomato; /* Uma cor nomeada */ color: rgb (255, 255, 255); /* Como valores rgb */ - cor: RGB (10%, 20%, 50%); /* Como porcentagens rgb */ - cor: rgba (255, 0, 0, 0,3); /* Como valores RGBA (CSS 3) NOTA: 0 <a <1 */ + color: RGB (10%, 20%, 50%); /* Como porcentagens rgb */ + color: rgba (255, 0, 0, 0,3); /* Como valores RGBA (CSS 3) NOTA: 0 <a <1 */ color: transparent; /* Equivale a definir o alfa a 0 */ - cor: HSL (0, 100%, 50%); /* Como porcentagens HSL (CSS 3) */ - cor: HSLA (0, 100%, 50%, 0,3); /* Como porcentagens HSLA com alfa */ + color: HSL (0, 100%, 50%); /* Como porcentagens HSL (CSS 3) */ + color: HSLA (0, 100%, 50%, 0,3); /* Como porcentagens HSLA com alfa */ /* Imagens como fundos de elementos */ background-image: url (/img-path/img.jpg); /* Citações dentro url () opcional */ diff --git a/pt-br/git-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/git-pt.html.markdown index 981da503..ea3570d6 100644 --- a/pt-br/git-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/git-pt.html.markdown @@ -5,8 +5,12 @@ lang: pt-br filename: LearnGit.txt contributors: - ["Jake Prather", "http://github.com/JakeHP"] + - ["Leo Rudberg" , "http://github.com/LOZORD"] + - ["Betsy Lorton" , "http://github.com/schbetsy"] + - ["Bruno Volcov", "http://github.com/volcov"] translators: - ["Suzane Sant Ana", "http://github.com/suuuzi"] + - ["Bruno Volcov", "http://github.com/volcov"] --- Git é um sistema distribuido de gestão para código fonte e controle de versões. @@ -84,6 +88,11 @@ Um *branch* é essencialmente uma referência que aponta para o último *commit* efetuado. Na medida que são feitos novos commits, esta referência é atualizada automaticamente e passa a apontar para o commit mais recente. +### *Tag* + +Uma tag é uma marcação em um ponto específico da história. Geralmente as +pessoas usam esta funcionalidade para marcar pontos de release (v2.0, e por aí vai) + ### *HEAD* e *head* (componentes do diretório .git) *HEAD* é a referência que aponta para o *branch* em uso. Um repositório só tem @@ -196,6 +205,29 @@ $ git branch -m myBranchName myNewBranchName $ git branch myBranchName --edit-description ``` +### Tag + +Gerencia as *tags* + +```bash +# Listar tags +$ git tag +# Criar uma tag anotada. +# O parâmetro -m define uma mensagem, que é armazenada com a tag. +# Se você não especificar uma mensagem para uma tag anotada, +# o Git vai rodar seu editor de texto para você digitar alguma coisa. +$ git tag -a v2.0 -m 'minha versão 2.0' +# Mostrar informações sobre a tag +# O comando mostra a informação da pessoa que criou a tag, +# a data de quando o commit foi taggeado, +# e a mensagem antes de mostrar a informação do commit. +$ git show v2.0 +# Enviar uma tag para o repositório remoto +$ git push origin v2.0 +# Enviar várias tags para o repositório remoto +$ git push origin --tags +``` + ### checkout Atualiza todos os arquivos no diretório do projeto para que fiquem iguais diff --git a/pt-br/hy-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/hy-pt.html.markdown index 4230579d..5fa4df75 100644 --- a/pt-br/hy-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/hy-pt.html.markdown @@ -171,6 +171,6 @@ Este tutorial é apenas uma introdução básica para hy/lisp/python. Docs Hy: [http://hy.readthedocs.org](http://hy.readthedocs.org) -Repo Hy no Github: [http://github.com/hylang/hy](http://github.com/hylang/hy) +Repo Hy no GitHub: [http://github.com/hylang/hy](http://github.com/hylang/hy) Acesso ao freenode irc com #hy, hashtag no twitter: #hylang diff --git a/pt-br/java-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/java-pt.html.markdown index a884f273..3c9512aa 100644 --- a/pt-br/java-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/java-pt.html.markdown @@ -405,6 +405,219 @@ class Velocipede extends Bicicleta { } +// Interfaces +// Sintaxe de declaração de Interface +// <nível de acesso> Interface <nome-da-interface> extends <super-interfaces> { +// // Constantes +// // Declarações de método +//} + +// Exemplo - Comida: +public interface Comestivel { + public void comer(); // Qualquer classe que implementa essa interface, deve + // Implementar este método. +} + +public interface Digestivel { + public void digerir(); +} + + +// Agora podemos criar uma classe que implementa ambas as interfaces. +public class Fruta implements Comestivel, Digestivel { + + @Override + public void comer() { + // ... + } + + @Override + public void digerir() { + // ... + } +} + +// Em Java, você pode estender somente uma classe, mas você pode implementar muitas +// Interfaces. Por exemplo: +public class ClasseExemplo extends ExemploClassePai implements InterfaceUm, + InterfaceDois { + + @Override + public void InterfaceUmMetodo() { + } + + @Override + public void InterfaceDoisMetodo() { + } + +} + +// Classes abstratas + +// Sintaxe de declaração de classe abstrata +// <Nível de acesso> abstract <nome-da-classe-abstrata> extends <estende super-abstratas-classes> { +// // Constantes e variáveis +// // Declarações de método +//} + +// Marcar uma classe como abstrata significa que ela contém métodos abstratos que devem +// ser definido em uma classe filha. Semelhante às interfaces, classes abstratas não podem +// ser instanciadas, ao invés disso devem ser extendidas e os métodos abstratos +// definidos. Diferente de interfaces, classes abstratas podem conter uma mistura de +// métodos concretos e abstratos. Métodos em uma interface não podem ter um corpo, +// a menos que o método seja estático, e as variáveis sejam finais, por padrão, ao contrário de um +// classe abstrata. Classes abstratas também PODEM ter o método "main". + +public abstract class Animal +{ + public abstract void fazerSom(); + + // Método pode ter um corpo + public void comer() + { + System.out.println("Eu sou um animal e estou comendo."); + //Nota: Nós podemos acessar variáveis privadas aqui. + idade = 30; + } + + // Não há necessidade de inicializar, no entanto, em uma interface + // a variável é implicitamente final e, portanto, tem + // de ser inicializado. + protected int idade; + + public void mostrarIdade() + { + System.out.println(idade); + } + + //Classes abstratas podem ter o método main. + public static void main(String[] args) + { + System.out.println("Eu sou abstrata"); + } +} + +class Cachorro extends Animal +{ + + // Nota: ainda precisamos substituir os métodos abstratos na + // classe abstrata + @Override + public void fazerSom() + { + System.out.println("Bark"); + // idade = 30; ==> ERRO! idade é privada de Animal + } + + // NOTA: Você receberá um erro se usou a + // anotação Override aqui, uma vez que java não permite + // sobrescrita de métodos estáticos. + // O que está acontecendo aqui é chamado de "esconder o método". + // Vejá também este impressionante SO post: http://stackoverflow.com/questions/16313649/ + public static void main(String[] args) + { + Cachorro pluto = new Cachorro(); + pluto.fazerSom(); + pluto.comer(); + pluto.mostrarIdade(); + } +} + +// Classes Finais + +// Sintaxe de declaração de classe final +// <nível de acesso> final <nome-da-classe-final> { +// // Constantes e variáveis +// // Declarações de método +//} + +// Classes finais são classes que não podem ser herdadas e são, portanto, um +// filha final. De certa forma, as classes finais são o oposto de classes abstratas +// Porque classes abstratas devem ser estendidas, mas as classes finais não pode ser +// estendidas. +public final class TigreDenteDeSabre extends Animal +{ + // Nota: Ainda precisamos substituir os métodos abstratos na + // classe abstrata. + @Override + public void fazerSom(); + { + System.out.println("Roar"); + } +} + +// Métodos Finais +public abstract class Mamifero() +{ + // Sintaxe de Métodos Finais: + // <modificador-de-acesso> final <tipo-de-retorno> <nome-do-método>(<argumentos>) + + // Métodos finais, como, classes finais não podem ser substituídas por uma classe filha, + // e são, portanto, a implementação final do método. + public final boolean EImpulsivo() + { + return true; + } +} + + +// Tipo Enum +// +// Um tipo enum é um tipo de dado especial que permite a uma variável ser um conjunto de constantes predefinidas. A +// variável deve ser igual a um dos valores que foram previamente definidos para ela. +// Por serem constantes, os nomes dos campos de um tipo de enumeração estão em letras maiúsculas. +// Na linguagem de programação Java, você define um tipo de enumeração usando a palavra-chave enum. Por exemplo, você poderia +// especificar um tipo de enum dias-da-semana como: + +public enum Dia { + DOMINGO, SEGUNDA, TERÇA, QUARTA, + QUINTA, SEXTA, SABADO +} + +// Nós podemos usar nosso enum Dia assim: + +public class EnumTeste { + + // Variável Enum + Dia dia; + + public EnumTeste(Dia dia) { + this.dia = dia; + } + + public void digaComoE() { + switch (dia) { + case SEGUNDA: + System.out.println("Segundas são ruins."); + break; + + case SEXTA: + System.out.println("Sextas são melhores."); + break; + + case SABADO: + case DOMINGO: + System.out.println("Finais de semana são os melhores."); + break; + + default: + System.out.println("Dias no meio da semana são mais ou menos."); + break; + } + } + + public static void main(String[] args) { + EnumTeste primeiroDia = new EnumTeste(Dia.SEGUNDA); + primeiroDia.digaComoE(); // => Segundas-feiras são ruins. + EnumTeste terceiroDia = new EnumTeste(Dia.QUARTA); + terceiroDia.digaComoE(); // => Dias no meio da semana são mais ou menos. + } +} + +// Tipos Enum são muito mais poderosos do que nós mostramos acima. +// O corpo de um enum pode incluir métodos e outros campos. +// Você pode ver mais em https://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/javaOO/enum.html + ``` ## Leitura Recomendada diff --git a/pt-br/javascript-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/javascript-pt.html.markdown index 406042fa..59c6890e 100644 --- a/pt-br/javascript-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/javascript-pt.html.markdown @@ -436,7 +436,6 @@ var myPrototype = { myObj.__proto__ = myPrototype; myObj.meaningOfLife; // = 42 -// This works for functions, too. // Isto funciona para funções, também. myObj.myFunc(); // = "olá mundo!" @@ -506,7 +505,7 @@ String.prototype.firstCharacter = function(){ // Havíamos mencionado que `Object.create` não estava ainda disponível em // todos as implementações, mas nós podemos usá-lo com esse polyfill: -if (Object.create === undefined){ // don't overwrite it if it exists +if (Object.create === undefined){ // Não o sobrescreve se já existir Object.create = function(proto){ // faz um construtor temporário com o prototype certo var Constructor = function(){}; @@ -520,13 +519,13 @@ if (Object.create === undefined){ // don't overwrite it if it exists ## Leitura Adicional O [Mozilla Developer -Network](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript) dispõe de uma +Network](https://developer.mozilla.org/pt-BR/docs/Web/JavaScript) dispõe de uma excelente documentação sobre Javascript e seu uso nos browsers. E mais, é uma wiki, portanto conforme você vai aprendendo, mais você pode ir ajudando os outros compartilhando do seu conhecimento. [Uma re-introdução do JavaScript pela MDN] -(https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript) +(https://developer.mozilla.org/pt-BR/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript) cobre muito dos conceitos abordados aqui em mais detalhes. Este guia fala somente sobre a linguagem JavaScript em si; se você quiser aprender mais sobre e como usar o JavaScript em páginas na web, comece aprendendo sobre @@ -543,5 +542,5 @@ profundo de todas as partes do JavaScript. / livro de referência. Parte desse artigo foi adaptado do tutorial de Python do Louie Dinh que está -nesse site e do [Tutorial de JS](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript) +nesse site e do [Tutorial de JS](https://developer.mozilla.org/pt-BR/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript) da Mozilla Developer Network. diff --git a/pt-br/json-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/json-pt.html.markdown index e4f10a61..fd822c03 100644 --- a/pt-br/json-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/json-pt.html.markdown @@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ language: json contributors: - ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"] - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] + - ["Francisco Marques", "https://github.com/ToFran"] translators: - ["Miguel Araújo", "https://github.com/miguelarauj1o"] lang: pt-br @@ -12,10 +13,16 @@ filename: learnjson-pt.json Como JSON é um formato de intercâmbio de dados, este será, muito provavelmente, o "Learn X in Y minutes" mais simples existente. -JSON na sua forma mais pura não tem comentários em reais, mas a maioria dos analisadores -aceitarão comentários no estilo C (//, /\* \*/). Para os fins do presente, no entanto, -tudo o que é vai ser 100% JSON válido. Felizmente, isso meio que fala por si. +JSON na sua forma mais pura não tem comentários, mas a maioria dos analisadores +aceitarão comentários no estilo C (//, /\* \*/). No entanto estes devem ser evitados para otimizar a compatibilidade. +Um valor JSON pode ser um numero, uma string, um array, um objeto, um booleano (true, false) ou null. + +Os browsers suportados são: Firefox 3.5+, Internet Explorer 8.0+, Chrome 1.0+, Opera 10.0+, e Safari 4.0+. + +A extensão dos ficheiros JSON é “.json” e o tipo de mídia de Internet (MIME) é “application/json”. + +Mais informação em: http://www.json.org/ ```json { @@ -57,6 +64,6 @@ tudo o que é vai ser 100% JSON válido. Felizmente, isso meio que fala por si. , "outro comentário": "que bom" }, - "que foi curto": "E, você está feito. Você já sabe tudo que JSON tem para oferecer.". + "que foi curto": "E, você está feito. Você já sabe tudo que JSON tem para oferecer." } ``` diff --git a/pt-br/markdown-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/markdown-pt.html.markdown index 4030ce3c..f22093f9 100644 --- a/pt-br/markdown-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/markdown-pt.html.markdown @@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ __E este também está._ *--Danouse! Este também__* <!-- Em GitHub Flavored Markdown, que é usado para processar arquivos Markdown -Github, nós também temos: --> +GitHub, nós também temos: --> ~~Este texto é processado com tachado.~~ @@ -148,7 +148,7 @@ dentro do seu código --> John não sabia nem o que o função 'goto()' fazia! -<!-- Em Github Flavored Markdown, você pode usar uma sintaxe especial para o código --> +<!-- Em GitHub Flavored Markdown, você pode usar uma sintaxe especial para o código --> \`\`\`ruby <!-- exceto remover essas barras invertidas quando você faz isso, apenas ``` ruby! --> @@ -157,7 +157,7 @@ def foobar end \`\`\` <!-- Aqui também, não barras invertidas, apenas ``` --> -<-- O texto acima não requer recuo, mas o Github vai usar a sintaxe +<-- O texto acima não requer recuo, mas o GitHub vai usar a sintaxe destacando do idioma que você especificar após a ``` --> <!-- Regra Horizontal (<hr />) --> @@ -230,7 +230,7 @@ Quero digitar * Este texto entre asteriscos *, mas eu não quero que ele seja em itálico, então eu faço o seguinte: \*Este texto entre asteriscos \*. <!-- Tabelas --> -<!-- Tabelas estão disponíveis apenas no Github Flavored Markdown e são ligeiramente +<!-- Tabelas estão disponíveis apenas no GitHub Flavored Markdown e são ligeiramente complicadas, mas se você realmente quer: --> | Col1 | Col2 | Col3 | diff --git a/pt-br/matlab-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/matlab-pt.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..eb660d4c --- /dev/null +++ b/pt-br/matlab-pt.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,540 @@ +--- +language: Matlab +contributors: + - ["mendozao", "http://github.com/mendozao"] + - ["jamesscottbrown", "http://jamesscottbrown.com"] + - ["Colton Kohnke", "http://github.com/voltnor"] +translators: + - ["Claudson Martins", "https://github.com/claudsonm"] +lang: pt-br +filename: learnmatlab-pt.mat + +--- + +MATLAB significa MATrix LABoratory. É uma poderosa linguagem de computação numérica geralmente utilizada em engenharia e matemática. + +Se você tem algum feedback, por favor fique a vontade para me contactar via +[@the_ozzinator](https://twitter.com/the_ozzinator), ou +[osvaldo.t.mendoza@gmail.com](mailto:osvaldo.t.mendoza@gmail.com). + +```matlab +% Comentários iniciam com um sinal de porcentagem + +%{ +Comentários de múltiplas linhas +parecem +com +algo assim +%} + +% Comandos podem ocupar várinhas linhas, usando '...': + a = 1 + 2 + ... + + 4 + +% Comandos podem ser passados para o sistema operacional +!ping google.com + +who % Exibe todas as variáveis na memória +whos % Exibe todas as variáveis na memória, com seus tipos +clear % Apaga todas as suas variáveis da memória +clear('A') % Apaga uma variável em particular +openvar('A') % Abre a variável no editor de variável + +clc % Apaga o conteúdo escrito na sua janela de comando +diary % Alterna o conteúdo escrito na janela de comando para um arquivo de texto +ctrl-c % Aborta a computação atual + +edit('minhafuncao.m') % Abre a função/script no editor +type('minhafuncao.m') % Imprime o código-fonte da função/script na janela de comando + +profile on % Ativa o perfil de código +profile off % Desativa o perfil de código +profile viewer % Visualiza os resultados na janela de Profiler + +help comando % Exibe a documentação do comando na janela de comando +doc comando % Exibe a documentação do comando na janela de ajuda +lookfor comando % Procura por comando na primeira linha comentada de todas as funções +lookfor comando -all % Procura por comando em todas as funções + + +% Formatação de saída +format short % 4 casas decimais em um número flutuante +format long % 15 casas decimais +format bank % 2 dígitos após o ponto decimal - para cálculos financeiros +fprintf('texto') % Imprime na tela "texto" +disp('texto') % Imprime na tela "texto" + +% Variáveis & Expressões +minhaVariavel = 4 % O painel Workspace mostra a variável recém-criada +minhaVariavel = 4; % Ponto e vírgula suprime a saída para a janela de comando +4 + 6 % Resposta = 10 +8 * minhaVariavel % Resposta = 32 +2 ^ 3 % Resposta = 8 +a = 2; b = 3; +c = exp(a)*sin(pi/2) % c = 7.3891 + +% A chamada de funções pode ser feita por uma das duas maneiras: +% Sintaxe de função padrão: +load('arquivo.mat', 'y') % Argumentos entre parênteses, separados por vírgula +% Sintaxe de comando: +load arquivo.mat y % Sem parênteses, e espaços ao invés de vírgulas +% Observe a falta de aspas na forma de comando: entradas são sempre passadas +% como texto literal - não pode passar valores de variáveis. +% Além disso, não pode receber saída: +[V,D] = eig(A); % Isto não tem um equivalente na forma de comando +[~,D] = eig(A); % Se você só deseja D e não V + + + +% Operadores Lógicos e Relacionais +1 > 5 % Resposta = 0 +10 >= 10 % Resposta = 1 +3 ~= 4 % Diferente de -> Resposta = 1 +3 == 3 % Igual a -> Resposta = 1 +3 > 1 && 4 > 1 % E -> Resposta = 1 +3 > 1 || 4 > 1 % OU -> Resposta = 1 +~1 % NOT -> Resposta = 0 + +% Operadores Lógicos e Relacionais podem ser aplicados a matrizes +A > 5 +% Para cada elemento, caso seja verdade, esse elemento será 1 na matriz retornada +A( A > 5 ) +% Retorna um vetor com os elementos de A para os quais a condição é verdadeira + +% Cadeias de caracteres (Strings) +a = 'MinhaString' +length(a) % Resposta = 11 +a(2) % Resposta = i +[a,a] % Resposta = MinhaStringMinhaString + + +% Vetores de células +a = {'um', 'dois', 'três'} +a(1) % Resposta = 'um' - retorna uma célula +char(a(1)) % Resposta = um - retorna uma string + +% Estruturas +A.b = {'um','dois'}; +A.c = [1 2]; +A.d.e = false; + +% Vetores +x = [4 32 53 7 1] +x(2) % Resposta = 32, índices no Matlab começam por 1, não 0 +x(2:3) % Resposta = 32 53 +x(2:end) % Resposta = 32 53 7 1 + +x = [4; 32; 53; 7; 1] % Vetor coluna + +x = [1:10] % x = 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + +% Matrizes +A = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9] +% Linhas são separadas por um ponto e vírgula; +% Elementos são separados com espaço ou vírgula +% A = + +% 1 2 3 +% 4 5 6 +% 7 8 9 + +A(2,3) % Resposta = 6, A(linha, coluna) +A(6) % Resposta = 8 +% (implicitamente encadeia as colunas do vetor, e então as indexa) + + +A(2,3) = 42 % Atualiza a linha 2 coluna 3 com o valor 42 +% A = + +% 1 2 3 +% 4 5 42 +% 7 8 9 + +A(2:3,2:3) % Cria uma nova matriz a partir da antiga +%Resposta = + +% 5 42 +% 8 9 + +A(:,1) % Todas as linhas na coluna 1 +%Resposta = + +% 1 +% 4 +% 7 + +A(1,:) % Todas as colunas na linha 1 +%Resposta = + +% 1 2 3 + +[A ; A] % Concatenação de matrizes (verticalmente) +%Resposta = + +% 1 2 3 +% 4 5 42 +% 7 8 9 +% 1 2 3 +% 4 5 42 +% 7 8 9 + +% Isto é o mesmo de +vertcat(A,A); + + +[A , A] % Concatenação de matrizes (horizontalmente) + +%Resposta = + +% 1 2 3 1 2 3 +% 4 5 42 4 5 42 +% 7 8 9 7 8 9 + +% Isto é o mesmo de +horzcat(A,A); + + +A(:, [3 1 2]) % Reorganiza as colunas da matriz original +%Resposta = + +% 3 1 2 +% 42 4 5 +% 9 7 8 + +size(A) % Resposta = 3 3 + +A(1, :) =[] % Remove a primeira linha da matriz +A(:, 1) =[] % Remove a primeira coluna da matriz + +transpose(A) % Transposta a matriz, que é o mesmo de: +A one +ctranspose(A) % Transposta a matriz +% (a transposta, seguida pelo conjugado complexo de cada elemento) + + + + +% Aritmética Elemento por Elemento vs. Aritmética com Matriz +% Naturalmente, os operadores aritméticos agem em matrizes inteiras. Quando +% precedidos por um ponto, eles atuam em cada elemento. Por exemplo: +A * B % Multiplicação de matrizes +A .* B % Multiplica cada elemento em A por seu correspondente em B + +% Existem vários pares de funções nas quais uma atua sob cada elemento, e a +% outra (cujo nome termina com m) age na matriz por completo. +exp(A) % Exponencia cada elemento +expm(A) % Calcula o exponencial da matriz +sqrt(A) % Tira a raiz quadrada de cada elemento +sqrtm(A) % Procura a matriz cujo quadrado é A + + +% Gráficos +x = 0:.10:2*pi; % Vetor que começa em 0 e termina em 2*pi com incrementos de 0,1 +y = sin(x); +plot(x,y) +xlabel('eixo x') +ylabel('eixo y') +title('Gráfico de y = sin(x)') +axis([0 2*pi -1 1]) % x vai de 0 a 2*pi, y vai de -1 a 1 + +plot(x,y1,'-',x,y2,'--',x,y3,':') % Para várias funções em um só gráfico +legend('Descrição linha 1', 'Descrição linha 2') % Curvas com uma legenda + +% Método alternativo para traçar várias funções em um só gráfico: +% Enquanto 'hold' estiver ativo, os comandos serão adicionados ao gráfico +% existente ao invés de o substituirem. +plot(x, y) +hold on +plot(x, z) +hold off + +loglog(x, y) % Plotar em escala loglog +semilogx(x, y) % Um gráfico com eixo x logarítmico +semilogy(x, y) % Um gráfico com eixo y logarítmico + +fplot (@(x) x^2, [2,5]) % Plotar a função x^2 para x=2 até x=5 + +grid on % Exibe as linhas de grade; Oculta com 'grid off' +axis square % Torna quadrada a região dos eixos atuais +axis equal % Taxa de proporção onde as unidades serão as mesmas em todas direções + +scatter(x, y); % Gráfico de dispersão ou bolha +hist(x); % Histograma + +z = sin(x); +plot3(x,y,z); % Plotar em espaço em 3D + +pcolor(A) % Mapa de calor da matriz: traça uma grade de retângulos, coloridos pelo valor +contour(A) % Plotar de contorno da matriz +mesh(A) % Plotar malha 3D + +h = figure % Cria uma nova figura objeto, com identificador h +figure(h) % Cria uma nova janela de figura com h +close(h) % Fecha a figura h +close all % Fecha todas as janelas de figuras abertas +close % Fecha a janela de figura atual + +shg % Traz uma janela gráfica existente para frente, ou cria uma nova se necessário +clf clear % Limpa a janela de figura atual e redefine a maioria das propriedades da figura + +% Propriedades podem ser definidas e alteradas através de um identificador. +% Você pode salvar um identificador para uma figura ao criá-la. +% A função gcf retorna o identificador da figura atual +h = plot(x, y); % Você pode salvar um identificador para a figura ao criá-la +set(h, 'Color', 'r') +% 'y' amarelo; 'm' magenta, 'c' ciano, 'r' vermelho, 'g' verde, 'b' azul, 'w' branco, 'k' preto +set(h, 'LineStyle', '--') + % '--' linha sólida, '---' tracejada, ':' pontilhada, '-.' traço-ponto, 'none' sem linha +get(h, 'LineStyle') + + +% A função gca retorna o identificador para os eixos da figura atual +set(gca, 'XDir', 'reverse'); % Inverte a direção do eixo x + +% Para criar uma figura que contém vários gráficos use subplot, o qual divide +% a janela de gráficos em m linhas e n colunas. +subplot(2,3,1); % Seleciona a primeira posição em uma grade de 2-por-3 +plot(x1); title('Primeiro Plot') % Plota algo nesta posição +subplot(2,3,2); % Seleciona a segunda posição na grade +plot(x2); title('Segundo Plot') % Plota algo ali + + +% Para usar funções ou scripts, eles devem estar no caminho ou na pasta atual +path % Exibe o caminho atual +addpath /caminho/para/pasta % Adiciona o diretório ao caminho +rmpath /caminho/para/pasta % Remove o diretório do caminho +cd /caminho/para/mudar % Muda o diretório + + +% Variáveis podem ser salvas em arquivos *.mat +save('meuArquivo.mat') % Salva as variáveis do seu Workspace +load('meuArquivo.mat') % Carrega as variáveis em seu Workspace + +% Arquivos M (M-files) +% Um arquivo de script é um arquivo externo contendo uma sequência de instruções. +% Eles evitam que você digite os mesmos códigos repetidamente na janela de comandos. +% Possuem a extensão *.m + +% Arquivos M de Funções (M-file Functions) +% Assim como scripts e têm a mesma extensão *.m +% Mas podem aceitar argumentos de entrada e retornar uma saída. +% Além disso, possuem seu próprio workspace (ex. diferente escopo de variáveis). +% O nome da função deve coincidir com o nome do arquivo (salve o exemplo como dobra_entrada.m) +% 'help dobra_entrada.m' retorna os comentários abaixo da linha de início da função +function output = dobra_entrada(x) + %dobra_entrada(x) retorna duas vezes o valor de x + output = 2*x; +end +dobra_entrada(6) % Resposta = 12 + + +% Você também pode ter subfunções e funções aninhadas. +% Subfunções estão no mesmo arquivo da função primária, e só podem ser chamados +% por funções dentro do arquivo. Funções aninhadas são definidas dentro de +% outras funções, e têm acesso a ambos workspaces. + +% Se você quer criar uma função sem criar um novo arquivo, você pode usar uma +% função anônima. Úteis para definir rapidamente uma função para passar a outra +% função (ex. plotar com fplot, avaliar uma integral indefinida com quad, +% procurar raízes com fzero, ou procurar mínimo com fminsearch). +% Exemplo que retorna o quadrado de sua entrada, atribuído ao identificador sqr: +sqr = @(x) x.^2; +sqr(10) % Resposta = 100 +doc function_handle % Saiba mais + +% Entrada do usuário +a = input('Digite o valor: ') + +% Para a execução do arquivo e passa o controle para o teclado: o usuário pode +% examinar ou alterar variáveis. Digite 'return' para continuar a execução, ou 'dbquit' para sair +keyboard + +% Leitura de dados (ou xlsread/importdata/imread para arquivos excel/CSV/imagem) +fopen(nomedoarquivo) + +% Saída +disp(a) % Imprime o valor da variável a +disp('Olá Mundo') % Imprime a string +fprintf % Imprime na janela de comandos com mais controle + +% Estruturas Condicionais (os parênteses são opicionais, porém uma boa prática) +if (a > 15) + disp('Maior que 15') +elseif (a == 23) + disp('a é 23') +else + disp('Nenhuma condição reconheceu') +end + +% Estruturas de Repetição +% Nota: fazer o loop sobre elementos de um vetor/matriz é lento! +% Sempre que possível, use funções que atuem em todo o vetor/matriz de uma só vez. +for k = 1:5 + disp(k) +end + +k = 0; +while (k < 5) + k = k + 1; +end + +% Tempo de Execução de Código (Timing Code Execution): 'toc' imprime o tempo +% passado desde que 'tic' foi chamado. +tic +A = rand(1000); +A*A*A*A*A*A*A; +toc + +% Conectando a uma base de dados MySQL +dbname = 'nome_base_de_dados'; +username = 'root'; +password = 'root'; +driver = 'com.mysql.jdbc.Driver'; +dburl = ['jdbc:mysql://localhost:8889/' dbname]; +%Abaixo, o xx depende da versão, download disponível em http://dev.mysql.com/downloads/connector/j/ +javaclasspath('mysql-connector-java-5.1.xx-bin.jar'); +conn = database(dbname, username, password, driver, dburl); +sql = ['SELECT * FROM nome_tabela WHERE id = 22'] % Exemplo de uma consulta SQL +a = fetch(conn, sql) %a will contain your data + + +% Funções Matemáticas Comuns +sin(x) +cos(x) +tan(x) +asin(x) +acos(x) +atan(x) +exp(x) +sqrt(x) +log(x) +log10(x) +abs(x) +min(x) +max(x) +ceil(x) +floor(x) +round(x) +rem(x) +rand % Números pseudo-aleatórios uniformemente distribuídos +randi % Inteiros pseudo-aleatórios uniformemente distribuídos +randn % Números pseudo-aleatórios normalmente distribuídos + +% Constantes Comuns +pi +NaN +inf + +% Resolvendo equações matriciais (se não houver solução, retorna uma solução de mínimos quadrados) +% Os operadores \ e / são equivalentes às funções mldivide e mrdivide +x=A\b % Resolve Ax=b. Mais rápido e numericamente mais preciso do que inv(A)*b. +x=b/A % Resolve xA=b + +inv(A) % Calcula a matriz inversa +pinv(A) % Calcula a pseudo-inversa + +% Funções Matriciais Comuns +zeros(m,n) % Matriz de zeros m x n +ones(m,n) % Matriz de 1's m x n +diag(A) % Extrai os elementos diagonais da matriz A +diag(x) % Constrói uma matriz com os elementos diagonais listados em x, e zero nas outras posições +eye(m,n) % Matriz identidade +linspace(x1, x2, n) % Retorna n pontos igualmente espaçados, com min x1 e max x2 +inv(A) % Inverso da matriz A +det(A) % Determinante da matriz A +eig(A) % Valores e vetores próprios de A +trace(A) % Traço da matriz - equivalente a sum(diag(A)) +isempty(A) % Testa se a matriz está vazia +all(A) % Testa se todos os elementos são diferentes de zero ou verdadeiro +any(A) % Testa se algum elemento é diferente de zero ou verdadeiro +isequal(A, B) % Testa a igualdade de duas matrizes +numel(A) % Número de elementos na matriz +triu(x) % Retorna a parte triangular superior de x +tril(x) % Retorna a parte triangular inferior de x +cross(A,B) % Retorna o produto cruzado das matrizes A e B +dot(A,B) % Retorna o produto escalar de duas matrizes (devem possuir mesmo tamanho) +transpose(A) % Retorna a matriz transposta de A +fliplr(A) % Inverte a matriz da esquerda para a direita +flipud(A) % Inverte a matriz de cima para baixo + +% Fatorações de Matrizes +% Decomposição LU: PA = LU,L é triangular inferior, U é triangular superior, P é a matriz de permutação +[L, U, P] = lu(A) +% Decomposição em Autovalores: AP = PD, colunas de P são autovetores e as diagonais de D são autovalores +[P, D] = eig(A) +% SVD: XV = US, U e V são matrizes unitárias, S possui elementos não negativos na diagonal em ordem decrescente +[U,S,V] = svd(X) + +% Funções Vetoriais Comuns +max % Maior componente +min % Menor componente +length % Tamanho do vetor +sort % Ordena em orcer ascendente +sum % Soma de elementos +prod % Produto de elementos +mode % Valor modal +median % Valor mediano +mean % Valor médio +std % Desvio padrão +perms(x) % Lista todas as permutações de elementos de x + + +% Classes +% Matlab pode suportar programação orientada a objetos. +% Classes devem ser colocadas em um arquivo de mesmo nome com a extensão *.m +% Para começar, criamos uma simples classe que armazena posições de GPS +% Início ClassePosicoesGPS.m +classdef ClassePosicoesGPS % O nome da classe. + properties % As propriedades da classe comportam-se como estruturas + latitude + longitude + end + methods + % Este método que tem o mesmo nome da classe é o construtor. + function obj = ClassePosicoesGPS(lat, lon) + obj.latitude = lat; + obj.longitude = lon; + end + + % Outras funções que usam os objetos de PosicoesGPS + function r = multiplicarLatPor(obj, n) + r = n*[obj.latitude]; + end + + % Se quisermos somar dois objetos de PosicoesGPS juntos sem chamar + % uma função especial nós podemos sobrepor a aritmética do Matlab, desta maneira: + function r = plus(o1,o2) + r = ClassePosicoesGPS([o1.latitude] +[o2.latitude], ... + [o1.longitude]+[o2.longitude]); + end + end +end +% End ClassePosicoesGPS.m + +% Podemos criar um objeto da classe usando o construtor +a = ClassePosicoesGPS(45.0, 45.0) + +% Propriedades da classe se comportam exatamente como estruturas Matlab +a.latitude = 70.0 +a.longitude = 25.0 + +% Métodos podem ser chamados da mesma forma que funções +ans = multiplicarLatPor(a,3) + +% O método também pode ser chamado usando a notação de ponto. Neste caso, +% o objeto não precisa ser passado para o método. +ans = a.multiplicarLatPor(a,1/3) + +% Funções do Matlab podem ser sobrepostas para lidar com objetos. +% No método abaixo, nós sobrepomos a forma como o Matlab lida com a soma de +% dois objetos PosicoesGPS. +b = ClassePosicoesGPS(15.0, 32.0) +c = a + b + +``` + +## Mais sobre Matlab + +* O site oficial [http://http://www.mathworks.com/products/matlab/](http://www.mathworks.com/products/matlab/) +* O fórum oficial de respostas: [http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/answers/](http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/answers/) + diff --git a/pt-br/ruby-ecosystem-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/ruby-ecosystem-pt.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..da4f6f37 --- /dev/null +++ b/pt-br/ruby-ecosystem-pt.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,147 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: ruby ecosystem +contributors: + - ["Jon Smock", "http://github.com/jonsmock"] + - ["Rafal Chmiel", "http://github.com/rafalchmiel"] +translators: + - ["Claudson Martins", "http://github.com/claudsonm"] +lang: pt-br + +--- + +Pessoas utilizando Ruby geralmente têm uma forma de instalar diferentes versões +do Ruby, gerenciar seus pacotes (ou gemas) e as dependências das gemas. + +## Gerenciadores Ruby + +Algumas plataformas possuem o Ruby pré-instalado ou disponível como um pacote. +A maioria dos "rubistas" não os usam, e se usam, é apenas para inicializar outro +instalador ou implementação do Ruby. Ao invés disso, rubistas tendêm a instalar +um gerenciador para instalar e alternar entre diversas versões do Ruby e seus +ambientes de projeto. + +Abaixo estão os gerenciadores Ruby mais populares: + +* [RVM](https://rvm.io/) - Instala e alterna entre os rubies. RVM também possui + o conceito de gemsets para isolar os ambientes dos projetos completamente. +* [ruby-build](https://github.com/sstephenson/ruby-build) - Apenas instala os + rubies. Use este para um melhor controle sobre a instalação de seus rubies. +* [rbenv](https://github.com/sstephenson/rbenv) - Apenas alterna entre os rubies. + Usado com o ruby-build. Use este para um controle mais preciso sobre a forma + como os rubies são carregados. +* [chruby](https://github.com/postmodern/chruby) - Apenas alterna entre os rubies. + A concepção é bastante similar ao rbenv. Sem grandes opções sobre como os + rubies são instalados. + +## Versões do Ruby + +O Ruby foi criado por Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto, que continua a ser uma espécie +de [BDFL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benevolent_Dictator_for_Life), embora +isso esteja mudando recentemente. Como resultado, a implementação de referência +do Ruby é chamada de MRI (Matz' Reference Implementation), e quando você ver uma +versão do Ruby, ela está se referindo a versão de lançamento do MRI. + +As três principais versões do Ruby em uso são: + +* 2.0.0 - Lançada em Fevereiro de 2013. Maioria das principais bibliotecas e + suporte a frameworks 2.0.0. +* 1.9.3 - Lançada em Outubro de 2011. Está é a versão mais utilizada pelos rubistas + atualmente. Também [aposentada](https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/news/2015/02/23/support-for-ruby-1-9-3-has-ended/). +* 1.8.7 - O Ruby 1.8.7 foi + [aposentado](http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/news/2013/06/30/we-retire-1-8-7/). + +A diferença entre a versão 1.8.7 para 1.9.x é muito maior do que a da 1.9.3 para +a 2.0.0. Por exemplo, a série 1.9 introduziu encodes e uma VM bytecode. Ainda +existem projetos na versão 1.8.7, mas eles estão tornando-se uma pequena minoria +pois a maioria da comunidade migrou para a versão, pelo menos, 1.9.2 ou 1.9.3. + +## Implementações Ruby + +O ecossistema Ruby conta com várias diferentes implementações do Ruby, cada uma +com pontos fortes e estados de compatibilidade. Para ser claro, as diferentes +implementações são escritas em diferentes linguagens, mas *todas elas são Ruby*. +Cada implementação possui hooks especiais e recursos extra, mas todas elas +executam arquivos normais do Ruby tranquilamente. Por exemplo, JRuby é escrita +em Java, mas você não precisa saber Java para utilizá-la. + +Muito maduras/compatíveis: + +* [MRI](https://github.com/ruby/ruby) - Escrita em C, esta é a implementação de + referência do Ruby. Por definição, é 100% compatível (consigo mesma). Todos os + outros rubies mantêm compatibilidade com a MRI (veja [RubySpec](#rubyspec) abaixo). +* [JRuby](http://jruby.org/) - Escrita em Java e Ruby, esta implementação + robusta é um tanto rápida. Mais importante ainda, o ponto forte do JRuby é a + interoperabilidade com JVM/Java, aproveitando ferramentas JVM, projetos, e + linguagens existentes. +* [Rubinius](http://rubini.us/) - Escrita principalmente no próprio Ruby, com + uma VM bytecode em C++. Também madura e rápida. Por causa de sua implementação + em Ruby, ela expõe muitos recursos da VM na rubyland. + +Medianamente maduras/compatíveis: + +* [Maglev](http://maglev.github.io/) - Construída em cima da Gemstone, uma + máquina virtual Smalltalk. O Smalltalk possui algumas ferramentas impressionantes, + e este projeto tenta trazer isso para o desenvolvimento Ruby. +* [RubyMotion](http://www.rubymotion.com/) - Traz o Ruby para o desenvolvimento iOS. + +Pouco maduras/compatíveis: + +* [Topaz](http://topazruby.com/) - Escrita em RPython (usando o conjunto de + ferramentas PyPy), Topaz é bastante jovem e ainda não compatível. Parece ser + promissora como uma implementação Ruby de alta performance. +* [IronRuby](http://ironruby.net/) - Escrita em C# visando a plataforma .NET, + o trabalho no IronRuby parece ter parado desde que a Microsoft retirou seu apoio. + +Implementações Ruby podem ter seus próprios números de lançamento, mas elas +sempre focam em uma versão específica da MRI para compatibilidade. Diversas +implementações têm a capacidade de entrar em diferentes modos (1.8 ou 1.9, por +exemplo) para especificar qual versão da MRI focar. + +## RubySpec + +A maioria das implementações Ruby dependem fortemente da [RubySpec](http://rubyspec.org/). +Ruby não tem uma especificação oficial, então a comunidade tem escrito +especificações executáveis em Ruby para testar a compatibilidade de suas +implementações com a MRI. + +## RubyGems + +[RubyGems](http://rubygems.org/) é um gerenciador de pacotes para Ruby mantido +pela comunidade. RubyGems vem com o Ruby, portanto não é preciso baixar separadamente. + +Os pacotes do Ruby são chamados de "gemas", e elas podem ser hospedadas pela +comunidade em RubyGems.org. Cada gema contém seu código-fonte e alguns metadados, +incluindo coisas como versão, dependências, autor(es) e licença(s). + +## Bundler + +[Bundler](http://bundler.io/) é um gerenciador de dependências para as gemas. +Ele usa a Gemfile de um projeto para encontrar dependências, e então busca as +dependências dessas dependências de forma recursiva. Ele faz isso até que todas +as dependências sejam resolvidas e baixadas, ou para se encontrar um conflito. + +O Bundler gerará um erro se encontrar um conflito entre dependências. Por exemplo, +se a gema A requer versão 3 ou maior que a gema Z, mas a gema B requer a versão +2, o Bundler irá notificá-lo que há um conflito. Isso se torna extremamente útil +quando diversas gemas começam a referenciar outras gemas (que referem-se a outras +gemas), o que pode formar uma grande cascata de dependências a serem resolvidas. + +# Testes + +Testes são uma grande parte da cultura do Ruby. O Ruby vem com o seu próprio +framework de teste de unidade chamado minitest (ou TestUnit para Ruby versão 1.8.x). +Existem diversas bibliotecas de teste com diferentes objetivos. + +* [TestUnit](http://ruby-doc.org/stdlib-1.8.7/libdoc/test/unit/rdoc/Test/Unit.html) - + Framework de testes "Unit-style" para o Ruby 1.8 (built-in) +* [minitest](http://ruby-doc.org/stdlib-2.0.0/libdoc/minitest/rdoc/MiniTest.html) - + Framework de testes para o Ruby 1.9/2.0 (built-in) +* [RSpec](http://rspec.info/) - Um framework de testes que foca na expressividade +* [Cucumber](http://cukes.info/) - Um framework de testes BDD que analisa testes Gherkin formatados + +## Seja Legal + +A comunidade Ruby orgulha-se de ser uma comunidade aberta, diversa, e receptiva. +O próprio Matz é extremamente amigável, e a generosidade dos rubistas em geral +é incrível. diff --git a/pt-br/ruby-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/ruby-pt.html.markdown index 89a051d4..668cd25f 100644 --- a/pt-br/ruby-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/ruby-pt.html.markdown @@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ lang: pt-br filename: learnruby-pt.rb contributors: - ["Bruno Henrique - Garu", "http://garulab.com"] + - ["Jean Matheus Souto", "http://jeanmatheussouto.github.io"] translators: - ["Katyanna Moura", "https://twitter.com/amelie_kn"] --- @@ -161,9 +162,6 @@ hash['numero'] #=> 5 hash['nada aqui'] #=> nil # Interar sobre hashes com o método #each: -hash.each do |k, v| - puts "#{k} is #{v}" -end hash.each do |k, v| puts "#{k} é #{v}" @@ -385,3 +383,11 @@ Humano.bar # 0 Doutor.bar # nil ``` + +## Mais sobre Ruby + +- [Documentação oficial](http://www.ruby-doc.org/core-2.1.1/) +- [Aprenda Ruby com desafios](http://www.learneroo.com/modules/61/nodes/338) - Uma coleção de desafios para testar a linguagem. +- [Ruby a partir de outras linguagens](https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/documentation/ruby-from-other-languages/) +- [Programming Ruby](http://www.amazon.com/Programming-Ruby-1-9-2-0-Programmers/dp/1937785491/)- Um mais antigo [free edition](http://ruby-doc.com/docs/ProgrammingRuby/) e tambem uma versão online disponível. +- [Ruby Style Guide](https://github.com/bbatsov/ruby-style-guide) - Uma versão colaborativa de um *style-guide* diff --git a/pt-br/sass-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/sass-pt.html.markdown index 105896b2..3d91f1ca 100644 --- a/pt-br/sass-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-br/sass-pt.html.markdown @@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ contributors: - ["Sean Corrales", "https://github.com/droidenator"] translators: - ["Gabriel Gomes", "https://github.com/gabrielgomesferraz"] + - ["Cássio Böck", "https://github.com/cassiobsilva"] lang: pt-br --- @@ -155,16 +156,6 @@ body { background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.75); } -/* You may also define your own functions. Functions are very similar to - mixins. When trying to choose between a function or a mixin, remember - that mixins are best for generating CSS while functions are better for - logic that might be used throughout your Sass code. The examples in - the Math Operators' section are ideal candidates for becoming a reusable - function. */ - -/* This function will take a target size and the parent size and calculate - and return the percentage */ - /* Você também pode definir suas próprias funções. As funções são muito semelhantes aos mixins. Ao tentar escolher entre uma função ou um mixin, lembre- que mixins são os melhores para gerar CSS enquanto as funções são melhores para @@ -319,11 +310,6 @@ ol { padding: 0; } -/* Sass offers @import which can be used to import partials into a file. - This differs from the traditional CSS @import statement which makes - another HTTP request to fetch the imported file. Sass takes the - imported file and combines it with the compiled code. */ - /* Sass oferece @import que pode ser usado para importar parciais em um arquivo. Isso difere da declaração CSS @import tradicional, que faz outra solicitação HTTP para buscar o arquivo importado. Sass converte os @@ -354,12 +340,6 @@ body { ==============================*/ - -/* Placeholders are useful when creating a CSS statement to extend. If you - wanted to create a CSS statement that was exclusively used with @extend, - you can do so using a placeholder. Placeholders begin with a '%' instead - of '.' or '#'. Placeholders will not appear in the compiled CSS. */ - /* Os espaços reservados são úteis na criação de uma declaração CSS para ampliar. Se você queria criar uma instrução CSS que foi usado exclusivamente com @extend, Você pode fazer isso usando um espaço reservado. Espaços reservados começar com um '%' em vez @@ -396,11 +376,6 @@ body { ============================== * / -/* Sass provides the following operators: +, -, *, /, and %. These can - be useful for calculating values directly in your Sass files instead - of using values that you've already calculated by hand. Below is an example - of a setting up a simple two column design. */ - /* Sass fornece os seguintes operadores: +, -, *, /, e %. estes podem ser úteis para calcular os valores diretamente no seu Sass arquivos em vez de usar valores que você já calculados pela mão. Abaixo está um exemplo diff --git a/pt-br/yaml-pt.html.markdown b/pt-br/yaml-pt.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..341ae675 --- /dev/null +++ b/pt-br/yaml-pt.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,142 @@ +--- +language: yaml +contributors: + - ["Adam Brenecki", "https://github.com/adambrenecki"] +translators: + - ["Rodrigo Russo", "https://github.com/rodrigozrusso"] +filename: learnyaml-pt.yaml +lang: pt-br +--- + +YAML é uma linguagem de serialização de dados projetado para ser diretamente gravável e +legível por seres humanos. + +É um estrito subconjunto de JSON, com a adição de sintaticamente +novas linhas e recuo significativos, como Python. Ao contrário de Python, no entanto, +YAML não permite caracteres de tabulação literais em tudo. + +```yaml +# Commentários em YAML são como este. + +################### +# TIPOS ESCALARES # +################### + +# Nosso objeto raiz (que continua por todo o documento) será um mapa, +# o que equivale a um dicionário, hash ou objeto em outras linguagens. +chave: valor +outra_chave: Outro valor vai aqui. +u_valor_numerico: 100 +notacao_cientifica: 1e+12 +boleano: true +valor_nulo: null +chave com espaco: valor +# Observe que strings não precisam de aspas. Porém, elas podem ter. +porem: "Uma string, entre aspas." +"Chaves podem estar entre aspas tambem.": "É útil se você quiser colocar um ':' na sua chave." + +# Seqüências de várias linhas podem ser escritos como um 'bloco literal' (utilizando |), +# ou em um 'bloco compacto' (utilizando '>'). +bloco_literal: | + Todo esse bloco de texto será o valor da chave 'bloco_literal', + preservando a quebra de com linhas. + + O literal continua até de-dented, e a primeira identação é + removida. + + Quaisquer linhas que são 'mais identadas' mantém o resto de suas identações - + estas linhas serão identadas com 4 espaços. +estilo_compacto: > + Todo esse bloco de texto será o valor de 'estilo_compacto', mas esta + vez, todas as novas linhas serão substituídas com espaço simples. + + Linhas em branco, como acima, são convertidas em um carater de nova linha. + + Linhas 'mais-indentadas' mantém suas novas linhas também - + este texto irá aparecer em duas linhas. + +#################### +# TIPOS DE COLEÇÃO # +#################### + +# Texto aninhado é conseguido através de identação. +um_mapa_aninhado: + chave: valor + outra_chave: Outro valor + outro_mapa_aninhado: + ola: ola + +# Mapas não tem que ter chaves com string. +0.25: uma chave com valor flutuante + +# As chaves podem ser também objetos multi linhas, utilizando ? para indicar o começo de uma chave. +? | + Esta é uma chave + que tem várias linhas +: e este é o seu valor + +# também permite tipos de coleção de chaves, mas muitas linguagens de programação +# vão reclamar. + +# Sequências (equivalente a listas ou arrays) semelhante à isso: +uma_sequencia: + - Item 1 + - Item 2 + - 0.5 # sequencias podem conter tipos diferentes. + - Item 4 + - chave: valor + outra_chave: outro_valor + - + - Esta é uma sequencia + - dentro de outra sequencia + +# Como YAML é um super conjunto de JSON, você também pode escrever mapas JSON de estilo e +# sequencias: +mapa_json: {"chave": "valor"} +json_seq: [3, 2, 1, "decolar"] + +########################## +# RECURSOS EXTRA DO YAML # +########################## + +# YAML também tem um recurso útil chamado "âncoras", que permitem que você facilmente duplique +# conteúdo em seu documento. Ambas estas chaves terão o mesmo valor: +conteudo_ancora: & nome_ancora Essa string irá aparecer como o valor de duas chaves. +outra_ancora: * nome_ancora + +# YAML também tem tags, que você pode usar para declarar explicitamente os tipos. +string_explicita: !! str 0,5 +# Alguns analisadores implementam tags específicas de linguagem, como este para Python de +# Tipo de número complexo. +numero_complexo_em_python: !! python / complex 1 + 2j + +#################### +# YAML TIPOS EXTRA # +#################### + +# Strings e números não são os únicos que escalares YAML pode entender. +# Data e 'data e hora' literais no formato ISO também são analisados. +datetime: 2001-12-15T02: 59: 43.1Z +datetime_com_espacos 2001/12/14: 21: 59: 43.10 -5 +Data: 2002/12/14 + +# A tag !!binary indica que a string é na verdade um base64-encoded (condificado) +# representação de um blob binário. +gif_file: !!binary | + R0lGODlhDAAMAIQAAP//9/X17unp5WZmZgAAAOfn515eXvPz7Y6OjuDg4J+fn5 + OTk6enp56enmlpaWNjY6Ojo4SEhP/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++f/+ + +f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++SH+Dk1hZGUgd2l0aCBHSU1QACwAAAAADAAMAAAFLC + AgjoEwnuNAFOhpEMTRiggcz4BNJHrv/zCFcLiwMWYNG84BwwEeECcgggoBADs= + +# YAML também tem um tipo de conjunto, o que se parece com isso: +set: + ? item1 + ? item2 + ? item3 + +# Como Python, são apenas conjuntos de mapas com valors nulos; o acima é equivalente a: +set2: + item1: nulo + item2: nulo + item3: nulo +``` diff --git a/pt-pt/brainfuck-pt.html.markdown b/pt-pt/bf.html.markdown index da4c787f..da4c787f 100644 --- a/pt-pt/brainfuck-pt.html.markdown +++ b/pt-pt/bf.html.markdown diff --git a/purescript.html.markdown b/purescript.html.markdown index 6d8cfbb9..b413a9e3 100644 --- a/purescript.html.markdown +++ b/purescript.html.markdown @@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ not true -- false 23 == 23 -- true 1 /= 4 -- true 1 >= 4 -- false --- Comparisions < <= > >= +-- Comparisons < <= > >= -- are defined in terms of compare compare 1 2 -- LT compare 2 2 -- EQ @@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ true && (9 >= 19 || 1 < 2) -- true "Hellow\ \orld" -- "Helloworld" -- Multiline string with newlines -"""Hello +"""Hello world""" -- "Hello\nworld" -- Concatenate "such " ++ "amaze" -- "such amaze" @@ -197,7 +197,7 @@ let even x = x `mod` 2 == 0 filter even (1..10) -- [2,4,6,8,10] map (\x -> x + 11) (1..5) -- [12,13,14,15,16] --- Requires purescript-foldable-traversabe (Data.Foldable) +-- Requires purescript-foldable-traversable (Data.Foldable) foldr (+) 0 (1..10) -- 55 sum (1..10) -- 55 @@ -208,4 +208,3 @@ any even [1,2,3] -- true all even [1,2,3] -- false ``` - diff --git a/python.html.markdown b/python.html.markdown index 675967f4..12be4be1 100644 --- a/python.html.markdown +++ b/python.html.markdown @@ -15,8 +15,8 @@ executable pseudocode. Feedback would be highly appreciated! You can reach me at [@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) or louiedinh [at] [google's email service] Note: This article applies to Python 2.7 specifically, but should be applicable -to Python 2.x. Python 2.7 is reachong end of life and will stop beeign maintained in 2020, -it is though recommended to start learnign Python with Python 3. +to Python 2.x. Python 2.7 is reaching end of life and will stop being maintained in 2020, +it is though recommended to start learning Python with Python 3. For Python 3.x, take a look at the [Python 3 tutorial](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/python3/). It is also possible to write Python code which is compatible with Python 2.7 and 3.x at the same time, @@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ allow you to write Python 3 code that will run on Python 2, so check out the Pyt # to carry out normal division with just one '/'. from __future__ import division 11/4 # => 2.75 ...normal division -11//4 # => 2 ...floored division +11//4 # => 2 ...floored division # Modulo operation 7 % 3 # => 1 @@ -123,11 +123,16 @@ not False # => True # A string can be treated like a list of characters "This is a string"[0] # => 'T' -# % can be used to format strings, like this: -"%s can be %s" % ("strings", "interpolated") +#String formatting with % +#Even though the % string operator will be deprecated on Python 3.1 and removed +#later at some time, it may still be good to know how it works. +x = 'apple' +y = 'lemon' +z = "The items in the basket are %s and %s" % (x,y) # A newer way to format strings is the format method. # This method is the preferred way +"{} is a {}".format("This", "placeholder") "{0} can be {1}".format("strings", "formatted") # You can use keywords if you don't want to count. "{name} wants to eat {food}".format(name="Bob", food="lasagna") @@ -144,8 +149,16 @@ None is None # => True # very useful when dealing with primitive values, but is # very useful when dealing with objects. -# None, 0, and empty strings/lists all evaluate to False. -# All other values are True +# Any object can be used in a Boolean context. +# The following values are considered falsey: +# - None +# - zero of any numeric type (e.g., 0, 0L, 0.0, 0j) +# - empty sequences (e.g., '', (), []) +# - empty containers (e.g., {}, set()) +# - instances of user-defined classes meeting certain conditions +# see: https://docs.python.org/2/reference/datamodel.html#object.__nonzero__ +# +# All other values are truthy (using the bool() function on them returns True). bool(0) # => False bool("") # => False @@ -234,7 +247,7 @@ li.remove(2) # Raises a ValueError as 2 is not in the list li.insert(1, 2) # li is now [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] again # Get the index of the first item found -li.index(2) # => 3 +li.index(2) # => 1 li.index(7) # Raises a ValueError as 7 is not in the list # Check for existence in a list with "in" @@ -257,8 +270,9 @@ tup[:2] # => (1, 2) # You can unpack tuples (or lists) into variables a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) # a is now 1, b is now 2 and c is now 3 +d, e, f = 4, 5, 6 # you can leave out the parentheses # Tuples are created by default if you leave out the parentheses -d, e, f = 4, 5, 6 +g = 4, 5, 6 # => (4, 5, 6) # Now look how easy it is to swap two values e, d = d, e # d is now 5 and e is now 4 @@ -444,7 +458,7 @@ add(y=6, x=5) # Keyword arguments can arrive in any order. # You can define functions that take a variable number of -# positional args, which will be interpreted as a tuple if you do not use the * +# positional args, which will be interpreted as a tuple by using * def varargs(*args): return args @@ -452,7 +466,7 @@ varargs(1, 2, 3) # => (1, 2, 3) # You can define functions that take a variable number of -# keyword args, as well, which will be interpreted as a dict if you do not use ** +# keyword args, as well, which will be interpreted as a dict by using ** def keyword_args(**kwargs): return kwargs @@ -643,6 +657,12 @@ math.sqrt == m.sqrt == sqrt # => True import math dir(math) +# If you have a Python script named math.py in the same +# folder as your current script, the file math.py will +# be loaded instead of the built-in Python module. +# This happens because the local folder has priority +# over Python's built-in libraries. + #################################################### ## 7. Advanced @@ -707,11 +727,13 @@ print say(say_please=True) # Can you buy me a beer? Please! I am poor :( * [Automate the Boring Stuff with Python](https://automatetheboringstuff.com) * [Learn Python The Hard Way](http://learnpythonthehardway.org/book/) * [Dive Into Python](http://www.diveintopython.net/) -* [The Official Docs](http://docs.python.org/2.6/) +* [The Official Docs](http://docs.python.org/2/) * [Hitchhiker's Guide to Python](http://docs.python-guide.org/en/latest/) * [Python Module of the Week](http://pymotw.com/2/) * [A Crash Course in Python for Scientists](http://nbviewer.ipython.org/5920182) * [First Steps With Python](https://realpython.com/learn/python-first-steps/) +* [LearnPython](http://www.learnpython.org/) +* [Fullstack Python](https://www.fullstackpython.com/) ### Dead Tree diff --git a/python3.html.markdown b/python3.html.markdown index 2398e7ac..ea29fdba 100644 --- a/python3.html.markdown +++ b/python3.html.markdown @@ -97,13 +97,13 @@ False or True # => True 1 < 2 < 3 # => True 2 < 3 < 2 # => False -# (is vs. ==) is checks if two variable refer to the same object, but == checks +# (is vs. ==) is checks if two variables refer to the same object, but == checks # if the objects pointed to have the same values. a = [1, 2, 3, 4] # Point a at a new list, [1, 2, 3, 4] b = a # Point b at what a is pointing to b is a # => True, a and b refer to the same object b == a # => True, a's and b's objects are equal -b = [1, 2, 3, 4] # Point a at a new list, [1, 2, 3, 4] +b = [1, 2, 3, 4] # Point b at a new list, [1, 2, 3, 4] b is a # => False, a and b do not refer to the same object b == a # => True, a's and b's objects are equal @@ -174,6 +174,10 @@ some_var # => 5 # See Control Flow to learn more about exception handling. some_unknown_var # Raises a NameError +# if can be used as an expression +# Equivalent of C's '?:' ternary operator +"yahoo!" if 3 > 2 else 2 # => "yahoo!" + # Lists store sequences li = [] # You can start with a prefilled list @@ -224,8 +228,8 @@ li.remove(2) # Raises a ValueError as 2 is not in the list # Insert an element at a specific index li.insert(1, 2) # li is now [1, 2, 3] again -# Get the index of the first item found -li.index(2) # => 3 +# Get the index of the first item found matching the argument +li.index(2) # => 1 li.index(4) # Raises a ValueError as 4 is not in the list # You can add lists @@ -425,7 +429,6 @@ by step. If step is not indicated, the default value is 1. prints: 4 6 - 8 """ for i in range(4, 8, 2): print(i) @@ -689,7 +692,7 @@ i.age # => raises an AttributeError # You can import modules import math -print(math.sqrt(16)) # => 4 +print(math.sqrt(16)) # => 4.0 # You can get specific functions from a module from math import ceil, floor @@ -713,6 +716,11 @@ math.sqrt(16) == m.sqrt(16) # => True import math dir(math) +# If you have a Python script named math.py in the same +# folder as your current script, the file math.py will +# be loaded instead of the built-in Python module. +# This happens because the local folder has priority +# over Python's built-in libraries. #################################################### ## 7. Advanced @@ -781,6 +789,7 @@ print(say(say_please=True)) # Can you buy me a beer? Please! I am poor :( * [A curated list of awesome Python frameworks, libraries and software](https://github.com/vinta/awesome-python) * [30 Python Language Features and Tricks You May Not Know About](http://sahandsaba.com/thirty-python-language-features-and-tricks-you-may-not-know.html) * [Official Style Guide for Python](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/) +* [Python 3 Computer Science Circles](http://cscircles.cemc.uwaterloo.ca/) ### Dead Tree diff --git a/pythonstatcomp.markdown.html b/pythonstatcomp.html.markdown index 78b62e33..0b02dca8 100644 --- a/pythonstatcomp.markdown.html +++ b/pythonstatcomp.html.markdown @@ -9,6 +9,8 @@ This is a tutorial on how to do some typical statistical programming tasks using ```python + + # 0. Getting set up ==== """ Get set up with IPython and pip install the following: numpy, scipy, pandas, @@ -25,17 +27,17 @@ This is a tutorial on how to do some typical statistical programming tasks using already using Python, there's a benefit to sticking with one language. """ -import requests # for HTTP requests (web scraping, APIs) +import requests # for HTTP requests (web scraping, APIs) import os # web scraping r = requests.get("https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs") -r.status_code # if 200, request was successful -r.text # raw page source -print(r.text) # prettily formatted +r.status_code # if 200, request was successful +r.text # raw page source +print(r.text) # prettily formatted # save the page source in a file: -os.getcwd() # check what's the working directory -f = open("learnxinyminutes.html","wb") +os.getcwd() # check what's the working directory +f = open("learnxinyminutes.html", "wb") f.write(r.text.encode("UTF-8")) f.close() @@ -44,7 +46,7 @@ fp = "https://raw.githubusercontent.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs/master/" fn = "pets.csv" r = requests.get(fp + fn) print(r.text) -f = open(fn,"wb") +f = open(fn, "wb") f.write(r.text.encode("UTF-8")) f.close() @@ -58,7 +60,9 @@ f.close() you've used R, you will be familiar with the idea of the "data.frame" already. """ -import pandas as pd, numpy as np, scipy as sp +import pandas as pd +import numpy as np +import scipy as sp pets = pd.read_csv(fn) pets # name age weight species @@ -74,20 +78,20 @@ pets pets.age pets["age"] -pets.head(2) # prints first 2 rows -pets.tail(1) # prints last row +pets.head(2) # prints first 2 rows +pets.tail(1) # prints last row -pets.name[1] # 'vesuvius' -pets.species[0] # 'cat' -pets["weight"][2] # 34 +pets.name[1] # 'vesuvius' +pets.species[0] # 'cat' +pets["weight"][2] # 34 # in R, you would expect to get 3 rows doing this, but here you get 2: pets.age[0:2] # 0 3 # 1 6 -sum(pets.age)*2 # 28 -max(pets.weight) - min(pets.weight) # 20 +sum(pets.age) * 2 # 28 +max(pets.weight) - min(pets.weight) # 20 """ If you are doing some serious linear algebra and number-crunching, you may just want arrays, not DataFrames. DataFrames are ideal for combining columns @@ -96,7 +100,8 @@ max(pets.weight) - min(pets.weight) # 20 # 3. Charts ==== -import matplotlib as mpl, matplotlib.pyplot as plt +import matplotlib as mpl +import matplotlib.pyplot as plt %matplotlib inline # To do data vizualization in Python, use matplotlib @@ -105,13 +110,17 @@ plt.hist(pets.age); plt.boxplot(pets.weight); -plt.scatter(pets.age, pets.weight); plt.xlabel("age"); plt.ylabel("weight"); +plt.scatter(pets.age, pets.weight) +plt.xlabel("age") +plt.ylabel("weight"); # seaborn sits atop matplotlib and makes plots prettier import seaborn as sns -plt.scatter(pets.age, pets.weight); plt.xlabel("age"); plt.ylabel("weight"); +plt.scatter(pets.age, pets.weight) +plt.xlabel("age") +plt.ylabel("weight"); # there are also some seaborn-specific plotting functions # notice how seaborn automatically labels the x-axis on this barplot @@ -141,41 +150,40 @@ ggplot(aes(x="age",y="weight"), data=pets) + geom_point() + labs(title="pets") url = "https://raw.githubusercontent.com/e99n09/R-notes/master/data/hre.csv" r = requests.get(url) fp = "hre.csv" -f = open(fp,"wb") -f.write(r.text.encode("UTF-8")) -f.close() +with open(fp, "wb") as f: + f.write(r.text.encode("UTF-8")) hre = pd.read_csv(fp) hre.head() """ - Ix Dynasty Name Birth Death Election 1 -0 NaN Carolingian Charles I 2 April 742 28 January 814 NaN -1 NaN Carolingian Louis I 778 20 June 840 NaN -2 NaN Carolingian Lothair I 795 29 September 855 NaN -3 NaN Carolingian Louis II 825 12 August 875 NaN -4 NaN Carolingian Charles II 13 June 823 6 October 877 NaN - - Election 2 Coronation 1 Coronation 2 Ceased to be Emperor -0 NaN 25 December 800 NaN 28 January 814 -1 NaN 11 September 813 5 October 816 20 June 840 -2 NaN 5 April 823 NaN 29 September 855 -3 NaN Easter 850 18 May 872 12 August 875 -4 NaN 29 December 875 NaN 6 October 877 - - Descent from whom 1 Descent how 1 Descent from whom 2 Descent how 2 -0 NaN NaN NaN NaN -1 Charles I son NaN NaN -2 Louis I son NaN NaN -3 Lothair I son NaN NaN -4 Louis I son NaN NaN + Ix Dynasty Name Birth Death Election 1 +0 NaN Carolingian Charles I 2 April 742 28 January 814 NaN +1 NaN Carolingian Louis I 778 20 June 840 NaN +2 NaN Carolingian Lothair I 795 29 September 855 NaN +3 NaN Carolingian Louis II 825 12 August 875 NaN +4 NaN Carolingian Charles II 13 June 823 6 October 877 NaN + + Election 2 Coronation 1 Coronation 2 Ceased to be Emperor +0 NaN 25 December 800 NaN 28 January 814 +1 NaN 11 September 813 5 October 816 20 June 840 +2 NaN 5 April 823 NaN 29 September 855 +3 NaN Easter 850 18 May 872 12 August 875 +4 NaN 29 December 875 NaN 6 October 877 + + Descent from whom 1 Descent how 1 Descent from whom 2 Descent how 2 +0 NaN NaN NaN NaN +1 Charles I son NaN NaN +2 Louis I son NaN NaN +3 Lothair I son NaN NaN +4 Louis I son NaN NaN """ # clean the Birth and Death columns -import re # module for regular expressions +import re # module for regular expressions -rx = re.compile(r'\d+$') # match trailing digits +rx = re.compile(r'\d+$') # match trailing digits """ This function applies the regular expression to an input column (here Birth, Death), flattens the resulting list, converts it to a Series object, and @@ -185,8 +193,9 @@ rx = re.compile(r'\d+$') # match trailing digits - http://stackoverflow.com/questions/11860476/how-to-unlist-a-python-list - http://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/stable/generated/pandas.Series.html """ + def extractYear(v): - return(pd.Series(reduce(lambda x,y: x+y,map(rx.findall,v),[])).astype(int)) + return(pd.Series(reduce(lambda x, y: x + y, map(rx.findall, v), [])).astype(int)) hre["BirthY"] = extractYear(hre.Birth) hre["DeathY"] = extractYear(hre.Death) @@ -199,17 +208,17 @@ sns.lmplot("BirthY", "EstAge", data=hre, hue="Dynasty", fit_reg=False); # use scipy to run a linear regression from scipy import stats -(slope,intercept,rval,pval,stderr)=stats.linregress(hre.BirthY,hre.EstAge) +(slope, intercept, rval, pval, stderr) = stats.linregress(hre.BirthY, hre.EstAge) # code source: http://wiki.scipy.org/Cookbook/LinearRegression # check the slope -slope # 0.0057672618839073328 +slope # 0.0057672618839073328 # check the R^2 value: -rval**2 # 0.020363950027333586 +rval**2 # 0.020363950027333586 # check the p-value -pval # 0.34971812581498452 +pval # 0.34971812581498452 # use seaborn to make a scatterplot and plot the linear regression trend line sns.lmplot("BirthY", "EstAge", data=hre); @@ -223,6 +232,7 @@ sns.lmplot("BirthY", "EstAge", data=hre); To see a version of the Holy Roman Emperors analysis using R, see - http://github.com/e99n09/R-notes/blob/master/holy_roman_emperors_dates.R """ + ``` If you want to learn more, get _Python for Data Analysis_ by Wes McKinney. It's a superb resource and I used it as a reference when writing this tutorial. diff --git a/r.html.markdown b/r.html.markdown index b7bd6801..8539b10e 100644 --- a/r.html.markdown +++ b/r.html.markdown @@ -2,6 +2,8 @@ language: R contributors: - ["e99n09", "http://github.com/e99n09"] + - ["isomorphismes", "http://twitter.com/isomorphisms"] + - ["kalinn", "http://github.com/kalinn"] filename: learnr.r --- @@ -196,6 +198,14 @@ class(NaN) # "numeric" # You can do arithmetic on two vectors with length greater than 1, # so long as the larger vector's length is an integer multiple of the smaller c(1,2,3) + c(1,2,3) # 2 4 6 +# Since a single number is a vector of length one, scalars are applied +# elementwise to vectors +(4 * c(1,2,3) - 2) / 2 # 1 3 5 +# Except for scalars, use caution when performing arithmetic on vectors with +# different lengths. Although it can be done, +c(1,2,3,1,2,3) * c(1,2) # 1 4 3 2 2 6 +# Matching lengths is better practice and easier to read +c(1,2,3,1,2,3) * c(1,2,1,2,1,2) # CHARACTERS # There's no difference between strings and characters in R @@ -234,6 +244,9 @@ class(NA) # "logical" TRUE | FALSE # TRUE # AND TRUE & FALSE # FALSE +# Applying | and & to vectors returns elementwise logic operations +c(TRUE,FALSE,FALSE) | c(FALSE,TRUE,FALSE) # TRUE TRUE FALSE +c(TRUE,FALSE,TRUE) & c(FALSE,TRUE,TRUE) # FALSE FALSE TRUE # You can test if x is TRUE isTRUE(TRUE) # TRUE # Here we get a logical vector with many elements: @@ -664,15 +677,101 @@ write.csv(pets, "pets2.csv") # to make a new .csv file ######################### +# Statistical Analysis +######################### + +# Linear regression! +linearModel <- lm(price ~ time, data = list1) +linearModel # outputs result of regression +# => +# Call: +# lm(formula = price ~ time, data = list1) +# +# Coefficients: +# (Intercept) time +# 0.1453 0.4943 +summary(linearModel) # more verbose output from the regression +# => +# Call: +# lm(formula = price ~ time, data = list1) +# +# Residuals: +# Min 1Q Median 3Q Max +# -8.3134 -3.0131 -0.3606 2.8016 10.3992 +# +# Coefficients: +# Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|) +# (Intercept) 0.14527 1.50084 0.097 0.923 +# time 0.49435 0.06379 7.749 2.44e-09 *** +# --- +# Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1 +# +# Residual standard error: 4.657 on 38 degrees of freedom +# Multiple R-squared: 0.6124, Adjusted R-squared: 0.6022 +# F-statistic: 60.05 on 1 and 38 DF, p-value: 2.44e-09 +coef(linearModel) # extract estimated parameters +# => +# (Intercept) time +# 0.1452662 0.4943490 +summary(linearModel)$coefficients # another way to extract results +# => +# Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|) +# (Intercept) 0.1452662 1.50084246 0.09678975 9.234021e-01 +# time 0.4943490 0.06379348 7.74920901 2.440008e-09 +summary(linearModel)$coefficients[,4] # the p-values +# => +# (Intercept) time +# 9.234021e-01 2.440008e-09 + +# GENERAL LINEAR MODELS +# Logistic regression +set.seed(1) +list1$success = rbinom(length(list1$time), 1, .5) # random binary +glModel <- glm(success ~ time, data = list1, + family=binomial(link="logit")) +glModel # outputs result of logistic regression +# => +# Call: glm(formula = success ~ time, +# family = binomial(link = "logit"), data = list1) +# +# Coefficients: +# (Intercept) time +# 0.17018 -0.01321 +# +# Degrees of Freedom: 39 Total (i.e. Null); 38 Residual +# Null Deviance: 55.35 +# Residual Deviance: 55.12 AIC: 59.12 +summary(glModel) # more verbose output from the regression +# => +# Call: +# glm(formula = success ~ time, +# family = binomial(link = "logit"), data = list1) + +# Deviance Residuals: +# Min 1Q Median 3Q Max +# -1.245 -1.118 -1.035 1.202 1.327 +# +# Coefficients: +# Estimate Std. Error z value Pr(>|z|) +# (Intercept) 0.17018 0.64621 0.263 0.792 +# time -0.01321 0.02757 -0.479 0.632 +# +# (Dispersion parameter for binomial family taken to be 1) +# +# Null deviance: 55.352 on 39 degrees of freedom +# Residual deviance: 55.121 on 38 degrees of freedom +# AIC: 59.121 +# +# Number of Fisher Scoring iterations: 3 + + +######################### # Plots ######################### # BUILT-IN PLOTTING FUNCTIONS # Scatterplots! plot(list1$time, list1$price, main = "fake data") -# Regressions! -linearModel <- lm(price ~ time, data = list1) -linearModel # outputs result of regression # Plot regression line on existing plot abline(linearModel, col = "red") # Get a variety of nice diagnostics diff --git a/r.html.markdown~ b/r.html.markdown~ new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ee9e7c90 --- /dev/null +++ b/r.html.markdown~ @@ -0,0 +1,807 @@ +--- +language: R +contributors: + - ["e99n09", "http://github.com/e99n09"] +<<<<<<< HEAD +======= + - ["isomorphismes", "http://twitter.com/isomorphisms"] + - ["kalinn", "http://github.com/kalinn"] +>>>>>>> 6e38442b857a9d8178b6ce6713b96c52bf4426eb +filename: learnr.r +--- + +R is a statistical computing language. It has lots of libraries for uploading and cleaning data sets, running statistical procedures, and making graphs. You can also run `R` commands within a LaTeX document. + +```r + +# Comments start with number symbols. + +# You can't make multi-line comments, +# but you can stack multiple comments like so. + +# in Windows you can use CTRL-ENTER to execute a line. +# on Mac it is COMMAND-ENTER + + + +############################################################################# +# Stuff you can do without understanding anything about programming +############################################################################# + +# In this section, we show off some of the cool stuff you can do in +# R without understanding anything about programming. Do not worry +# about understanding everything the code does. Just enjoy! + +data() # browse pre-loaded data sets +data(rivers) # get this one: "Lengths of Major North American Rivers" +ls() # notice that "rivers" now appears in the workspace +head(rivers) # peek at the data set +# 735 320 325 392 524 450 + +length(rivers) # how many rivers were measured? +# 141 +summary(rivers) # what are some summary statistics? +# Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. +# 135.0 310.0 425.0 591.2 680.0 3710.0 + +# make a stem-and-leaf plot (a histogram-like data visualization) +stem(rivers) + +# The decimal point is 2 digit(s) to the right of the | +# +# 0 | 4 +# 2 | 011223334555566667778888899900001111223333344455555666688888999 +# 4 | 111222333445566779001233344567 +# 6 | 000112233578012234468 +# 8 | 045790018 +# 10 | 04507 +# 12 | 1471 +# 14 | 56 +# 16 | 7 +# 18 | 9 +# 20 | +# 22 | 25 +# 24 | 3 +# 26 | +# 28 | +# 30 | +# 32 | +# 34 | +# 36 | 1 + +stem(log(rivers)) # Notice that the data are neither normal nor log-normal! +# Take that, Bell curve fundamentalists. + +# The decimal point is 1 digit(s) to the left of the | +# +# 48 | 1 +# 50 | +# 52 | 15578 +# 54 | 44571222466689 +# 56 | 023334677000124455789 +# 58 | 00122366666999933445777 +# 60 | 122445567800133459 +# 62 | 112666799035 +# 64 | 00011334581257889 +# 66 | 003683579 +# 68 | 0019156 +# 70 | 079357 +# 72 | 89 +# 74 | 84 +# 76 | 56 +# 78 | 4 +# 80 | +# 82 | 2 + +# make a histogram: +hist(rivers, col="#333333", border="white", breaks=25) # play around with these parameters +hist(log(rivers), col="#333333", border="white", breaks=25) # you'll do more plotting later + +# Here's another neat data set that comes pre-loaded. R has tons of these. +data(discoveries) +plot(discoveries, col="#333333", lwd=3, xlab="Year", + main="Number of important discoveries per year") +plot(discoveries, col="#333333", lwd=3, type = "h", xlab="Year", + main="Number of important discoveries per year") + +# Rather than leaving the default ordering (by year), +# we could also sort to see what's typical: +sort(discoveries) +# [1] 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 +# [26] 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 +# [51] 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 +# [76] 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 9 10 12 + +stem(discoveries, scale=2) +# +# The decimal point is at the | +# +# 0 | 000000000 +# 1 | 000000000000 +# 2 | 00000000000000000000000000 +# 3 | 00000000000000000000 +# 4 | 000000000000 +# 5 | 0000000 +# 6 | 000000 +# 7 | 0000 +# 8 | 0 +# 9 | 0 +# 10 | 0 +# 11 | +# 12 | 0 + +max(discoveries) +# 12 +summary(discoveries) +# Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. +# 0.0 2.0 3.0 3.1 4.0 12.0 + +# Roll a die a few times +round(runif(7, min=.5, max=6.5)) +# 1 4 6 1 4 6 4 +# Your numbers will differ from mine unless we set the same random.seed(31337) + +# Draw from a standard Gaussian 9 times +rnorm(9) +# [1] 0.07528471 1.03499859 1.34809556 -0.82356087 0.61638975 -1.88757271 +# [7] -0.59975593 0.57629164 1.08455362 + + + +################################################## +# Data types and basic arithmetic +################################################## + +# Now for the programming-oriented part of the tutorial. +# In this section you will meet the important data types of R: +# integers, numerics, characters, logicals, and factors. +# There are others, but these are the bare minimum you need to +# get started. + +# INTEGERS +# Long-storage integers are written with L +5L # 5 +class(5L) # "integer" +# (Try ?class for more information on the class() function.) +# In R, every single value, like 5L, is considered a vector of length 1 +length(5L) # 1 +# You can have an integer vector with length > 1 too: +c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L) # 4 5 8 3 +length(c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L)) # 4 +class(c(4L, 5L, 8L, 3L)) # "integer" + +# NUMERICS +# A "numeric" is a double-precision floating-point number +5 # 5 +class(5) # "numeric" +# Again, everything in R is a vector; +# you can make a numeric vector with more than one element +c(3,3,3,2,2,1) # 3 3 3 2 2 1 +# You can use scientific notation too +5e4 # 50000 +6.02e23 # Avogadro's number +1.6e-35 # Planck length +# You can also have infinitely large or small numbers +class(Inf) # "numeric" +class(-Inf) # "numeric" +# You might use "Inf", for example, in integrate(dnorm, 3, Inf); +# this obviates Z-score tables. + +# BASIC ARITHMETIC +# You can do arithmetic with numbers +# Doing arithmetic on a mix of integers and numerics gives you another numeric +10L + 66L # 76 # integer plus integer gives integer +53.2 - 4 # 49.2 # numeric minus numeric gives numeric +2.0 * 2L # 4 # numeric times integer gives numeric +3L / 4 # 0.75 # integer over numeric gives numeric +3 %% 2 # 1 # the remainder of two numerics is another numeric +# Illegal arithmetic yeilds you a "not-a-number": +0 / 0 # NaN +class(NaN) # "numeric" +# You can do arithmetic on two vectors with length greater than 1, +# so long as the larger vector's length is an integer multiple of the smaller +c(1,2,3) + c(1,2,3) # 2 4 6 +# Since a single number is a vector of length one, scalars are applied +# elementwise to vectors +(4 * c(1,2,3) - 2) / 2 # 1 3 5 +# Except for scalars, use caution when performing arithmetic on vectors with +# different lengths. Although it can be done, +c(1,2,3,1,2,3) * c(1,2) # 1 4 3 2 2 6 +# Matching lengths is better practice and easier to read +c(1,2,3,1,2,3) * c(1,2,1,2,1,2) + +# CHARACTERS +# There's no difference between strings and characters in R +"Horatio" # "Horatio" +class("Horatio") # "character" +class('H') # "character" +# Those were both character vectors of length 1 +# Here is a longer one: +c('alef', 'bet', 'gimmel', 'dalet', 'he') +# => +# "alef" "bet" "gimmel" "dalet" "he" +length(c("Call","me","Ishmael")) # 3 +# You can do regex operations on character vectors: +substr("Fortuna multis dat nimis, nulli satis.", 9, 15) # "multis " +gsub('u', 'ø', "Fortuna multis dat nimis, nulli satis.") # "Fortøna møltis dat nimis, nølli satis." +# R has several built-in character vectors: +letters +# => +# [1] "a" "b" "c" "d" "e" "f" "g" "h" "i" "j" "k" "l" "m" "n" "o" "p" "q" "r" "s" +# [20] "t" "u" "v" "w" "x" "y" "z" +month.abb # "Jan" "Feb" "Mar" "Apr" "May" "Jun" "Jul" "Aug" "Sep" "Oct" "Nov" "Dec" + +# LOGICALS +# In R, a "logical" is a boolean +class(TRUE) # "logical" +class(FALSE) # "logical" +# Their behavior is normal +TRUE == TRUE # TRUE +TRUE == FALSE # FALSE +FALSE != FALSE # FALSE +FALSE != TRUE # TRUE +# Missing data (NA) is logical, too +class(NA) # "logical" +# Use | and & for logic operations. +# OR +TRUE | FALSE # TRUE +# AND +TRUE & FALSE # FALSE +# Applying | and & to vectors returns elementwise logic operations +c(TRUE,FALSE,FALSE) | c(FALSE,TRUE,FALSE) # TRUE TRUE FALSE +c(TRUE,FALSE,TRUE) & c(FALSE,TRUE,TRUE) # FALSE FALSE TRUE +# You can test if x is TRUE +isTRUE(TRUE) # TRUE +# Here we get a logical vector with many elements: +c('Z', 'o', 'r', 'r', 'o') == "Zorro" # FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE +c('Z', 'o', 'r', 'r', 'o') == "Z" # TRUE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE + +# FACTORS +# The factor class is for categorical data +# Factors can be ordered (like childrens' grade levels) or unordered (like gender) +factor(c("female", "female", "male", NA, "female")) +# female female male <NA> female +# Levels: female male +# The "levels" are the values the categorical data can take +# Note that missing data does not enter the levels +levels(factor(c("male", "male", "female", NA, "female"))) # "female" "male" +# If a factor vector has length 1, its levels will have length 1, too +length(factor("male")) # 1 +length(levels(factor("male"))) # 1 +# Factors are commonly seen in data frames, a data structure we will cover later +data(infert) # "Infertility after Spontaneous and Induced Abortion" +levels(infert$education) # "0-5yrs" "6-11yrs" "12+ yrs" + +# NULL +# "NULL" is a weird one; use it to "blank out" a vector +class(NULL) # NULL +parakeet = c("beak", "feathers", "wings", "eyes") +parakeet +# => +# [1] "beak" "feathers" "wings" "eyes" +parakeet <- NULL +parakeet +# => +# NULL + +# TYPE COERCION +# Type-coercion is when you force a value to take on a different type +as.character(c(6, 8)) # "6" "8" +as.logical(c(1,0,1,1)) # TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE +# If you put elements of different types into a vector, weird coercions happen: +c(TRUE, 4) # 1 4 +c("dog", TRUE, 4) # "dog" "TRUE" "4" +as.numeric("Bilbo") +# => +# [1] NA +# Warning message: +# NAs introduced by coercion + +# Also note: those were just the basic data types +# There are many more data types, such as for dates, time series, etc. + + + +################################################## +# Variables, loops, if/else +################################################## + +# A variable is like a box you store a value in for later use. +# We call this "assigning" the value to the variable. +# Having variables lets us write loops, functions, and if/else statements + +# VARIABLES +# Lots of way to assign stuff: +x = 5 # this is possible +y <- "1" # this is preferred +TRUE -> z # this works but is weird + +# LOOPS +# We've got for loops +for (i in 1:4) { + print(i) +} +# We've got while loops +a <- 10 +while (a > 4) { + cat(a, "...", sep = "") + a <- a - 1 +} +# Keep in mind that for and while loops run slowly in R +# Operations on entire vectors (i.e. a whole row, a whole column) +# or apply()-type functions (we'll discuss later) are preferred + +# IF/ELSE +# Again, pretty standard +if (4 > 3) { + print("4 is greater than 3") +} else { + print("4 is not greater than 3") +} +# => +# [1] "4 is greater than 3" + +# FUNCTIONS +# Defined like so: +jiggle <- function(x) { + x = x + rnorm(1, sd=.1) #add in a bit of (controlled) noise + return(x) +} +# Called like any other R function: +jiggle(5) # 5±ε. After set.seed(2716057), jiggle(5)==5.005043 + + + +########################################################################### +# Data structures: Vectors, matrices, data frames, and arrays +########################################################################### + +# ONE-DIMENSIONAL + +# Let's start from the very beginning, and with something you already know: vectors. +vec <- c(8, 9, 10, 11) +vec # 8 9 10 11 +# We ask for specific elements by subsetting with square brackets +# (Note that R starts counting from 1) +vec[1] # 8 +letters[18] # "r" +LETTERS[13] # "M" +month.name[9] # "September" +c(6, 8, 7, 5, 3, 0, 9)[3] # 7 +# We can also search for the indices of specific components, +which(vec %% 2 == 0) # 1 3 +# grab just the first or last few entries in the vector, +head(vec, 1) # 8 +tail(vec, 2) # 10 11 +# or figure out if a certain value is in the vector +any(vec == 10) # TRUE +# If an index "goes over" you'll get NA: +vec[6] # NA +# You can find the length of your vector with length() +length(vec) # 4 +# You can perform operations on entire vectors or subsets of vectors +vec * 4 # 16 20 24 28 +vec[2:3] * 5 # 25 30 +any(vec[2:3] == 8) # FALSE +# and R has many built-in functions to summarize vectors +mean(vec) # 9.5 +var(vec) # 1.666667 +sd(vec) # 1.290994 +max(vec) # 11 +min(vec) # 8 +sum(vec) # 38 +# Some more nice built-ins: +5:15 # 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 +seq(from=0, to=31337, by=1337) +# => +# [1] 0 1337 2674 4011 5348 6685 8022 9359 10696 12033 13370 14707 +# [13] 16044 17381 18718 20055 21392 22729 24066 25403 26740 28077 29414 30751 + +# TWO-DIMENSIONAL (ALL ONE CLASS) + +# You can make a matrix out of entries all of the same type like so: +mat <- matrix(nrow = 3, ncol = 2, c(1,2,3,4,5,6)) +mat +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 1 4 +# [2,] 2 5 +# [3,] 3 6 +# Unlike a vector, the class of a matrix is "matrix", no matter what's in it +class(mat) # => "matrix" +# Ask for the first row +mat[1,] # 1 4 +# Perform operation on the first column +3 * mat[,1] # 3 6 9 +# Ask for a specific cell +mat[3,2] # 6 + +# Transpose the whole matrix +t(mat) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] +# [1,] 1 2 3 +# [2,] 4 5 6 + +# Matrix multiplication +mat %*% t(mat) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] +# [1,] 17 22 27 +# [2,] 22 29 36 +# [3,] 27 36 45 + +# cbind() sticks vectors together column-wise to make a matrix +mat2 <- cbind(1:4, c("dog", "cat", "bird", "dog")) +mat2 +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] "1" "dog" +# [2,] "2" "cat" +# [3,] "3" "bird" +# [4,] "4" "dog" +class(mat2) # matrix +# Again, note what happened! +# Because matrices must contain entries all of the same class, +# everything got converted to the character class +c(class(mat2[,1]), class(mat2[,2])) + +# rbind() sticks vectors together row-wise to make a matrix +mat3 <- rbind(c(1,2,4,5), c(6,7,0,4)) +mat3 +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] +# [1,] 1 2 4 5 +# [2,] 6 7 0 4 +# Ah, everything of the same class. No coercions. Much better. + +# TWO-DIMENSIONAL (DIFFERENT CLASSES) + +# For columns of different types, use a data frame +# This data structure is so useful for statistical programming, +# a version of it was added to Python in the package "pandas". + +students <- data.frame(c("Cedric","Fred","George","Cho","Draco","Ginny"), + c(3,2,2,1,0,-1), + c("H", "G", "G", "R", "S", "G")) +names(students) <- c("name", "year", "house") # name the columns +class(students) # "data.frame" +students +# => +# name year house +# 1 Cedric 3 H +# 2 Fred 2 G +# 3 George 2 G +# 4 Cho 1 R +# 5 Draco 0 S +# 6 Ginny -1 G +class(students$year) # "numeric" +class(students[,3]) # "factor" +# find the dimensions +nrow(students) # 6 +ncol(students) # 3 +dim(students) # 6 3 +# The data.frame() function converts character vectors to factor vectors +# by default; turn this off by setting stringsAsFactors = FALSE when +# you create the data.frame +?data.frame + +# There are many twisty ways to subset data frames, all subtly unalike +students$year # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 +students[,2] # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 +students[,"year"] # 3 2 2 1 0 -1 + +# An augmented version of the data.frame structure is the data.table +# If you're working with huge or panel data, or need to merge a few data +# sets, data.table can be a good choice. Here's a whirlwind tour: +install.packages("data.table") # download the package from CRAN +require(data.table) # load it +students <- as.data.table(students) +students # note the slightly different print-out +# => +# name year house +# 1: Cedric 3 H +# 2: Fred 2 G +# 3: George 2 G +# 4: Cho 1 R +# 5: Draco 0 S +# 6: Ginny -1 G +students[name=="Ginny"] # get rows with name == "Ginny" +# => +# name year house +# 1: Ginny -1 G +students[year==2] # get rows with year == 2 +# => +# name year house +# 1: Fred 2 G +# 2: George 2 G +# data.table makes merging two data sets easy +# let's make another data.table to merge with students +founders <- data.table(house=c("G","H","R","S"), + founder=c("Godric","Helga","Rowena","Salazar")) +founders +# => +# house founder +# 1: G Godric +# 2: H Helga +# 3: R Rowena +# 4: S Salazar +setkey(students, house) +setkey(founders, house) +students <- founders[students] # merge the two data sets by matching "house" +setnames(students, c("house","houseFounderName","studentName","year")) +students[,order(c("name","year","house","houseFounderName")), with=F] +# => +# studentName year house houseFounderName +# 1: Fred 2 G Godric +# 2: George 2 G Godric +# 3: Ginny -1 G Godric +# 4: Cedric 3 H Helga +# 5: Cho 1 R Rowena +# 6: Draco 0 S Salazar + +# data.table makes summary tables easy +students[,sum(year),by=house] +# => +# house V1 +# 1: G 3 +# 2: H 3 +# 3: R 1 +# 4: S 0 + +# To drop a column from a data.frame or data.table, +# assign it the NULL value +students$houseFounderName <- NULL +students +# => +# studentName year house +# 1: Fred 2 G +# 2: George 2 G +# 3: Ginny -1 G +# 4: Cedric 3 H +# 5: Cho 1 R +# 6: Draco 0 S + +# Drop a row by subsetting +# Using data.table: +students[studentName != "Draco"] +# => +# house studentName year +# 1: G Fred 2 +# 2: G George 2 +# 3: G Ginny -1 +# 4: H Cedric 3 +# 5: R Cho 1 +# Using data.frame: +students <- as.data.frame(students) +students[students$house != "G",] +# => +# house houseFounderName studentName year +# 4 H Helga Cedric 3 +# 5 R Rowena Cho 1 +# 6 S Salazar Draco 0 + +# MULTI-DIMENSIONAL (ALL ELEMENTS OF ONE TYPE) + +# Arrays creates n-dimensional tables +# All elements must be of the same type +# You can make a two-dimensional table (sort of like a matrix) +array(c(c(1,2,4,5),c(8,9,3,6)), dim=c(2,4)) +# => +# [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] +# [1,] 1 4 8 3 +# [2,] 2 5 9 6 +# You can use array to make three-dimensional matrices too +array(c(c(c(2,300,4),c(8,9,0)),c(c(5,60,0),c(66,7,847))), dim=c(3,2,2)) +# => +# , , 1 +# +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 2 8 +# [2,] 300 9 +# [3,] 4 0 +# +# , , 2 +# +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 5 66 +# [2,] 60 7 +# [3,] 0 847 + +# LISTS (MULTI-DIMENSIONAL, POSSIBLY RAGGED, OF DIFFERENT TYPES) + +# Finally, R has lists (of vectors) +list1 <- list(time = 1:40) +list1$price = c(rnorm(40,.5*list1$time,4)) # random +list1 +# You can get items in the list like so +list1$time # one way +list1[["time"]] # another way +list1[[1]] # yet another way +# => +# [1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 +# [34] 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 +# You can subset list items like any other vector +list1$price[4] + +# Lists are not the most efficient data structure to work with in R; +# unless you have a very good reason, you should stick to data.frames +# Lists are often returned by functions that perform linear regressions + +################################################## +# The apply() family of functions +################################################## + +# Remember mat? +mat +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 1 4 +# [2,] 2 5 +# [3,] 3 6 +# Use apply(X, MARGIN, FUN) to apply function FUN to a matrix X +# over rows (MAR = 1) or columns (MAR = 2) +# That is, R does FUN to each row (or column) of X, much faster than a +# for or while loop would do +apply(mat, MAR = 2, jiggle) +# => +# [,1] [,2] +# [1,] 3 15 +# [2,] 7 19 +# [3,] 11 23 +# Other functions: ?lapply, ?sapply + +# Don't feel too intimidated; everyone agrees they are rather confusing + +# The plyr package aims to replace (and improve upon!) the *apply() family. +install.packages("plyr") +require(plyr) +?plyr + + + +######################### +# Loading data +######################### + +# "pets.csv" is a file on the internet +# (but it could just as easily be be a file on your own computer) +pets <- read.csv("http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/pets.csv") +pets +head(pets, 2) # first two rows +tail(pets, 1) # last row + +# To save a data frame or matrix as a .csv file +write.csv(pets, "pets2.csv") # to make a new .csv file +# set working directory with setwd(), look it up with getwd() + +# Try ?read.csv and ?write.csv for more information + + + +######################### +# Statistical Analysis +######################### + +# Linear regression! +linearModel <- lm(price ~ time, data = list1) +linearModel # outputs result of regression +# => +# Call: +# lm(formula = price ~ time, data = list1) +# +# Coefficients: +# (Intercept) time +# 0.1453 0.4943 +summary(linearModel) # more verbose output from the regression +# => +# Call: +# lm(formula = price ~ time, data = list1) +# +# Residuals: +# Min 1Q Median 3Q Max +# -8.3134 -3.0131 -0.3606 2.8016 10.3992 +# +# Coefficients: +# Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|) +# (Intercept) 0.14527 1.50084 0.097 0.923 +# time 0.49435 0.06379 7.749 2.44e-09 *** +# --- +# Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1 +# +# Residual standard error: 4.657 on 38 degrees of freedom +# Multiple R-squared: 0.6124, Adjusted R-squared: 0.6022 +# F-statistic: 60.05 on 1 and 38 DF, p-value: 2.44e-09 +coef(linearModel) # extract estimated parameters +# => +# (Intercept) time +# 0.1452662 0.4943490 +summary(linearModel)$coefficients # another way to extract results +# => +# Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|) +# (Intercept) 0.1452662 1.50084246 0.09678975 9.234021e-01 +# time 0.4943490 0.06379348 7.74920901 2.440008e-09 +summary(linearModel)$coefficients[,4] # the p-values +# => +# (Intercept) time +# 9.234021e-01 2.440008e-09 + +# GENERAL LINEAR MODELS +# Logistic regression +set.seed(1) +list1$success = rbinom(length(list1$time), 1, .5) # random binary +glModel <- glm(success ~ time, data = list1, + family=binomial(link="logit")) +glModel # outputs result of logistic regression +# => +# Call: glm(formula = success ~ time, +# family = binomial(link = "logit"), data = list1) +# +# Coefficients: +# (Intercept) time +# 0.17018 -0.01321 +# +# Degrees of Freedom: 39 Total (i.e. Null); 38 Residual +# Null Deviance: 55.35 +# Residual Deviance: 55.12 AIC: 59.12 +summary(glModel) # more verbose output from the regression +# => +# Call: +# glm(formula = success ~ time, +# family = binomial(link = "logit"), data = list1) + +# Deviance Residuals: +# Min 1Q Median 3Q Max +# -1.245 -1.118 -1.035 1.202 1.327 +# +# Coefficients: +# Estimate Std. Error z value Pr(>|z|) +# (Intercept) 0.17018 0.64621 0.263 0.792 +# time -0.01321 0.02757 -0.479 0.632 +# +# (Dispersion parameter for binomial family taken to be 1) +# +# Null deviance: 55.352 on 39 degrees of freedom +# Residual deviance: 55.121 on 38 degrees of freedom +# AIC: 59.121 +# +# Number of Fisher Scoring iterations: 3 + + +######################### +# Plots +######################### + +# BUILT-IN PLOTTING FUNCTIONS +# Scatterplots! +plot(list1$time, list1$price, main = "fake data") +# Plot regression line on existing plot +abline(linearModel, col = "red") +# Get a variety of nice diagnostics +plot(linearModel) +# Histograms! +hist(rpois(n = 10000, lambda = 5), col = "thistle") +# Barplots! +barplot(c(1,4,5,1,2), names.arg = c("red","blue","purple","green","yellow")) + +# GGPLOT2 +# But these are not even the prettiest of R's plots +# Try the ggplot2 package for more and better graphics +install.packages("ggplot2") +require(ggplot2) +?ggplot2 +pp <- ggplot(students, aes(x=house)) +pp + geom_histogram() +ll <- as.data.table(list1) +pp <- ggplot(ll, aes(x=time,price)) +pp + geom_point() +# ggplot2 has excellent documentation (available http://docs.ggplot2.org/current/) + + + +``` + +## How do I get R? + +* Get R and the R GUI from [http://www.r-project.org/](http://www.r-project.org/) +* [RStudio](http://www.rstudio.com/ide/) is another GUI diff --git a/ro-ro/bash-ro.html.markdown b/ro-ro/bash-ro.html.markdown index debeb67a..32a878b2 100644 --- a/ro-ro/bash-ro.html.markdown +++ b/ro-ro/bash-ro.html.markdown @@ -12,166 +12,171 @@ lang: ro-ro filename: LearnBash-ro.sh --- -Bash este numele shell-ului unix, care a fost de asemenea distribuit drept shell pentru sistemul de operare GNU si ca shell implicit pentru Linux si Mac OS X. +Bash este numele shell-ului UNIX, care a fost de asemenea distribuit drept shell pentru sistemul de operare GNU și ca shell implicit pentru Linux si Mac OS X. Aproape toate exemplele de mai jos pot fi parte dintr-un script sau pot fi executate direct in linia de comanda. -[Citeste mai multe:](http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/bashref.html) +[Citește mai multe:](http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/bashref.html) ```bash #!/bin/bash # Prima linie din script se numeste "shebang" -# care spune systemului cum sa execute scriptul +# care spune sistemului cum să execute scriptul # http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shebang_(Unix) -# Dupa cum te-ai prins deja, comentariile incep cu #. +# După cum te-ai prins deja, comentariile încep cu #. # Shebang este de asemenea un comentariu. # Exemplu simplu de hello world: echo Hello world! -# Fiecare comanda incepe pe o linie noua, sau dupa punct si virgula ; +# Fiecare comandă începe pe o linie nouă, sau după punct și virgula ; echo 'Prima linie'; echo 'A doua linie' # Declararea unei variabile se face astfel: -VARIABLE="Niste text" +VARIABLE="Niște text" -# DAR nu asa: +# DAR nu așa: VARIABLE = "Niste text" -# Bash va crede ca VARIABLE este o comanda care trebuie executata si va -# returna o eroare pentru ca nu va putea fi gasita. +# Bash va crede că VARIABLE este o comandă care trebuie executată și va +# returna o eroare pentru că nu va putea fi găsita. # Folosind variabila: echo $VARIABLE echo "$VARIABLE" echo '$VARIABLE' -# Atunci cand folosesti variabila, o atribui, o exporti sau altfel, -# numele ei se scrie fara $. -# Daca vrei sa folosesti valoarea variabilei, atunci trebuie sa folosesti $. -# Atentie la faptul ca ' (apostrof) nu va inlocui variabla cu valoarea ei. +# Atunci când folosesti variabila, o atribui, o exporți sau altfel, +# numele ei se scrie fără $. +# Daca vrei sa folosesti valoarea variabilei, atunci trebuie să folosești $. +# Atentie la faptul că ' (apostrof) nu va inlocui variabla cu valoarea ei. -# Inlocuirea de caractere in variabile -echo ${VARIABLE/Some/A} -# Asta va inlocui prima aparitie a "Some" cu "A" in variabila de mai sus. +# Inlocuirea de caractere în variabile +echo ${VARIABLE/Niște/Un} +# Asta va înlocui prima apariție a "Niște" cu "Un" în variabila de mai sus. -# Substring dintr-o variabila +# Substring dintr-o variabilă echo ${VARIABLE:0:7} # Asta va returna numai primele 7 caractere din variabila. # Valoarea implicita a unei variabile: -echo ${FOO:-"ValoareaImplicitaDacaFOOLipsesteSauEGoala"} -# Asta functioneaza pentru null (FOO=), -# sir de caractere gol (FOO=""), zero (FOO=0) returneaza 0 +echo ${FOO:-"ValoareaImplicitaDacaFOOLipseșteSauEGoală"} +# Asta functionează pentru null (FOO=), +# sir de caractere gol (FOO=""), zero (FOO=0) returnează 0 # Variabile pre-existente -echo "Ulima valoare returnata de ultimul program rulat: $?" -echo "ID-ul procesului (PID) care ruleaza scriptul: $$" -echo "Numarul de argumente: $#" +echo "Ulima valoare returnată de ultimul program rulat: $?" +echo "ID-ul procesului (PID) care rulează scriptul: $$" +echo "Numărul de argumente: $#" echo "Argumentele scriptului: $@" -echo "Argumentele scriptului separate in variabile: $1 $2..." +echo "Argumentele scriptului separate în variabile: $1 $2..." -# Citind o valoare din consola -echo "Care e numele tau?" -read NAME # Observa faptul ca nu a trebuit sa declaram o variabila noua +# Citind o valoare din consolă +echo "Care e numele tău?" +read NAME # Observă faptul că nu a trebuit să declarăm o variabilă nouă echo Salut, $NAME! # Avem obisnuita instructiune "if" -# Foloseste "man test" pentru mai multe informatii -# despre instructinea conditionala +# Folosește "man test" pentru mai multe informații +# despre instrucținea conditionala if [ $NAME -ne $USER ] then - echo "Numele tau este username-ul tau" + echo "Numele tău este username-ul tău" else - echo "Numele tau nu este username-ul tau" + echo "Numele tău nu este username-ul tău" fi -# Este de asemenea si executarea conditionala de comenzi -echo "Intotdeauna executat" || echo "Executat daca prima instructiune esueaza" -echo "Intotdeauna executat" && echo "Executat daca prima instructiune NU esueaza" +# Există, de asemenea, și executarea conditională de comenzi +echo "Întotdeauna executat" || echo "Executat dacă prima instrucțiune eșuează" +echo "Întotdeauna executat" && echo "Executat dacă prima instrucțiune NU esuează" -# Expresiile apar in urmatorul format +# Expresiile apar în urmatorul format echo $(( 10 + 5 )) -# Spre deosebire de alte limbaje de programare bash este un shell - asa ca -# functioneaza in contextul directorului curent. Poti vedea fisiere si directoare +# Spre deosebire de alte limbaje de programare, bash este un shell - așa că +# funcționează in contextul directorului curent. Poți vedea fișiere și directoare # din directorul curent folosind comanda "ls": ls -# Aceste comenzi au optiuni care la controleaza executia -ls -l # Listeaza fiecare fisier si director pe o linie separata +# Aceste comenzi au optiuni care le controlează execuțiă +ls -l # Listează fiecare fișier și director pe o linie separată # Rezultatele comenzii anterioare pot fi -# trimise urmatoarei comenzi drept argument -# Comanda grep filtreaza argumentele trimise cu sabloane. +# trimise următoarei comenzi drept argument +# Comanda grep filtrează argumentele trimise cu sabloane. # Astfel putem vedea fiserele .txt din directorul curent. ls -l | grep "\.txt" -# De asemenea poti redirectiona o comanda, input si error output -python2 hello.py < "input.in" -python2 hello.py > "output.out" -python2 hello.py 2> "error.err" -# Output-ul va suprascrie fisierul daca acesta exista. -# Daca vrei sa fie concatenate poti folosi ">>" - -# Comenzile pot fi inlocuite in interiorul altor comenzi folosind $( ): -# Urmatoarea comanda afiseaza numarul de fisiere -# si directoare din directorul curent -echo "Sunt $(ls | wc -l) fisiere aici." - -# Acelasi lucru se poate obtine folosind apostrf-ul inversat ``, -# dar nu pot fi folosite unele in interiorul celorlalte asa ca modalitatea -# preferata este de a folosi $( ) -echo "Sunt `ls | wc -l` fisiere aici." - -# Bash foloseste o instructiune 'case' care functioneaza -# in mod similar cu instructiunea switch din Java si C++ +# De asemenea, poți redirecționa date de intrare spre sau erori/date de ieșire +# dinspre o comandă +python2 hello.py < "intrare.in" +python2 hello.py > "ieșire.out" +python2 hello.py 2> "erori.err" +# Output-ul va suprascrie fișierul dacă acesta există. +# Daca vrei să fie concatenate datele poți folosi ">>" în loc de ">" + +# Comenzile pot fi înlocuite în interiorul altor comenzi folosind $( ): +# Urmatoarea comandă afișează numărul de fișiere +# și directoare din directorul curent +echo "Sunt $(ls | wc -l) fișiere aici." + +# Același lucru se poate obține folosind apostroful inversat ``, +# dar nu pot fi folosite limbricate, așa ca modalitatea +# preferată este de a folosi $( ) +echo "Sunt `ls | wc -l` fișiere aici." + +# Bash folosește o instrucțiune 'case' care funcționeaza +# în mod similar cu instructiunea switch din Java si C++ case "$VARIABLE" in 0) echo "Este un zero.";; 1) echo "Este un unu.";; *) echo "Nu este null";; esac -# Instructiunea for parcurge toate elementele trimise: -# Continutul variabilei $VARIABLE este printat de 3 ori +# Instrucțiunea 'for' parcurge toate elementele trimise: +# Conținutul variabilei $VARIABLE este printat de 3 ori for VARIABLE in {1..3} do echo "$VARIABLE" done -# while loop: +# Buclă while: while [true] do - echo "in interiorul iteratiei aici..." + echo "în interiorul iterației aici..." break done -# De asemenea poti defini functii -# Definitie: +# De asemenea poți defini funcții +# Definiție: function foo () { - echo "Argumentele functioneaza ca si argumentele scriptului: $@" + echo "Argumentele funcționeaza ca și argumentele scriptului: $@" echo "Si: $1 $2..." - echo "Asta este o functie" + echo "Asta este o funcție" return 0 } -# sau mai simplu +# sau mai simplu: bar () { - echo "Alta metoda de a declara o functie" + echo "Altă metodă de a declara o funcție" return 0 } -# Invocarea unei functii +# Invocarea unei funcții: foo "Numele meu este: " $NAME -# Sunt o multime de comenzi utile pe care ar trebui sa le inveti: +# Sunt o multime de comenzi utile pe care ar trebui să le inveți: tail -n 10 file.txt -# printeaza ultimele 10 linii din fisierul file.txt +# afișează ultimele 10 linii din fișierul file.txt + head -n 10 file.txt -# printeaza primele 10 linii din fisierul file.txt +# afișează primele 10 linii din fișierul file.txt + sort file.txt -# sorteaza liniile din file.txt +# sortează liniile din file.txt + uniq -d file.txt -# raporteaza sau omite liniile care se repeta, cu -d le raporteaza +# raporteaza sau omite liniile care se repetă. Cu -d le raporteaza + cut -d ',' -f 1 file.txt -# printeaza doar prima coloana inainte de caracterul "," +# printează doar prima coloană inainte de caracterul "," ``` diff --git a/ro-ro/bf-ro.html.markdown b/ro-ro/bf-ro.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..61b555ed --- /dev/null +++ b/ro-ro/bf-ro.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,90 @@ +--- +language: brainfuck +contributors: + - ["Prajit Ramachandran", "http://prajitr.github.io/"] + - ["Mathias Bynens", "http://mathiasbynens.be/"] +translators: + - ["Petru Dimitriu", "http://petru-dimitriu.github.io"] +lang: ro-ro +--- + +Brainfuck (un nume propriu care nu primește majusculă inițială decât la începutul +propoziției) este un limbaj de programare Turing-comple extrem de minimalist cu +doar 8 instrucțiuni. + +Puteți încerca brainfuck în navigatorul dumneavoastră cu [brainfuck-visualizer](http://fatiherikli.github.io/brainfuck-visualizer/). + +``` +Orice caracter in afara de "><+-.,[]" (fara ghilimele) este ignorat. + +Brainfuck se reprezinta ca un vector de 30 000 de celule initializate cu zero +si un pointer de date care trimite spre celula curenta. + +Exista opt comenzi: ++ : Incrementeaza valoarea celulei curente cu 1. +- : Decrementeaza valoarea celulei curente cu 1. +> : Muta pointerul de date la urmatoarea celula (o celula la dreapta). +< : Muta pointerul de date la celula precedenta (o celula la stanga). +. : Afiseaza valoarea caracterului ASCII din celul caurenta (ex. 65 = 'A'). +, : Citeste un singur caracter si plaseaza valoarea lui in celula curenta. +[ : Daca valoarea in celula curenta este zero, sare la urmatorul caracter ] . + Altfel, merge la urmatoarea instructiune. +] : Daca valoarea in celula curenta este zero, sare la urmatoarea + instructiune. + Altfel, se intoarce la instructiunea de dupa caracterul [ precedent . + +[ and ] formeaza un ciclu. Evident, trebuie ca parantezarea sa fie corecta. + +Sa privim cateva programe brainfuck simple. + +++++++ [ > ++++++++++ < - ] > +++++ . + +Acest program afiseaza litera 'A'. Mai intai, incrementeaza celula #1 pana +la valoarea 6. Celula #1 va fi folosita pentru ciclare. Apoi, intra in ciclu +([) si muta pointerul la celula #2. Incrementeaza celula #2 de 10 ori, +muta pointerul la celula #1 si decrementeaza celula #1. Acest ciclu parcurge +6 iteratii (este nevoie de 6 decrementari pentru ca celula #1 sa ajunga la 0), +iar dupa aceea se trece la caracterul ] corespunzator si se continua executia. + +In acest moment, ne aflam in celula #1, care are valoarea 0, in timp ce celula +#2 are valoarea 60. Ne mutam pe celula #2, incrementam de 5 ori, pentru a +obtine valoarea 65, si apoi afisam valoarea celulei #2. 65 este codul ASCII +pentru 'A', deci se afiseaza 'A' in terminal. + +, [ > + < - ] > . + +Acest program citeste un caracter de la intrarea utilizator si copiaza caracterul +in celula #1. Apoi incepem un ciclu. Se muta pointerul in celula #2, se +incremneteaza valoarea de la celula #2, se muta inapoi la celula #1, se +decrementeaza valoarea de la celula #1. Aceasta continua pana cand celula #1 este +0 iar celula #2 retine vechea valoare a celulei #1. Deoarece ne aflam in celula +#1 la sfarsitul ciclului, ne mutam pe celula #2 si afisam simbolul corespunzator +in ASCII. + +Aveti in vedere ca spatiile sunt doar pentru usurinta citirii. La fel de bine +programul ar fi putut fi scris astfel: + +,[>+<-]>. + +Incercati sa va dati seama ce face acest program: + +,>,< [ > [ >+ >+ << -] >> [- << + >>] <<< -] >> + +Acest program citeste doua numere ca intrare si le inmulteste. + +Pe scurt, programul citeste doua date de intrare, apoi incepe ciclul +mare, a carui conditie se afla in celula #1; apoi se muta la celula #2 +si incepe un ciclu imbricat a carui conditie de reluare se afla in +celula #2, si care incrementeaza celula #3. Totusi aici intervine o +problema: La sfarsitul ciclului imbricat, celula #2 este zero. In +acest caz, celula ciclul imbricat nu va mai functiona data viitoare. +Pentru a rezolva aceasta problema, incrementam celula si #4, si +recopiem celula #4 in celula #2. In final, celula #3 este rezultatul. + +``` + +Așadar acesta este limbajul brainfuck. Nu e atât de greu, nu? Pentru +amuzament, puteți să scrieți propriile dumneavoastră limbaje, sau puteți +scrie un interpretor pentru brainfuck într-un alt limbaj. Interpretorul +este destul de ușor de implementat, dar dacă sunteți masochist, încercați +să implementați un interpretor de brainfuck… în brainfuck.
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/ro-ro/json-ro.html.markdown b/ro-ro/json-ro.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e897059c --- /dev/null +++ b/ro-ro/json-ro.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +language: json +filename: learnjson-ro.json +contributors: + - ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"] + - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] +translators: + - ["Serban Constantin", "https://github.com/fuzzmz"] +lang: ro-ro +--- + +Deoarece JSON este un fromat foarte simplu de schimb de date acesta va fi +probabil cel mai simplu Invata X in Y minute. + +JSON in forma cea mai pura nu contine comentarii insa majoritatea parserelor +vor accepta comentarii in stil C (`//`, `/* */`). Pentru acest caz insa totul +va fi JSON 100% valid. Din fericire codul vorbeste de la sine. + +```json +{ + "cheie": "valoare", + + "chei": "trebuie mereu inconjurate de ghilimele", + "numere": 0, + "stringuri": "Bunã. Tot setul unicode este permis, chiar si \"escaping\".", + "are booleane?": true, + "nimic": null, + + "numere mari": 1.2e+100, + + "obiecte": { + "comentariu": "Majoritatea structurii va veni din obiecte.", + + "vectori": [0, 1, 2, 3, "Vectorii pot avea orice in ei.", 5], + + "alt obiect": { + "comentariu": "Lucrurile pot fi subordonate. Foarte util." + } + }, + + "glumite": [ + { + "surse de potasiu": ["banane"] + }, + [ + [1, 0, 0, 0], + [0, 1, 0, 0], + [0, 0, 1, "neo"], + [0, 0, 0, 1] + ] + ], + + "stil alternativ": { + "comentariu": "ia uite la asta!" + , "pozitia virgulei": "nu conteaza - daca e inaintea valorii atunci e valida" + , "alt comentariu": "ce dragut" + }, + + "a fost scurt": "Am terminat. Acum stii tot ce are JSON de oferit." +} +``` diff --git a/ro-ro/latex.html.markdown b/ro-ro/latex.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..35651e28 --- /dev/null +++ b/ro-ro/latex.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,258 @@ +--- +language: latex +contributors: + - ["Chaitanya Krishna Ande", "http://icymist.github.io"] + - ["Colton Kohnke", "http://github.com/voltnor"] + - ["Sricharan Chiruvolu", "http://sricharan.xyz"] + - ["Ramanan Balakrishnan", "https://github.com/ramananbalakrishnan"] +translators: + - ["Petru Dimitriu", "http://petru-dimitriu.github.io"] +filename: brainfuck-ro.clj +filename: learn-latex-ro.tex +lang: ro-ro +--- + +```tex +% Toate comentariile încep cu % +% Nu există comentarii multi-linie + +% LaTeX NU este un program software de procesare text de tipul +% "What You See Is What You Get" +% precum MS Word, sau OpenOffice Writer + +% Toate comenzile LaTeX încep cu backslash. (\) + +% Documentele LaTeX încep cu o linie care definește tipul documentului +% care urmează a fi compilat. Alte tipuri de documente sunt book (carte), +% presentation (prezentare), etc. Opțiunile pentru document apar +% între paranteze drepte. În acest caz, specificăm că vrem să folosim +% un corp de text (font) de 12 puncte. +\documentclass[12pt]{article} + +% Mai apoi definim pachetele pe care documentul le folosește. +% Dacă vreți să includeți grafice, text colorat sau +% cod sursă din alt fișier în documentul dumneavoastră, +% trebuie să îmbogățiți capabilitățile LaTeX. Aceasta se realizează +% adăugând pachete. Voi include pachetele float și caption pentru +% imagini. +\usepackage{caption} +\usepackage{float} +% această comandă este necesară atunci când vreți să scrieți codul +% sursă folosind diacrtice! (cum e cazul aici, unde translatorul +% a vrut să scrie neapărat folosind diacriticele românești) +\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc} + +% De asemenea, putem defini și alte proprietăți pentru documente. +% We can define some other document properties too! +\author{Chaitanya Krishna Ande, Colton Kohnke \& Sricharan Chiruvolu \\ Traducere de Petru Dimitriu} +\date{\today} +\title{Învățați LaTeX în Y minute!} + +% Suntem gata să începem documentul. +% Tot ce se află înaintea acestei linii se numește "Preambul" +\begin{document} +% dacă am setat autorul, data și titlul, putem cere LaTeX să +% creeze o pagină de titlu +\maketitle + +% Cele mai multe documente științifice au un abstract; puteți folosi comenzile +% predefinite pentru acesta. Acesta ar trebui să apară, așa cum ar fi logic, +% după titlu, dar înainte de secțiunile principale ale corpului. +% Această comandă este disponibilă în clasele de document article și report. +\begin{abstract} + Documentațue LaTeX scrisă în LaTeX. O idee nicidecum nouă și nicidecum a mea! +\end{abstract} + +% Comenzile pentru secțiuni sunt intuitive. +% Toate titlurile secțiunilor sunt adăugate automat la tabla de materii (cuprins). +\section{Introducere} +Salut, mă numesc Petru. Astăzi vom învăța împreună LaTeX! + +\section{Altă secțiune} +Acesta este textul pentru altă secțiune. Vom face o subsecțiune. + +\subsection{Aceasta este o subsecțiune} % Subsecțiunile sunt și ele intuitive. +Și încă una. + +\subsubsection{Pitagora} +Mult mai bine. +\label{subsec:pitagora} + +% Folosind asteriscul putem suprima numărătoarea automată a LaTeX. +% Aceasta funcționează și pentru alte comenzi LaTeX. +\section*{Secțiune fără numerotare} +Totuși nu toate secțiunile trebuie să fie nenumerotate! + +\section{Note despre text} +În general LaTeX se pricepe să pună textul unde trebuie. Dacă o linie are \\ +nevoie \\ să \\ fie \\ întreruptă, puteți adăuga două caractere backslash +la codul sursă. + +\section{Liste} +Listele sunt printre cel mai simplu de făcut lucruri în LaTeX! Mâine merg la +cumpărături așa că fac o listă: +\begin{enumerate} % Aceasta creează un mediu "enumerate" + % \item spune mediului "enumerate" să incrementeze + \item salată + \item 27 pepeni + \item un singur iepuroi + % putem suprascrie numărul elementului folosind [] + \item[câte?] conserve de ton + + Nu este un element din listă, dar încă face parte din "enumerate". + +\end{enumerate} % All environments must have an end. + +\section{Matematică} + +Una dintre principalele întrebuințări ale LaTeX este realizarea +articolelor academice sau a foilor tehnice, de obicei aflate în +universul matematicii și științelor exacte. Astfel, trebuie să putem +adăuga simboluri speciale în documentului nostru! \\ + +Matematica are multe simboluri, mult mai multe decât se găsesc +pe o tastatură - printre ele, simboluri pentru mulțimi și relații, +săgeți, operatori și litere grecești.\\ + +Mulțimile și relațiile sunt de bază în lucrările științifce matematice. +Iată cum se scrie: toți y aparținând lui X.\\ +$\forall$ x $\in$ X. \\ + +% Observați cum am avut nevoie să pun semnul $ înainte și după simboluri. +% Aceasta pentru că atunci când scriem, suntem în modul text (text-mode). +% Totuși simbolurile matematice există numai în modul matematic (math-mode). +% Când ne aflăm în text-mode, putem scrie texte în math-mode punând $ înainte +% și după simboluri. La fel și viceversa. Și variabilele pot fi redate +% în math-mode. Putem intra în math-mode și scriind \[\]. + +\[a^2 + b^2 = c^2 \] + +Litera mea grecească este $\xi$. De asemenea îmi plac $\beta$, $\gamma$ și +$\sigma$. Nu există nicio literă grecească necunoscută pentru LaTeX! + +Operatorii sunt exențiali într-un document matematic! +funcțiile trigonometrice ($\sin$, $\cos$, $\tan$), +logaritmii și exponențialele ($\log$, $\exp$), +limitele ($\lim$), etc. +au comenzi definite în LaTeX pentru fiecare. +Să vedem cum scriem o ecuație: \\ + +$\cos(2\theta) = \cos^{2}(\theta) - \sin^{2}(\theta)$ + +Fracțiile (numărător - numitor) pot fi scrise astfel: +% 10 / 7 +$^{10}/_{7}$ \\ + +% Fracții relativ complexe pot fi scrie ca +% \frac{numărător}{numitor} +$\frac{n!}{k!(n - k)!}$ \\ + +Putem insera ecuații și într-un "mediu pentru ecuații". + +% Afișează text matematic într-un mediu pentru ecuații. +\begin{equation} % intră în math-mode + c^2 = a^2 + b^2. + \label{eq:pitagora} % pentru referențiere +\end{equation} +% toate instrucțiunile cu \begin trebuie să fie cuplate cu o instrucțiune cu \end + +Putem referenția noua nosatră ecuație! +~\ref{eq:pitagora} este cunoscută și ca Teorema lui Pitagora, despre care vorbim și la Sec.~\ref{subsec:pitagora}. Multe lucruri prot fi etichetate: +figuri, ecuații, secțiuni, etc. + +Sumele discrete și integralele se scriu cu comenzile sum și int. + +% Unele compilatoare LaTeX nu acceptă să există linii goala +% într-un mediu pentru ecuații. +\begin{equation} + \sum_{i=0}^{5} f_{i} +\end{equation} +\begin{equation} + \int_{0}^{\infty} \mathrm{e}^{-x} \mathrm{d}x +\end{equation} + +\section{Figuri} + +Să inserăm o figură. Așezarea figurilor poate fi ușor dificilă. +Eu trebuie să mă uit peste opțiunile de așezare de fiecare dată. + +\begin{figure}[H] % H denumește opțiunle de așezare + \centering % centrează figura pe pagină + % Inserează o figură scalată la 0.8 din lățimea paginii. + %\includegraphics[width=0.8\linewidth]{right-triangle.png} + % Comentat pentru a nu împiedica fișierul să compileze. + \caption{Triunghi dreptunghic cu laturile $a$, $b$, $c$} + \label{fig:right-triangle} +\end{figure} + +\subsection{Tabel} +Putem insera tabele la fel cum inserăm figuri. + +\begin{table}[H] + \caption{Descriere pentru tabel} + % argumentele {} controlează cum vor fi afișate coloanele + \begin{tabular}{c|cc} + Număr & Nume & Prenume \\ % Numele coloanelor sunt separate prin $ + \hline % a linie orizonală + 1 & Popescu & Ion \\ + 2 & Sima & Felix + \end{tabular} +\end{table} + +% \section{Hyperlinkuri} % În curând + +\section{Cum facem ca LaTeX să nu compileze ceva (de exemplu cod sursă)} +Să zicem că vrem să includem niște cod în documentul nostru LaTeX. +Vom avea nevoie ca LaTeX să nu încerce să interpreteze acel cod, +ci doar să îl redea în document. Vom face asta cu un mediu verbatim. + +% Există și alte pachete (i.e. minty, lstlisting, etc.) +% dar verbatim este pachetul cel mai simplu. +\begin{verbatim} + print("Salut lume!") + a%b; % hei! putem folosi % în verbatim + random = 4; +\end{verbatim} + +\section{Compilarea} +Acum vă întrebați cum se compilează acest document minunat și să vă +minunați de rezultatul, un PDF LaTeX. (da, documentul acesta chiar +compilează). \\ +Realizarea documentului cu LaTeX va parcurge următorii pași: + \begin{enumerate} + \item Se scrie documentul în text simplu. (codul sursă) + \item Se compilează documentul pentru a produce un PDF. + Compilarea arată cam așa în Linux:\\ + \begin{verbatim} + $pdflatex learn-latex.tex learn-latex.pdf + \end{verbatim} + \end{enumerate} + +Anumiți editor pentru LaTeX combină pașii 1 și 2 în același produs software. +Așadar, dacă vreți să vedeți realizați pasul 1 dar nu și pasul 2, el se poate +realiza "în spate". + +Scrieți toate informațiile de formatare în pasul 1. Compilarea din pasul 2 +se ocupă de producerea documentului în formatul definit în pasul 1. + +\section{Final} + +Asta e tot pentru moment! + +% De multe ori veți vrea să aveți o secțiune cu bibliografie în document. +% Cea mai ușoară modalitate este folosind mediul thebibliography. +\begin{thebibliography}{1} + % Similar celorlalte liste, comanda \bibitem e folosită pentru a înșirui + % elemente; fiecare element poate fi citat în interiorul textului + \bibitem{latexwiki} Uimitoarea carte wiki LaTeX: {\em https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX} + \bibitem{latextutorial} Un tutorial propriu-zis: {\em http://www.latex-tutorial.com} +\end{thebibliography} + +% încheie documentul +\end{document} +``` + +## Mai multe despre LaTeX + +* Uimitoarea carte wiki LaTeX: [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX) +* Un tutorial propriu-zis: [http://www.latex-tutorial.com/](http://www.latex-tutorial.com/) diff --git a/ro-ro/python-ro.html.markdown b/ro-ro/python-ro.html.markdown index 125ba2f4..c96e30dc 100644 --- a/ro-ro/python-ro.html.markdown +++ b/ro-ro/python-ro.html.markdown @@ -8,14 +8,16 @@ filename: learnpython-ro.py lang: ro-ro --- -Python a fost creat de Guido Van Rossum la începutul anilor '90. Python a devenit astăzi unul din -cele mai populare limbaje de programare. M-am indrăgostit de Python pentru claritatea sa sintactică. -Python este aproape pseudocod executabil. +Python a fost creat de Guido Van Rossum la începutul anilor '90. Python a +devenit astăzi unul din cele mai populare limbaje de programare. +M-am indrăgostit de Python pentru claritatea sa sintactică. Python este aproape +pseudocod executabil. -Opinia dumneavoastră este binevenită! Puteţi sa imi scrieţi la [@ociule](http://twitter.com/ociule) sau ociule [at] [google's email service] +Opinia dumneavoastră este binevenită! Puteţi sa imi scrieţi la [@ociule](http://twitter.com/ociule) +sau ociule [at] [google's email service] -Notă: Acest articol descrie Python 2.7, dar este util şi pentru Python 2.x. O versiune Python 3 va apărea -în curând, în limba engleză mai întâi. +Notă: Acest articol descrie Python 2.7, dar este util şi pentru Python 2.x. +O versiune Python 3 va apărea în curând, în limba engleză mai întâi. ```python # Comentariile pe o singură linie încep cu un caracter diez. @@ -36,7 +38,8 @@ Notă: Acest articol descrie Python 2.7, dar este util şi pentru Python 2.x. O 10 * 2 #=> 20 35 / 5 #=> 7 -# Împărţirea este un pic surprinzătoare. Este de fapt împărţire pe numere întregi şi rotunjeşte +# Împărţirea este un pic surprinzătoare. Este de fapt împărţire pe numere +# întregi şi rotunjeşte # automat spre valoarea mai mică 5 / 2 #=> 2 diff --git a/ro-ro/xml-ro.html.markdown b/ro-ro/xml-ro.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..269010c2 --- /dev/null +++ b/ro-ro/xml-ro.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,133 @@ +--- +language: xml +filename: learnxml-ro.xml +contributors: + - ["João Farias", "https://github.com/JoaoGFarias"] +translators: + - ["Serban Constantin", "https://github.com/fuzzmz"] +lang: ro-ro +--- + +XML este un limbaj de markup ce are ca scop stocarea si transportul de date. + +Spre deosebire de HTML, XML nu specifica cum sa fie afisata sau formatata +informatia, ci doar o transporta. + +* Sintaxa XML + +```xml +<!-- Comentariile in XML arata asa --> + +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> +<librarie> + <carte categorie="GATIT"> + <titlu limba="ro">Mancaruri italiene</titlu> + <autor>Giada De Laurentiis</autor> + <an>2005</an> + <pret>30.00</pret> + </carte> + <carte categorie="COPII"> + <titlu limba="ro">Harry Potter</titlu> + <autor>J K. Rowling</autor> + <an>2005</an> + <pret>29.99</pret> + </carte> + <carte categorie="WEB"> + <titlu limba="ro">Invata XML</titlu> + <autor>Erik T. Ray</autor> + <an>2003</an> + <pret>39.95</pret> + </carte> +</librarie> + +<!-- Deasupra este un fisier XML obisnuit. + Incepe cu o declaratie ce adauga niste metadata (optional). + + XML foloseste o structura arborescenta. Deasupra, nodul de baza este + 'librarie', care are trei noduri copil, toate 'carti'. Acele noduri au la + randul lor noduri copii si asa mai departe... + + Nodurile sunt create folosind taguri deschise/inchise, iar copii sunt doar + noduri intre tagurile de deschis si inchis.--> + + +<!-- XML transporta doua tipuri de date: + 1 - Atribute -> Metadata despre un nod. + In general, parserul XML foloseste aceasta informatie sa stocheze + proprietatile datelor. + Este caracterizat de aparitia in paranteze in cadrul tagului deschis + 2 - Elemente -> Date pure. + Asta este ceea ce parserul va extrage din documentul XML. + Elementele apar intre tagurile deschis si inchis, fara paranteze. --> + + +<!-- Dedesubt, un element cu doua atribute --> +<file type="gif" id="4293">computer.gif</file> + + +``` + +* Document bine formatat x Validare + +Un document XML este bine formatat daca este corect sintactic. +Cu toate astea este posibil sa injectam mai multe constrangeri in document +folosind definitii precum DTD si XML Schema. + +Un document XML ce foloseste o definitie de document este numit valid in +contextul documentului. + +Cu acest tool poti verifica datele XML in afara codului aplicatiei. + +```xml + +<!-- Dedesubt este o versiune simplificata a documentului librarie, + cu aditia definitiei DTD.--> + +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> +<!DOCTYPE note SYSTEM "Librarie.dtd"> +<librarie> + <carte categorie="GATIT"> + <titlu >Everyday Italian</titlu> + <pret>30.00</pret> + </carte> +</librarie> + +<!-- DTD-ul poate fi ceva similar cu:--> + +<!DOCTYPE note +[ +<!ELEMENT librarie (carte+)> +<!ELEMENT carte (titlu,pret)> +<!ATTLIST carte categorie CDATA "Literatura"> +<!ELEMENT titlu (#PCDATA)> +<!ELEMENT pret (#PCDATA)> +]> + + +<!-- DTD-ul incepe cu o declaratie. + Dupa, nodul de baza este declarat, cerand unul sau mai multe noduri copii + de tipul 'carte'. + Fiecare 'carte' trebuie sa contina exact un 'titlu' si 'pret' si un atribut + numit 'categorie', cu "Literatura" ca valoare implicita. + Nodurile 'titlu' si 'pret' contin parsed character data.--> + +<!-- DTD-ul poate fi declara si in interiorul fisierului XML.--> + +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE note +[ +<!ELEMENT librarie (carte+)> +<!ELEMENT carte (titlu,pret)> +<!ATTLIST carte categorie CDATA "Literatura"> +<!ELEMENT titlu (#PCDATA)> +<!ELEMENT pret (#PCDATA)> +]> + +<librarie> + <carte categorie="GATIT"> + <titlu >Everyday Italian</titlu> + <pret>30.00</pret> + </carte> +</librarie> +``` diff --git a/ru-ru/.directory b/ru-ru/.directory new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4d20336b --- /dev/null +++ b/ru-ru/.directory @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +[Dolphin] +SortRole=size +Timestamp=2015,10,31,18,6,13 +Version=3 diff --git a/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown index 21377b6c..5e99afc2 100644 --- a/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/bash-ru.html.markdown @@ -95,6 +95,15 @@ else echo "Имя совпадает с именем пользователя" fi +# Примечание: если $Name пустой, bash интерпретирует код как: +if [ -ne $USER ] +# а это ошибочная команда +# поэтому такие переменные нужно использовать так: +if [ "$Name" -ne $USER ] ... +# когда $Name пустой, bash видит код как: +if [ "" -ne $USER ] ... +# что работает правильно + # Также есть условное исполнение echo "Исполнится всегда" || echo "Исполнится, если первая команда завершится ошибкой" echo "Исполнится всегда" && echo "Исполнится, если первая команда выполнится удачно" diff --git a/ru-ru/brainfuck-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/bf.html.markdown index fcee185f..20f0fa56 100644 --- a/ru-ru/brainfuck-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/bf.html.markdown @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ --- -language: brainfuck +language: bf contributors: - ["Prajit Ramachandran", "http://prajitr.github.io/"] - ["Mathias Bynens", "http://mathiasbynens.be/"] diff --git a/ru-ru/clojure-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/clojure-ru.html.markdown index 2f508a00..451da312 100644 --- a/ru-ru/clojure-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/clojure-ru.html.markdown @@ -144,7 +144,7 @@ Clojure, это представитель семейства Lisp-подобн ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; ; Функция создается специальной формой fn. -; "Тело"" функции может состоять из нескольких форм, +; "Тело" функции может состоять из нескольких форм, ; но результатом вызова функции всегда будет результат вычисления ; последней из них. (fn [] "Hello World") ; => fn diff --git a/ru-ru/d-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/d-ru.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..bfa3f085 --- /dev/null +++ b/ru-ru/d-ru.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,754 @@ +--- +language: D +filename: learnd-ru.d +contributors: + - ["Anton Pastukhov", "http://dprogramming.ru/"] + - ["Robert Brights-Gray", "http://lhs-blog.info/"] + - ["Andre Polykanine", "http://oire.me/"] +lang: ru-ru +--- + +D - современный компилируемый язык общего назначения с Си-подобным синтаксисом, +который сочетает удобство, продуманный дизайн и высокую производительность. +D - это С++, сделанный правильно. + +```c +// Welcome to D! Это однострочный комментарий + +/* многострочный + комментарий */ + +/+ + // вложенные комментарии + + /* еще вложенные + комментарии */ + + /+ + // мало уровней вложенности? Их может быть сколько угодно. + +/ ++/ + +/* + Имя модуля. Каждый файл с исходным кодом на D — модуль. + Если имя не указано явно, то предполагается, что оно совпадает с именем + файла. Например, для файла "test.d" имя модуля будет "test", если явно + не указать другое + */ +module app; + +// импорт модуля. Std — пространство имен стандартной библиотеки (Phobos) +import std.stdio; + +// можно импортировать только нужные части, не обязательно модуль целиком +import std.exception : enforce; + +// точка входа в программу — функция main, аналогично C/C++ +void main() +{ + writeln("Hello, world!"); +} + + + +/*** типы и переменные ***/ + +int a; // объявление переменной типа int (32 бита) +float b = 12.34; // тип с плавающей точкой +double c = 56.78; // тип с плавающей точкой (64 бита) + +/* + Численные типы в D, за исключением типов с плавающей точкой и типов + комплексных чисел, могут быть беззнаковыми. + В этом случае название типа начинается с префикса "u" +*/ +uint d = 10; ulong e = 11; +bool b = true; // логический тип +char d = 'd'; // UTF-символ, 8 бит. D поддерживает UTF "из коробки" +wchar e = 'é'; // символ UTF-16 +dchar f; // и даже UTF-32, если он вам зачем-то понадобится + +string s = "для строк есть отдельный тип, это не просто массив char-ов из Си"; +wstring ws = "поскольку у нас есть wchar, должен быть и wstring"; +dstring ds = "...и dstring, конечно"; + +string кириллица = "Имена переменных должны быть в Unicode, но не обязательно на латинице."; + +typeof(a) b = 6; // typeof возвращает тип своего выражения. + // В результате, b имеет такой же тип, как и a + +// Тип переменной, помеченной ключевым словом auto, +// присваивается компилятором исходя из значения этой переменной +auto x = 1; // Например, тип этой переменной будет int. +auto y = 1.1; // этой — double +auto z = "Zed is dead!"; // а этой — string + +int[3] arr = [1, 2, 3]; // простой одномерный массив с фиксированным размером +int[] arr2 = [1, 2, 3, 4]; // динамический массив +int[string] aa = ["key1": 5, "key2": 6]; // ассоциативный массив + +/* + Строки и массивы в D — встроенные типы. Для их использования не нужно + подключать ни внешние, ни даже стандартную библиотеку, хотя в последней + есть множество дополнительных инструментов для работы с ними. + */ +immutable int ia = 10; // неизменяемый тип, + // обозначается ключевым словом immutable +ia += 1; // — вызовет ошибку на этапе компиляции + +// перечислимый (enumerable) тип, +// более правильный способ работы с константами в D +enum myConsts = { Const1, Const2, Const3 }; + +// свойства типов +writeln("Имя типа : ", int.stringof); // int +writeln("Размер в байтах : ", int.sizeof); // 4 +writeln("Минимальное значение : ", int.min); // -2147483648 +writeln("Максимальное значение : ", int.max); // 2147483647 +writeln("Начальное значение : ", int.init); // 0. Это значение, + // присвоенное по умолчанию + +// На самом деле типов в D больше, но все мы здесь описывать не будем, +// иначе не уложимся в Y минут. + + + +/*** Приведение типов ***/ + +// to!(имя типа)(выражение) - для большинства конверсий +import std.conv : to; // функция "to" - часть стандартной библиотеки, а не языка +double d = -1.75; +short s = to!short(d); // s = -1 + +/* + cast - если вы знаете, что делаете. Кроме того, это единственный способ + преобразования типов-указателей в "обычные" и наоборот +*/ +void* v; +int* p = cast(int*)v; + +// Для собственного удобства можно создавать псевдонимы +// для различных встроенных объектов +alias int newInt; // теперь можно обращаться к newInt так, как будто бы это int +newInt a = 5; + +alias newInt = int; // так тоже допустимо +alias uint[2] pair; // дать псевдоним можно даже сложным структурам данных + + + +/*** Операторы ***/ + +int x = 10; // присваивание +x = x + 1; // 11 +x -= 2; // 9 +x++; // 10 +++x; // 11 +x *= 2; // 22 +x /= 2; // 11 +x = x ^^ 2; // 121 (возведение в степень) +x ^^= 2; // 1331 (то же самое) + +string str1 = "Hello"; +string str2 = ", world!"; +string hw = str1 ~ str2; // Конкатенация строк + +int[] arr = [1, 2, 3]; +arr ~= 4; // [1, 2, 3, 4] - добавление элемента в конец массива + + + +/*** Логика и сравнения ***/ + +int x = 0; int y = 1; + +x == y; // false +x > y; // false +x < y; // true +x >= y; // false +x != y; // true. ! — логическое "не" +x > 0 || x < 1; // true. || — логическое "или" +x > 0 && x < 1; // false && — логическое "и" +x ^ y // true; ^ - xor (исключающее "или") + +// Тернарный оператор +auto y = (x > 10) ? 1 : 0; // если x больше 10, то y равен 1, + // в противном случае y равен нулю + + +/*** Управляющие конструкции ***/ + +// if - абсолютно привычен +if (a == 1) { + // .. +} else if (a == 2) { + // .. +} else { + // .. +} + +// switch +switch (a) { + case 1: + // делаем что-нибудь + break; + case 2: + // делаем что-нибудь другое + break; + case 3: + // делаем что-нибудь еще + break; + default: + // default обязателен, без него будет ошибка компиляции + break; +} + +// в D есть констукция "final switch". Она не может содержать секцию "defaul" +// и применяется, когда все перечисляемые в switch варианты должны быть +// обработаны явным образом + +int dieValue = 1; +final switch (dieValue) { + case 1: + writeln("You won"); + break; + + case 2, 3, 4, 5: + writeln("It's a draw"); + break; + + case 6: + writeln("I won"); + break; +} + +// while +while (a > 10) { + // .. + if (number == 42) { + break; + } +} + +while (true) { + // бесконечный цикл +} + +// do-while +do { + // .. +} while (a == 10); + +// for +for (int number = 1; number < 11; ++number) { + writeln(number); // все абсолютно стандартно +} + +for ( ; ; ) { + // секции могут быть пустыми. Это бесконечный цикл в стиле Си +} + +// foreach - универсальный и самый "правильный" цикл в D +foreach (element; array) { + writeln(element); // для простых массивов +} + +foreach (key, val; aa) { + writeln(key, ": ", val); // для ассоциативных массивов +} + +foreach (c; "hello") { + writeln(c); // hello. Поскольку строки - это вариант массива, + // foreach применим и к ним +} + +foreach (number; 10..15) { + writeln(number); // численные интервалы можно указывать явным образом + // этот цикл выведет значения с 10 по 14, но не 15, + // поскольку диапазон не включает в себя верхнюю границу +} + +// foreach_reverse - в обратную сторону +auto container = [1, 2, 3]; +foreach_reverse (element; container) { + writefln("%s ", element); // 3, 2, 1 +} + +// foreach в массивах и им подобных структурах не меняет сами структуры +int[] a = [1, 2 ,3 ,4 ,5]; +foreach (elem; array) { + elem *= 2; // сам массив останется неизменным +} + +writeln(a); // вывод: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] Т.е изменений нет + +// добавление ref приведет к тому, что массив будет изменяться +foreach (ref elem; array) { + elem *= 2; +} + +writeln(a); // [2, 4, 6, 8, 10] + +// foreach умеет рассчитывать индексы элементов +int[] a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; +foreach (ind, elem; array) { + writeln(ind, " ", elem); // через ind - доступен индекс элемента, + // а через elem - сам элемент +} + + + +/*** Функции ***/ + +test(42); // Что, вот так сразу? Разве мы где-то уже объявили эту функцию? + +// Нет, вот она. Это не Си, здесь объявление функции не обязательно должно быть +// до первого вызова +int test(int argument) { + return argument * 2; +} + + +// В D используется единый синтаксис вызова функций +// (UFCS, Uniform Function Call Syntax), поэтому так тоже можно: +int var = 42.test(); + +// и даже так, если у функции нет аргументов: +int var2 = 42.test; + +// можно выстраивать цепочки: +int var3 = 42.test.test; + +/* + Аргументы в функцию передаются по значению (т.е. функция работает не с + оригинальными значениями, переданными ей, а с их локальными копиями. + Исключение составляют объекты классов, которые передаются по ссылке. + Кроме того, любой параметр можно передать в функцию по ссылке с помощью + ключевого слова "ref" +*/ +int var = 10; + +void fn1(int arg) { + arg += 1; +} + +void fn2(ref int arg) { + arg += 1; +} + +fn1(var); // var все еще = 10 +fn2(var); // теперь var = 11 + +// Возвращаемое значение тоже может быть auto, +// если его можно "угадать" из контекста +auto add(int x, int y) { + return x + y; +} + +auto z = add(x, y); // тип int - компилятор вывел его автоматически + +// Значения аргументов по умолчанию +float linearFunction(float k, float x, float b = 1) +{ + return k * x + b; +} + +auto linear1 = linearFunction(0.5, 2, 3); // все аргументы используются +auto linear2 = linearFunction(0.5, 2); // один аргумент пропущен, но в функции + // он все равно использован и равен 1 + +// допускается описание вложенных функций +float quarter(float x) { + float doubled(float y) { + return y * y; + } + + return doubled(doubled(x)); +} + +// функции с переменным числом аргументов +int sum(int[] a...) +{ + int s = 0; + foreach (elem; a) { + s += elem; + } + return s; +} + +auto sum1 = sum(1); +auto sum2 = sum(1,2,3,4); + +/* + модификатор "in" перед аргументами функций говорит о том, что функция имеет + право их только просматривать. При попытке модификации такого аргумента + внутри функции - получите ошибку +*/ +float printFloat(in float a) +{ + writeln(a); +} +printFloat(a); // использование таких функций - самое обычное + +// модификатор "out" позволяет вернуть из функции несколько результатов +// без посредства глобальных переменных или массивов +uint remMod(uint a, uint b, out uint modulus) +{ + uint remainder = a / b; + modulus = a % b; + return remainder; +} + +uint modulus; // пока в этой переменной ноль +uint rem = remMod(5, 2, modulus); // наша "хитрая" функция, и теперь + // в modulus - остаток от деления +writeln(rem, " ", modulus); // вывод: 2 1 + + + +/*** Структуры, классы, базовое ООП ***/ + +// Объявление структуры. Структуры почти как в Си +struct MyStruct { + int a; + float b; + + void multiply() { + return a * b; + } +} + +MyStruct str1; // Объявление переменной с типом MyStruct +str1.a = 10; // Обращение к полю +str1.b = 20; +auto result = str1.multiply(); +MyStruct str2 = {4, 8} // Объявление + инициализация в стиле Си +auto str3 = MyStruct(5, 10); // Объявление + инициализация в стиле D + + +// области видимости полей и методов - 3 способа задания +struct MyStruct2 { + public int a; + + private: + float b; + bool c; + + protected { + float multiply() { + return a * b; + } + } + /* + в дополнение к знакомым public, private и protected, в D есть еще + область видимости "package". Поля и методы с этим атрибутом будут + доступны изо всех модулей, включенных в "пакет" (package), но не + за его пределами. package - это "папка", в которой может храниться + несколько модулей. Например, в "import.std.stdio", "std" - это + package, в котором есть модуль stdio (и еще множество других) + */ + package: + string d; + + /* помимо этого, имеется еще один модификатор - export, который позволяет + использовать объявленный с ним идентификатор даже вне самой программы ! + */ + export: + string description; +} + +// Конструкторы и деструкторы +struct MyStruct3 { + this() { // конструктор. Для структур его не обязательно указывать явно, + // в этом случае пустой конструктор добавляется компилятором + writeln("Hello, world!"); + } + + + // а вот это конструкция - одна из интересных идиом и представляет собой + // конструктор копирования, т.е конструктор, возвращающий копию структуры. + // Работает только в структурах. + this(this) + { + return this; + } + + ~this() { // деструктор, также необязателен + writeln("Awww!"); + } +} + +// Объявление простейшего класса +class MyClass { + int a; // в D по умолчанию данные-члены являются public + float b; +} + +auto mc = new MyClass(); // ...и создание его экземпляра +auto mc2 = new MyClass; // ... тоже сработает + +// Конструктор +class MyClass2 { + int a; + float b; + + this(int a, float b) { + this.a = a; // ключевое слово "this" - ссылка на объект класса + this.b = b; + } +} + +auto mc2 = new MyClass2(1, 2.3); + +// Классы могут быть вложенными +class Outer +{ + int m; + + class Inner + { + int foo() + { + return m; // можно обращаться к полям "внешнего" класса + } + } +} + +// наследование +class Base { + int a = 1; + float b = 2.34; + + + // это статический метод, т.е метод который можно вызывать, обращаясь + // к классу напрямую, а не через создание экземпляра объекта + static void multiply(int x, int y) + { + writeln(x * y); + } +} + +Base.multiply(2, 5); // используем статический метод. Результат: 10 + +class Derived : Base { + string c = "Поле класса - наследника"; + + + // override означает то, что наследник предоставит свою реализацию метода, + // переопределив метод базового класса + override static void multiply(int x, int y) + { + super.multiply(x, y); // super - это ссылка на класс-предок, или базовый класс + writeln(x * y * 2); + } +} + +auto mc3 = new Derived(); +writeln(mc3.a); // 1 +writeln(mc3.b); // 2.34 +writeln(mc3.c); // Поле класса - наследника + +// Финальный класс, наследовать от него нельзя +// кроме того, модификатор final работает не только для классов, но и для методов +// и даже для модулей ! +final class FC { + int a; +} + +class Derived : FC { // это вызовет ошибку + float b; +} + +// Абстрактный класс не может быть истанциирован, но может иметь наследников +abstract class AC { + int a; +} + +auto ac = new AC(); // это вызовет ошибку + +class Implementation : AC { + float b; + + // final перед методом нефинального класса означает запрет возможности + // переопределения метода + final void test() + { + writeln("test passed !"); + } +} + +auto impl = new Implementation(); // ОК + + + +/*** Примеси (mixins) ***/ + +// В D можно вставлять код как строку, если эта строка известна на этапе +// компиляции. Например: +void main() { + mixin(`writeln("Hello World!");`); +} + +// еще пример +string print(string s) { + return `writeln("` ~ s ~ `");`; +} + +void main() { + mixin (print("str1")); + mixin (print("str2")); +} + + + +/*** Шаблоны ***/ + +/* + Шаблон функции. Эта функция принимает аргументы разных типов, которые + подставляются вместо T на этапе компиляции. "T" - это не специальный + символ, а просто буква. Вместо "T" может быть любое слово, кроме ключевого. + */ +void print(T)(T value) { + writefln("%s", value); +} + +void main() { + print(42); // В одну и ту же функцию передается: целое + print(1.2); // ...число с плавающей точкой, + print("test"); // ...строка +} + +// "Шаблонных" параметров может быть сколько угодно +void print(T1, T2)(T1 value1, T2 value2) { + writefln(" %s %s", value1, value2); +} + +void main() { + print(42, "Test"); + print(1.2, 33); +} + +// Шаблон класса +class Stack(T) +{ + private: + T[] elements; + + public: + void push(T element) { + elements ~= element; + } + + void pop() { + --elements.length; + } + + T top() const @property { + return elements[$ - 1]; + } + + size_t length() const @property { + return elements.length; + } +} + +void main() { + /* + восклицательный знак - признак шаблона. В данном случае мы создаем + класс и указываем, что "шаблонное" поле будет иметь тип string + */ + auto stack = new Stack!string; + + stack.push("Test1"); + stack.push("Test2"); + + writeln(stack.top); + writeln(stack.length); + + stack.pop; + writeln(stack.top); + writeln(stack.length); +} + + + +/*** Диапазоны (ranges) ***/ + +/* + Диапазоны - это абстракция, которая позволяет легко использовать разные + алгоритмы с разными структурами данных. Вместо того, чтобы определять свои + уникальные алгоритмы для каждой структуры, мы можем просто указать для нее + несколько единообразных функций, определяющих, _как_ мы получаем доступ + к элементам контейнера, вместо того, чтобы описывать внутреннее устройство + этого контейнера. Сложно? На самом деле не очень. + + Простейший вид диапазона - Input Range. Для того, чтобы превратить любой + контейнер в Input Range, достаточно реализовать для него 3 метода: + - empty - проверяет, пуст ли контейнер + - front - дает доступ к первому элементу контейнера + - popFront - удаляет из контейнера первый элемент +*/ +struct Student +{ + string name; + int number; + string toString() { + return format("%s(%s)", name, number); + } +} + +struct School +{ + Student[] students; +} + +struct StudentRange +{ + Student[] students; + + this(School school) { + this.students = school.students; + } + + bool empty() { + return students.length == 0; + } + + Student front() { + return students[0]; + } + + void popFront() { + students = students[1 .. $]; + } +} + +void main(){ + auto school = School([ + Student("Mike", 1), + Student("John", 2) , + Student("Dan", 3) + ]); + auto range = StudentRange(school); + writeln(range); // [Mike(1), John(2), Dan(3)] + writeln(school.students.length); // 3 + writeln(range.front()); // Mike(1) + range.popFront(); + writeln(range.empty()); // false + writeln(range); // [John(2), Dan(3)] +} +/* + Смысл в том, что нам не так уж важно внутреннее устройство контейнера, если + у нас есть унифицированные методы доступа к его элементам. + Кроме Input Range в D есть и другие типы диапазонов, которые требуют + реализации большего числа методов, зато дают больше контроля. Это большая + тема и мы не будем в подробностях освещать ее здесь. + + Диапазоны - это важная часть D, они используются в нем повсеместно. +*/ +``` +## Что дальше? + +- [Официальный сайт](http://dlang.org/) +- [Онлайн-книга](http://ddili.org/ders/d.en/) +- [Официальная вики](http://wiki.dlang.org/) diff --git a/ru-ru/erlang-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/erlang-ru.html.markdown index 99ea79ee..69f81800 100644 --- a/ru-ru/erlang-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/erlang-ru.html.markdown @@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ lang: ru-ru % Пунктуационные знаки, используемые в Erlang: % Запятая (`,`) разделяет аргументы в вызовах функций, структурах данных и % образцах. -% Точка (`.`) (с пробелом после них) разделяет функции и выражения в +% Точка (`.`) (с пробелом после неё) разделяет функции и выражения в % оболочке. % Точка с запятой (`;`) разделяет выражения в следующих контекстах: % формулы функций, выражения `case`, `if`, `try..catch` и `receive`. diff --git a/ru-ru/java-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/java-ru.html.markdown index 005495cc..a1a5cdfc 100644 --- a/ru-ru/java-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/java-ru.html.markdown @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ filename: LearnJavaRu.java lang: ru-ru --- -Java - это объектно ориентированный язык программирования общего назначения, +Java - это объектно-ориентированный язык программирования общего назначения, основанный на классах и поддерживающий параллельное программирование. [Подробнее читайте здесь.](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/index.html) @@ -43,17 +43,41 @@ public class LearnJavaRu { " Double: " + 3.14 + " Boolean: " + true); - // Чтобы напечатать что-либо не заканчивая переводом строки - // используется System.out.print. + // Чтобы печатать что-либо, не заканчивая переводом строки, + // используйте System.out.print. System.out.print("Hello "); System.out.print("World"); + // Используйте System.out.printf() для печати с форматированием + System.out.printf("pi = %.5f", Math.PI); // => pi = 3.14159 /////////////////////////////////////// - // Типы и Переменные + // Переменные /////////////////////////////////////// + /* + * Объявление переменных + */ // Переменные объявляются с использованием <тип> <имя> + int fooInt; + // Одновременное объявление нескольких переменных одного типа + // <type> <name1>, <name2>, <name3> + int fooInt1, fooInt2, fooInt3; + + /* + * Инициализация переменных + */ + + // объявление и инициализация переменной <type> <name> = <val> + int fooInt = 1; + int fooInt1, fooInt2, fooInt3; + // инициализация нескольких переменных одного типа + // <type> <name1>, <name2>, <name3> = <val> + fooInt1 = fooInt2 = fooInt3 = 1; + + /* + * Типы переменных + */ // Byte - 8-битное целое число. // (-128 <= byte <= 127) byte fooByte = 100; @@ -247,7 +271,7 @@ public class LearnJavaRu { // Switch Case // switch работает с типами byte, short, char и int. // Также он работает с перечислениями, - // классом String и с некоторыми классами-обертками над + // классом String (с Java 7) и с некоторыми классами-обертками над // примитивными типами: Character, Byte, Short и Integer. int month = 3; String monthString; @@ -319,7 +343,7 @@ public class LearnJavaRu { System.out.println("trek info: " + trek.toString()); } // Конец метода main. -} // Конец класса LearnJava. +} // Конец класса LearnJavaRu. // Вы можете включать другие, не публичные классы в .java файл. @@ -362,7 +386,7 @@ class Bicycle { // Классы в Java часто реализуют сеттеры и геттеры для своих полей. // Синтаксис определения метода: - // <модификатор> <тип возвращаемого значения> <имя>(<аргументы>) + // <модификатор доступа> <тип возвращаемого значения> <имя метода>(<аргументы>) public int getCadence() { return cadence; } @@ -424,10 +448,10 @@ class PennyFarthing extends Bicycle { // Интерфейсы // Синтаксис определения интерфейса: -// <модификатор доступа> interface <имя> extends <базовый интерфейс> { -// // Константы -// // Определение методов. -//} +// <модификатор доступа> interface <имя интерфейса> extends <базовый интерфейс> { +// // Константы +// // Определение методов +// } // Пример - Еда: public interface Edible { @@ -451,7 +475,7 @@ public class Fruit implements Edible, Digestible { } } -// В Java Вы можете наследоватьтолько один класс, однако можете реализовывать +// В Java Вы можете наследовать только один класс, однако можете реализовывать // несколько интерфейсов. Например: public class ExampleClass extends ExampleClassParent implements InterfaceOne, InterfaceTwo { public void InterfaceOneMethod() { diff --git a/ru-ru/javascript-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/javascript-ru.html.markdown index 8655ae4a..54499f46 100644 --- a/ru-ru/javascript-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/javascript-ru.html.markdown @@ -330,7 +330,7 @@ function sayHelloInFiveSeconds(name) { sayHelloInFiveSeconds("Адам"); // Через 5 с откроется окно «Привет, Адам!» /////////////////////////////////// -// 5. Подробнее об объектах; конструкторы и прототипы +// 5. Подробнее об объектах; Конструкторы и Прототипы // Объекты могут содержать в себе функции. var myObj = { diff --git a/ru-ru/markdown-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/markdown-ru.html.markdown index eb8e4881..c41e9676 100644 --- a/ru-ru/markdown-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/markdown-ru.html.markdown @@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ __И этот тоже.__ **_И тут!_** *__И даже здесь!__* -<!-- В Github Flavored Markdown (версии Markdown, использующейся в Github, +<!-- В GitHub Flavored Markdown (версии Markdown, использующейся в GitHub, для рендеринга Markdown-документов) текст можно сделать зачёркнутым: --> ~~Зачёркнутый текст.~~ @@ -157,7 +157,7 @@ __И этот тоже.__ Например, можно выделить имя функции `go_to()` прямо посреди текста. -<!-- Github Flavored Markdown позволяет указать для блока кода синтаксис оного. +<!-- GitHub Flavored Markdown позволяет указать для блока кода синтаксис оного. В этом случае синтаксис внутри блока будет подсвечен. Пример: --> \`\`\`ruby <!-- Только нужно будет убрать символы "\", оставив лишь "```ruby" --> @@ -167,7 +167,7 @@ end \`\`\` <!-- И здесь тоже backslashes нужно убрать, т.е. оставить "```" --> <-- Обратите внимание: фрагмент, указанный выше, не предваряется отступами, -поскольку Github сам в состоянии определить границы блока - по строкам "```" --> +поскольку GitHub сам в состоянии определить границы блока - по строкам "```" --> <!-- Горизонтальный разделитель (<hr />) --> <!-- Разделители добавляются вставкой строки из трёх и более @@ -253,7 +253,7 @@ end \*текст, заключённый в звёздочки!\* <!-- Таблицы --> -<!-- Таблицы официально поддерживаются только в Github Flavored Markdown, +<!-- Таблицы официально поддерживаются только в GitHub Flavored Markdown, да и синтаксис имеют не слишком удобный. Но если очень нужно, размечайте таблицы так: --> diff --git a/ru-ru/objective-c-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/objective-c-ru.html.markdown index 8eac4ddb..d60db1d8 100644 --- a/ru-ru/objective-c-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/objective-c-ru.html.markdown @@ -381,20 +381,21 @@ if ([myClass respondsToSelector:selectorVar]) { // Проверяет содер NSLog(@"MyClass не содержит метод: %@", NSStringFromSelector(selectedVar)); } -// Имплементируйте методы в файле МойКласс.m: +// Имплементируйте методы в файле MyClass.m: @implementation MyClass { long distance; // Переменная экземпляра с закрытым (private) доступом NSNumber height; } -// To access a public variable from the interface file, use '_' followed by variable name: -_count = 5; // References "int count" from MyClass interface -// Access variables defined in implementation file: -distance = 18; // References "long distance" from MyClass implementation -// To use @property variable in implementation, use @synthesize to create accessor variable: -@synthesize roString = _roString; // _roString available now in @implementation +// Для доступа к public переменной, объявленной в интерфейсе, используйте '_' перед названием переменной: +_count = 5; // Ссылается на "int count" из интерфейса MyClass +// Получение доступа к переменной, объявленной в реализации происходит следующим образом: +distance = 18; // Ссылается на "long distance" из реализации MyClass +// Для использования в иплементации переменной, объявленной в интерфейсе с помощью @property, +// следует использовать @synthesize для создания переменной аксессора: +@synthesize roString = _roString; // Теперь _roString доступна в @implementation (реализации интерфейса) -// Called before calling any class methods or instantiating any objects +// Вызывается в первую очередь, перед вызовом других медотов класса или инициализации других объектов + (void)initialize { if (self == [MyClass class]) { @@ -505,10 +506,10 @@ distance = 18; // References "long distance" from MyClass implementation @end -// Теперь, если мы хотели создать грузовой объект, мы должны вместо создания подкласса класса Car, как это будет -// изменять функциональность Car чтобы вести себя подобно грузовику. Но давайте посмотрим, если мы хотим только добавить -// функциональность в существующий Car. Хороший пример должен быть чистить автомобиль. Итак мы создадим -// категорию для добавления его очистительных методов: +// Теперь, если мы хотим создать объект Truck - грузовик, мы должны создать подкласс класса Car, что +// изменит функционал Car и позволит вести себя подобно грузовику. Но что, если мы хотим только добавить +// определенный функционал в уже существующий класс Car? Например - чистка автомобиля. Мы просто создадим +// категорию, которая добавит несколько методов для чистки автомобиля в класс Car: // @interface ИмяФайла: Car+Clean.h (ИмяБазовогоКласса+ИмяКатегории.h) #import "Car.h" // Убедитесь в том, что базовый класс импортирован для расширения. @@ -794,7 +795,7 @@ MyClass *arcMyClass = [[MyClass alloc] init]; // weakVar-свойство автоматически примет значение nil, // во избежание падения приложения @property (strong) MyClass *strongVar; // 'strong' принимает право на владение -// объектом. Гарантирует, что объект останится в памяти для использования +// объектом. Гарантирует, что объект останется в памяти для использования // Для обычных переменных (не объявленных с помощью @property), используйте // следующий способ: diff --git a/ru-ru/perl-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/perl-ru.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a907ba41 --- /dev/null +++ b/ru-ru/perl-ru.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,195 @@ +--- +category: language +language: perl +filename: learnperl-ru.pl +contributors: + - ["Korjavin Ivan", "http://github.com/korjavin"] +translators: + - ["Elena Bolshakova", "http://github.com/liruoko"] +lang: ru-ru +--- + +Perl 5 -- высокоуровневый мощный язык с 25-летней историей. +Особенно хорош для обработки разнообразных текстовых данных. + +Perl 5 работает более чем на 100 платформах, от портативных устройств +до мейнфреймов, и подходит как для быстрого прототипирования, +так и для крупных проектов. + +```perl +# Комментарии начинаются с символа решетки. + + +#### Типы переменных в Perl + +# Скалярные переменные начинаются с знака доллара $. +# Имя переменной состоит из букв, цифр и знаков подчеркивания, +# начиная с буквы или подчеркивания. + +### В Perl три основных типа переменных: скаляры, массивы, хеши. + +## Скаляры +# Скаляр хранит отдельное значение: +my $animal = "camel"; +my $answer = 42; + +# Скаляры могут быть строками, целыми и вещественными числами. +# Когда требуется, Perl автоматически выполняет преобразования к нужному типу. + +## Массивы +# Массив хранит список значений: +my @animals = ("camel", "llama", "owl"); +my @numbers = (23, 42, 69); +my @mixed = ("camel", 42, 1.23); + + +## Хеши +# Хеш хранит набор пар ключ/значение: + +my %fruit_color = ("apple", "red", "banana", "yellow"); + +# Можно использовать оператор "=>" для большей наглядности: + +my %fruit_color = ( + apple => "red", + banana => "yellow", + ); + +# Важно: вставка и поиск в хеше выполняются за константное время, +# независимо от его размера. + +# Скаляры, массивы и хеши подробно описаны в разделе perldata +# (perldoc perldata). + +# Более сложные структуры данных можно получить, если использовать ссылки. +# С помощью ссылок можно получить массив массивов хешей, в которых хранятся другие хеши. + +#### Условные операторы и циклы + +# В Perl есть большинсво привычных условных и циклических конструкций. + +if ( $var ) { + ... +} elsif ( $var eq 'bar' ) { + ... +} else { + ... +} + +unless ( condition ) { + ... + } +# Это более читаемый вариант для "if (!condition)" + +# Специфические Perl-овые пост-условия: +print "Yow!" if $zippy; +print "We have no bananas" unless $bananas; + +# while + while ( condition ) { + ... + } + + +# for, foreach +for ($i = 0; $i <= $max; $i++) { + ... + } + +foreach (@array) { + print "This element is $_\n"; + } + +for my $el (@array) { + print "This element is $el\n"; + } + +#### Регулярные выражения + +# Регулярные выражения занимают важное место в Perl-е, +# и подробно описаны в разделах документации perlrequick, perlretut и других. +# Вкратце: + +# Сопоставление с образцом +if (/foo/) { ... } # выполняется, если $_ содержит "foo" +if ($a =~ /foo/) { ... } # выполняется, если $a содержит "foo" + +# Простые замены + +$a =~ s/foo/bar/; # заменяет foo на bar в строке $a +$a =~ s/foo/bar/g; # заменяет ВСЕ ВХОЖДЕНИЯ foo на bar в строке $a + + +#### Файлы и ввод-вывод + +# Открыть файл на чтение или запись можно с помощью функции "open()". + +open(my $in, "<", "input.txt") or die "Can't open input.txt: $!"; +open(my $out, ">", "output.txt") or die "Can't open output.txt: $!"; +open(my $log, ">>", "my.log") or die "Can't open my.log: $!"; + +# Читать из файлового дескриптора можно с помощью оператора "<>". +# В скалярном контексте он читает одну строку из файла, в списковом -- +# читает сразу весь файл, сохраняя по одной строке в элементе массива: + +my $line = <$in>; +my @lines = <$in>; + +#### Подпрограммы (функции) + +# Объявить функцию просто: + +sub logger { + my $logmessage = shift; + open my $logfile, ">>", "my.log" or die "Could not open my.log: $!"; + print $logfile $logmessage; +} + +# Теперь можно использовать эту функцию так же, как и встроенные: + +logger("We have a logger subroutine!"); +``` + +#### Perl-модули + +Perl-овые модули предоставляют широкий набор функциональности, +так что вы можете не изобретать заново велосипеды, а просто скачать +нужный модуль с CPAN (http://www.cpan.org/). +Некоторое количество самых полезных модулей включено в стандартную +поставку Perl. + +Раздел документации perlfaq содержит вопросы и ответы о многих частых +задачах, и часто предлагает подходящие CPAN-модули. + + +#### Unicode + +Вам наверняка понадобится работать с не-ASCII текстами. +Добавьте эти прагмы в начало скрипта: + +```perl +use utf8; +use open ':std' => ':utf8'; +``` + +Подробнее читайте в perldoc, разделы perlunicode и open. + + +#### strict, warnings + +Прагмы strict и warnings включают полезные проверки во время компиляции: + +```perl +use strict; +use warnings; +``` + +Подробнее смотрите perldoc strict и perldoc warnings. + + +#### Смотрите также + + - [perl-tutorial](http://perl-tutorial.org/) + - [обучающий раздел на www.perl.com](http://www.perl.org/learn.html) + - [perldoc в вебе](http://perldoc.perl.org/) + - встроенная справка : `perldoc perlintro` diff --git a/ru-ru/php-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/php-ru.html.markdown index 5672aa90..d17f24fc 100644 --- a/ru-ru/php-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/php-ru.html.markdown @@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ print('Hello '); // Напечатать "Hello " без перевода стр // () необязательно применять для print и echo echo "World\n"; // Напечатать "World" и перейти на новую строку. -// (все утверждения должны заканчиваться ;) +// (все утверждения должны заканчиваться точкой с запятой) // Любые символы за пределами закрывающего тега выводятся автоматически: ?> @@ -45,8 +45,8 @@ Hello World Again! */ // Переменные начинаются с символа $. -// Правильное имя переменной начинается с буквы или знака подчеркивания, -// и может содержать любые цифры, буквы, или знаки подчеркивания. +// Правильное имя переменной начинается с буквы или символа подчеркивания, +// за которым следует любое количество букв, цифр или символов подчеркивания. // Не рекомендуется использовать кириллические символы в именах (прим. пер.) // Логические значения нечувствительны к регистру @@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ $boolean = false; // или FALSE или False // Целые числа $int1 = 12; // => 12 -$int2 = -12; // => -12- +$int2 = -12; // => -12 $int3 = 012; // => 10 (ведущий 0 обозначает восьмеричное число) $int4 = 0x0F; // => 15 (ведущие символы 0x означают шестнадцатеричное число) @@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ $dbl_quotes = "This is a $sgl_quotes."; // => 'This is a $String.' $escaped = "This contains a \t tab character."; $unescaped = 'This just contains a slash and a t: \t'; -// Заключайте переменные в фигурные скобки если это необходимо +// Заключайте переменные в фигурные скобки, если это необходимо $money = "I have $${number} in the bank."; // Начиная с PHP 5.3, синтаксис nowdocs может использоваться для @@ -106,6 +106,9 @@ END; // Строки соединяются при помощи . echo 'This string ' . 'is concatenated'; +// echo можно передавать строки как параметры +echo 'Multiple', 'Parameters', 'Valid'; // печатает 'MultipleParametersValid' + /******************************** * Константы @@ -114,18 +117,19 @@ echo 'This string ' . 'is concatenated'; // Константа определяется при помощи define() // и никогда не может быть изменена во время выполнения программы! -// Правильное имя константы начинается с буквы или символа подчеркивания, -// и содержит любое колличество букв, цифр и знаков подчеркивания. +// Правильное имя константы начинается с буквы или символа подчеркивания +// и содержит любое колличество букв, цифр или символов подчеркивания. define("FOO", "something"); -// Доступ к константе возможен через прямое указание её имени -echo 'This outputs '.FOO; +// Доступ к константе возможен через прямое указание её имени без знака $ +echo FOO; // печатает 'something' +echo 'This outputs ' . FOO; // печатает 'This ouputs something' /******************************** * Массивы */ -// Все массивы в PHP - это ассоциативные массивы или хеши, +// Все массивы в PHP - это ассоциативные массивы // Ассоциативные массивы, известные в других языках как HashMap. @@ -189,7 +193,7 @@ $b = '0'; $c = '1'; $d = '1'; -// Утверждение (assert) выдает предупреждение если аргумент не true +// Утверждение (assert) выдает предупреждение, если его аргумент не true // Эти сравнения всегда будут истинными, даже если типы будут различаться assert($a == $b); // "равно" @@ -284,35 +288,35 @@ This is displayed otherwise. // Использование switch. switch ($x) { case '0': - print 'Switch does type coercion'; - break; // You must include a break, or you will fall through - // to cases 'two' and 'three' + print 'Switch использует неточное сравнение'; + break; // вы должны использовать break, иначе PHP будет продолжать + // исполнять команды следующих секций case 'two' и 'three' case 'two': case 'three': - // Do something if $variable is either 'two' or 'three' + // делаем что-то, если $x == 'two' или $x == 'three' break; default: - // Do something by default + // делаем что-то по умолчанию } // Циклы: while, do...while и for $i = 0; while ($i < 5) { echo $i++; -}; // Prints "01234" +}; // печатает "01234" echo "\n"; $i = 0; do { echo $i++; -} while ($i < 5); // Prints "01234" +} while ($i < 5); // печатает "01234" echo "\n"; for ($x = 0; $x < 10; $x++) { echo $x; -} // Напечатает "0123456789" +} // печатает "0123456789" echo "\n"; @@ -335,17 +339,17 @@ echo "\n"; $i = 0; while ($i < 5) { if ($i === 3) { - break; // Exit out of the while loop + break; // выйти из цикла while } echo $i++; } // Напечатает "012" for ($i = 0; $i < 5; $i++) { if ($i === 3) { - continue; // Skip this iteration of the loop + continue; // пропустить текущую итерацию цикла } echo $i; -} // Напечатает "0124" +} // печатает "0124" /******************************** @@ -360,7 +364,7 @@ function my_function () { echo my_function(); // => "Hello" // Правильное имя функции начинается с буквы или символа подчеркивания -// и состоит из букв, цифр или знаков подчеркивания. +// и состоит из букв, цифр или символов подчеркивания. function add ($x, $y = 1) { // $y по умолчанию равно 1 $result = $x + $y; @@ -420,8 +424,6 @@ include_once 'my-file.php'; require 'my-file.php'; require_once 'my-file.php'; -// Same as include(), except require() will cause a fatal error if the -// file cannot be included. // Действует также как и include(), но если файл не удалось подключить, // функция выдает фатальную ошибку @@ -485,7 +487,7 @@ echo MyClass::MY_CONST; // Выведет 'value'; echo MyClass::$staticVar; // Выведет 'static'; MyClass::myStaticMethod(); // Выведет 'I am static'; -// Новый экземпляр класса используя new +// Создание нового экземпляра класса используя new $my_class = new MyClass('An instance property'); // Если аргументы отсутствуют, можно не ставить круглые скобки @@ -658,7 +660,10 @@ $cls = new SomeOtherNamespace\MyClass(); ``` ## Смотрите также: -Посетите страницу [официальной документации PHP](http://www.php.net/manual/) для справки. +Посетите страницу [официальной документации PHP](http://www.php.net/manual/) для справки. + Если вас интересуют полезные приемы использования PHP посетите [PHP The Right Way](http://www.phptherightway.com/). + Если вы раньше пользовались языком с хорошей организацией пакетов, посмотрите [Composer](http://getcomposer.org/). + Для изучения стандартов использования языка посетите PHP Framework Interoperability Group's [PSR standards](https://github.com/php-fig/fig-standards). diff --git a/ru-ru/python-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/python-ru.html.markdown index 3852a550..43142eff 100644 --- a/ru-ru/python-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/python-ru.html.markdown @@ -280,7 +280,7 @@ filled_dict.get("four", 4) #=> 4 # Присваивайте значение ключам так же, как и в списках filled_dict["four"] = 4 # теперь filled_dict["four"] => 4 -# Метод setdefault вставляет() пару ключ-значение, только если такого ключа нет +# Метод setdefault() вставляет пару ключ-значение, только если такого ключа нет filled_dict.setdefault("five", 5) #filled_dict["five"] возвращает 5 filled_dict.setdefault("five", 6) #filled_dict["five"] по-прежнему возвращает 5 diff --git a/ru-ru/python3-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/python3-ru.html.markdown index 2a7b3f7b..2b6b59a7 100644 --- a/ru-ru/python3-ru.html.markdown +++ b/ru-ru/python3-ru.html.markdown @@ -549,7 +549,7 @@ Human.grunt() #=> "*grunt*" # Вы можете импортировать модули import math -print(math.sqrt(16)) #=> 4 +print(math.sqrt(16)) #=> 4.0 # Вы можете импортировать отдельные функции модуля from math import ceil, floor diff --git a/ru-ru/tmux-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/tmux-ru.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..aa7545cc --- /dev/null +++ b/ru-ru/tmux-ru.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,252 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: tmux +contributors: + - ["mdln", "https://github.com/mdln"] +translators: + - ["Davydov Anton", "https://github.com/davydovanton"] +filename: LearnTmux-ru.txt +lang: ru-ru +--- + +[tmux](http://tmux.sourceforge.net) - терминальный мультиплексор. +Он позволяет создавать, получать доступ и контролировать любое +количество терминалов из единого окна. +Сессия tmux также может быть свернута в фоновый режим, и она +будет работать в фоне, а после к ней можно будет подключиться. + + +``` + + tmux [command] # Запуск команды 'tmux' + # без какой-либо команды создаст новую сессию + + new # Создать новую сессию + -s "Session" # Создать именованную сессию + -n "Window" # Создать именованное окно + -c "/dir" # Запустить сессию в конкретной директории + + attach # Подключиться к последней/существующей сессии + -t "№" # Подключиться к определенной сессии + -d # Завершить определенную сессию + + ls # Список открытых сессий + -a # Список всех открытых сессий + + lsw # Список окон + -a # Список всех окон + -s # Список всех окон в сессии + + lsp # Список панелей + -a # Список всех панелей + -s # Список всех панелей в сессии + -t # Список всех панелей для конкретного объекта + + kill-window # Закрыть текущее окно + -t "#" # Закрыть конкретное окно + -a # Закрыть все окна + -a -t "#" # Закрыть все окна, кроме конкретного + + kill-session # Завершить текущую сессию + -t "#" # Завершить конкретную сессию + -a # Завершить все сессии + -a -t "#" # Завершить все сессии, кроме конкретной + +``` + + +### "Горячие" клавиши + +Способ, с помощью которого контролируется любая tmux +сессия, - комбинация клавиш, называемая 'Префиксом'. + +``` +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + (C-b) = Ctrl + b # 'Префикс' необходим для + # использования горячих клавиш + + (M-1) = Meta + 1 -или- Alt + 1 +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + + ? # Список всех горячих клавиш + : # Начать ввод в командной строке tmux + r # Принудительная перерисовка текущего клиента + c # Создать новое окно + + ! # Переместить текущую панель в отдельное окно + % # Разделить текущую панель на две: левую и правую + " # Разделить текущую панель на две: верхнюю и нижнюю + + n # Переместиться на следующее окно + p # Переместиться на предыдущее окно + { # Заменить текущую панель на предыдущую + } # Заменить текущую панель на следующую + + s # Интерактивный выбор запущенных сессий + w # Интерактивный выбор текущего окна + от 0 до 9 # Выбрать окно номер 0..9 + + d # Отключить текущий клиент + D # Выбрать клиент, который будет отключен + + & # Закрыть текущее окно + x # Закрыть текущую панель + + Стрелки вверх, вниз # Переместиться на панель выше, ниже, левее + влево, вправо # или правее + + M-1 to M-5 # Расставить панели: + # 1) выровнять по горизонтали + # 2) выровнять по вертикали + # 3) основное горизонтально + # 4) основное вертикально + # 5) мозаикой + + C-Up, C-Down # Изменение размера текущей панели с шагом в одну + C-Left, C-Right # колонку + + M-Up, M-Down # Изменение размера текущей панели с шагом в пять + M-Left, M-Right # колонок + +``` + + +### Настройка ~/.tmux.conf + +Файл tmux.conf может быть использован для автоматической установки +опций при старте, как, например, .vimrc или init.el. + +``` +# Пример файла tmux.conf +# 2014.10 + + +### Общее +########################################################################### + +# Включить поддержку UTF-8 +setw -g utf8 on +set-option -g status-utf8 on + +# Установить лимит истории +set -g history-limit 2048 + +# Порядковый номер первой панели +set -g base-index 1 + +# Включить поддержку мыши +set-option -g mouse-select-pane on + +# Принудительная перезагрузка конфигурационного файла +unbind r +bind r source-file ~/.tmux.conf + + +### Горячие клавиши +########################################################################### + +# Отменить комбинацию C-b как стандартный префикс +unbind C-b + +# Установить новую комбинацию как префикс +set-option -g prefix ` + +# Вернуть предыдущее окно, если префикс был нажат два раза +bind C-a last-window +bind ` last-window + +# Разрешить замену C-a и ` на F11/F12 +bind F11 set-option -g prefix C-a +bind F12 set-option -g prefix ` + +# Настройки клавиш +setw -g mode-keys vi +set-option -g status-keys vi + +# Перемещение между панелями, как в vim +bind h select-pane -L +bind j select-pane -D +bind k select-pane -U +bind l select-pane -R + +# Переключить/Заменить окно +bind e previous-window +bind f next-window +bind E swap-window -t -1 +bind F swap-window -t +1 + +# Комманды, упрощающие разделением панелей +bind = split-window -h +bind - split-window -v +unbind '"' +unbind % + +# Активировать центральную сессию (когда вложенный tmux) для отправки команд +bind a send-prefix + + +### Цветовая схема +########################################################################### + +# Цветовая палитра строки состояния +set-option -g status-justify left +set-option -g status-bg black +set-option -g status-fg white +set-option -g status-left-length 40 +set-option -g status-right-length 80 + +# Цветовая палитра окантовки панели +set-option -g pane-active-border-fg green +set-option -g pane-active-border-bg black +set-option -g pane-border-fg white +set-option -g pane-border-bg black + +# Цветовая палитра сообщений +set-option -g message-fg black +set-option -g message-bg green + +# Цветовая палитра статус окна +setw -g window-status-bg black +setw -g window-status-current-fg green +setw -g window-status-bell-attr default +setw -g window-status-bell-fg red +setw -g window-status-content-attr default +setw -g window-status-content-fg yellow +setw -g window-status-activity-attr default +setw -g window-status-activity-fg yellow + + +### Интерфейс +########################################################################### + +# Уведомления +setw -g monitor-activity on +set -g visual-activity on +set-option -g bell-action any +set-option -g visual-bell off + +# Автоматическая установка заголовка окна +set-option -g set-titles on +set-option -g set-titles-string '#H:#S.#I.#P #W #T' # window number,program name,active (or not) + +# Настройки строки состояния +set -g status-left "#[fg=red] #H#[fg=green]:#[fg=white]#S#[fg=green] |#[default]" + +# Показывать системные характеристики в статусбаре +# Требует https://github.com/thewtex/tmux-mem-cpu-load/ +set -g status-interval 4 +set -g status-right "#[fg=green] | #[fg=white]#(tmux-mem-cpu-load)#[fg=green] | #[fg=cyan]%H:%M #[default]" + +``` + +### Ссылки + +[Tmux | Домашняя страница](http://tmux.sourceforge.net) + +[Страница мануала Tmux](http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi/OpenBSD-current/man1/tmux.1?query=tmux) + +[Gentoo Wiki](http://wiki.gentoo.org/wiki/Tmux) + +[Archlinux Wiki](https://wiki.archlinux.org/index.php/Tmux) + +[Отображение CPU/MEM % в статусбаре](https://stackoverflow.com/questions/11558907/is-there-a-better-way-to-display-cpu-usage-in-tmux) diff --git a/ru-ru/typescript-ru.html.markdown b/ru-ru/typescript-ru.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..67b58a38 --- /dev/null +++ b/ru-ru/typescript-ru.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,173 @@ +--- +language: TypeScript +lang: ru-ru +contributors: + - ["Philippe Vlérick", "https://github.com/pvlerick"] +translators: + - ["Fadil Mamedov", "https://github.com/fadilmamedov"] + - "Andre Polykanine", "https://github.com/Oire"] +filename: learntypescript-ru.ts +--- + +TypeScript — это язык программирования, целью которого является лёгкая разработка широкомасштабируемых JavaScript-приложений. +TypeScript добавляет в Javascript общие концепции, такие, как классы, модули, интерфейсы, обобщённое программирование и (опционально) статическую типизацию. +Это надмножество языка JavaScript: весь JavaScript-код является валидным TypeScript-кодом, следовательно, может быть добавлен бесшовно в любой проект. +Компилятор TypeScript генерирует JavaScript-код. + +Эта статья концентрируется только на синтаксисе TypeScript, в противовес статье о [JavaScript](javascript-ru/). + +Для тестирования компилятора TypeScript пройдите по ссылке в [песочницу](http://www.typescriptlang.org/Playground). +Там вы можете написать код (с поддержкой автодополнения) и сразу же увидеть сгенерированный JavaScript код. + +```js +// В TypeScript есть 3 базовых типа +var isDone: boolean = false; +var lines: number = 42; +var name: string = "Андерс"; + +// Тип «any» для случаев, когда заранее неизвестен тип переменной +var notSure: any = 4; +notSure = "а может быть, строка"; +notSure = false; // а теперь логический тип + +// Для коллекций есть типизированные массивы и обобщённые массивы +var list: number[] = [1, 2, 3]; +// Как альтернатива, использование обобщённого массива +var list: Array<number> = [1, 2, 3]; + +// Перечисления: +enum Color {Red, Green, Blue}; +var c: Color = Color.Green; + +// Наконец, «void» используется для обозначения того, что функция ничего не возвращает +function bigHorribleAlert(): void { + alert("Я маленькое надоедливое окошко!"); +} + +// Функции — это объекты первого класса. Они поддерживают лямбда-синтаксис (=>) +// и используют вывод типов (type inference) + +// Следующие строки кода являются эквивалентными, компилятором предполагается +// одинаковая сигнатура, на выходе генерируется одинаковый JavaScript-код +var f1 = function(i: number): number { return i * i; } +// Предполагается возвращаемый тип +var f2 = function(i: number) { return i * i; } +var f3 = (i: number): number => { return i * i; } +// Предполагается возвращаемый тип +var f4 = (i: number) => { return i * i; } +// Предполагается возвращаемый тип, в однострочной функции ключевое слово «return» не нужно +var f5 = (i: number) => i * i; + +// Интерфейсы являются структурными; всё, что имеет свойства, совместимо с интерфейсом +interface Person { + name: string; + // Опциональные свойства, помеченные символом «?» + age?: number; + // И, конечно, функции + move(): void; +} + +// Объект, который реализует интерфейс «Person» +// К нему можно обращаться, как к «Person», так как он имеет свойства «name» и «move» +var p: Person = { name: "Бобби", move: () => {} }; +// Объекты, которые могут иметь опциональные свойства: +var validPerson: Person = { name: "Бобби", age: 42, move: () => {} }; +// Это не «Person», поскольку «age» не является числовым значением +var invalidPerson: Person = { name: "Бобби", age: true }; + +// Интерфейсы могут также описывать функциональный тип +interface SearchFunc { + (source: string, subString: string): boolean; +} +// Важны только типы параметров, имена — нет. +var mySearch: SearchFunc; +mySearch = function(src: string, sub: string) { + return src.search(sub) != -1; +} + +// Классы. Члены класса по умолчанию являются публичными +class Point { + // Свойства + x: number; + + // Конструктор — ключевые слова public/private в данном контексте сгенерируют + // шаблонный код для свойства и для инициализации в конструкторе + // В данном примере «y» будет определён так же, как и «x», но меньшим количеством кода + // Значения по умолчанию также поддерживаются + + constructor(x: number, public y: number = 0) { + this.x = x; + } + + // Функции + dist() { return Math.sqrt(this.x * this.x + this.y * this.y); } + + // Статические члены + static origin = new Point(0, 0); +} + +var p1 = new Point(10 ,20); +var p2 = new Point(25); //y будет равен 0 + +// Наследование +class Point3D extends Point { + constructor(x: number, y: number, public z: number = 0) { + super(x, y); // Явный вызов конструктора базового класса обязателен + } + + // Перегрузка + dist() { + var d = super.dist(); + return Math.sqrt(d * d + this.z * this.z); + } +} + +// Модули, знак «.» может быть использован как разделитель для обозначения подмодулей +module Geometry { + export class Square { + constructor(public sideLength: number = 0) { + } + area() { + return Math.pow(this.sideLength, 2); + } + } +} + +var s1 = new Geometry.Square(5); + +// Локальный псевдоним для ссылки на модуль +import G = Geometry; + +var s2 = new G.Square(10); + +// Обобщённое программирование +// Классы +class Tuple<T1, T2> { + constructor(public item1: T1, public item2: T2) { + } +} + +// Интерфейсы +interface Pair<T> { + item1: T; + item2: T; +} + +// И функции +var pairToTuple = function<T>(p: Pair<T>) { + return new Tuple(p.item1, p.item2); +}; + +var tuple = pairToTuple({ item1:"hello", item2:"world"}); + +// Включение ссылки на файл определения: +/// <reference path="jquery.d.ts" /> + +``` + +## Для дальнейшего чтения + * [Официальный веб-сайт TypeScript](http://www.typescriptlang.org/) + * [Спецификация языка TypeScript (pdf)](http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=267238) + * [Anders Hejlsberg — Introducing TypeScript на Channel 9](http://channel9.msdn.com/posts/Anders-Hejlsberg-Introducing-TypeScript) + * [Исходный код на GitHub](https://github.com/Microsoft/TypeScript) + * [Definitely Typed — репозиторий определений типов](http://definitelytyped.org/) diff --git a/ruby.html.markdown b/ruby.html.markdown index 998b4bf7..adf5ce81 100644 --- a/ruby.html.markdown +++ b/ruby.html.markdown @@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ contributors: - ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"] - ["Gabriel Halley", "https://github.com/ghalley"] - ["Persa Zula", "http://persazula.com"] + - ["Jake Faris", "https://github.com/farisj"] --- ```ruby @@ -41,7 +42,11 @@ You shouldn't either 35 / 5 #=> 7 2**5 #=> 32 5 % 3 #=> 2 -5 ^ 6 #=> 3 + +# Bitwise operators +3 & 5 #=> 1 +3 | 5 #=> 7 +3 ^ 5 #=> 6 # Arithmetic is just syntactic sugar # for calling a method on an object @@ -49,7 +54,7 @@ You shouldn't either 10.* 5 #=> 50 # Special values are objects -nil # Nothing to see here +nil # equivalent to null in other languages true # truth false # falsehood @@ -77,6 +82,11 @@ false.class #=> FalseClass 2 <= 2 #=> true 2 >= 2 #=> true +# Combined comparison operator +1 <=> 10 #=> -1 +10 <=> 1 #=> 1 +1 <=> 1 #=> 0 + # Logical operators true && false #=> false true || false #=> true @@ -122,7 +132,7 @@ puts "I'm printing!" # print to the output without a newline print "I'm printing!" -#=> I'm printing! => nill +#=> I'm printing! => nil # Variables x = 25 #=> 25 @@ -220,8 +230,8 @@ new_hash = { defcon: 3, action: true } new_hash.keys #=> [:defcon, :action] # Check existence of keys and values in hash -new_hash.has_key?(:defcon) #=> true -new_hash.has_value?(3) #=> true +new_hash.key?(:defcon) #=> true +new_hash.value?(3) #=> true # Tip: Both Arrays and Hashes are Enumerable # They share a lot of useful methods such as each, map, count, and more @@ -275,7 +285,7 @@ hash.each do |key, value| puts "#{key} is #{value}" end -# If you still need and index you can use "each_with_index" and define an index +# If you still need an index you can use "each_with_index" and define an index # variable array.each_with_index do |element, index| puts "#{element} is number #{index} in the array" @@ -401,6 +411,28 @@ def guests(*array) array.each { |guest| puts guest } end +# If a method returns an array, you can use destructuring assignment +def foods + ['pancake', 'sandwich', 'quesadilla'] +end +breakfast, lunch, dinner = foods +breakfast #=> 'pancake' +dinner #=> 'quesadilla' + +# By convention, all methods that return booleans end with a question mark +5.even? # false +5.odd? # true + +# And if a method ends with an exclamation mark, it does something destructive +# like mutate the receiver. Many methods have a ! version to make a change, and +# a non-! version to just return a new changed version +company_name = "Dunder Mifflin" +company_name.upcase #=> "DUNDER MIFFLIN" +company_name #=> "Dunder Mifflin" +company_name.upcase! # we're mutating company_name this time! +company_name #=> "DUNDER MIFFLIN" + + # Define a class with the class keyword class Human @@ -579,7 +611,9 @@ Something.new.qux # => 'qux' ## Additional resources - [Learn Ruby by Example with Challenges](http://www.learneroo.com/modules/61/nodes/338) - A variant of this reference with in-browser challenges. +- [An Interactive Tutorial for Ruby](https://rubymonk.com/) - Learn Ruby through a series of interactive tutorials. - [Official Documentation](http://www.ruby-doc.org/core-2.1.1/) - [Ruby from other languages](https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/documentation/ruby-from-other-languages/) - [Programming Ruby](http://www.amazon.com/Programming-Ruby-1-9-2-0-Programmers/dp/1937785491/) - An older [free edition](http://ruby-doc.com/docs/ProgrammingRuby/) is available online. - [Ruby Style Guide](https://github.com/bbatsov/ruby-style-guide) - A community-driven Ruby coding style guide. +- [Try Ruby](http://tryruby.org) - Learn the basic of Ruby programming language, interactive in the browser. diff --git a/sass.html.markdown b/sass.html.markdown index 02bec47f..4d4ece71 100644 --- a/sass.html.markdown +++ b/sass.html.markdown @@ -4,40 +4,41 @@ filename: learnsass.scss contributors: - ["Laura Kyle", "https://github.com/LauraNK"] - ["Sean Corrales", "https://github.com/droidenator"] + - ["Kyle Mendes", "https://github.com/pink401k"] --- -Sass is a CSS extension language that adds features such as variables, nesting, mixins and more. -Sass (and other preprocessors, such as [Less](http://lesscss.org/)) help developers to write maintainable and DRY (Don't Repeat Yourself) code. +Sass is a CSS extension language that adds features such as variables, nesting, mixins and more. +Sass (and other preprocessors, such as [Less](http://lesscss.org/)) help developers write maintainable and DRY (Don't Repeat Yourself) code. -Sass has two different syntax options to choose from. SCSS, which has the same syntax as CSS but with the added features of Sass. Or Sass (the original syntax), which uses indentation rather than curly braces and semicolons. +Sass has two different syntax options to choose from. SCSS, which has the same syntax as CSS but with the added features of Sass. Or Sass (the original syntax), which uses indentation rather than curly braces and semicolons. This tutorial is written using SCSS. -If you're already familiar with CSS3, you'll be able to pick up Sass relatively quickly. It does not provide any new styling options but rather the tools to write your CSS more efficiently and make maintenance much easier. +If you're already familiar with CSS3, you'll be able to pick up Sass relatively quickly. It does not provide any new styling properties but rather the tools to write your CSS more efficiently and make maintenance much easier. ```scss - + //Single line comments are removed when Sass is compiled to CSS. -/*Multi line comments are preserved. */ - - - -/*Variables -==============================*/ - - +/* Multi line comments are preserved. */ + + + +/* Variables +============================== */ + + /* You can store a CSS value (such as a color) in a variable. Use the '$' symbol to create a variable. */ - + $primary-color: #A3A4FF; $secondary-color: #51527F; -$body-font: 'Roboto', sans-serif; +$body-font: 'Roboto', sans-serif; + +/* You can use the variables throughout your stylesheet. +Now if you want to change a color, you only have to make the change once. */ -/* You can use the variables throughout your stylesheet. -Now if you want to change a color, you only have to make the change once.*/ - body { background-color: $primary-color; color: $secondary-color; @@ -54,18 +55,18 @@ body { /* This is much more maintainable than having to change the color each time it appears throughout your stylesheet. */ - -/*Mixins -==============================*/ + +/* Mixins +============================== */ /* If you find you are writing the same code for more than one element, you might want to store that code in a mixin. -Use the '@mixin' directive, plus a name for your mixin.*/ +Use the '@mixin' directive, plus a name for your mixin. */ @mixin center { display: block; @@ -82,7 +83,7 @@ div { background-color: $primary-color; } -/*Which would compile to: */ +/* Which would compile to: */ div { display: block; margin-left: auto; @@ -99,8 +100,8 @@ div { width: $width; height: $height; } - -/*Which you can invoke by passing width and height arguments. */ + +/* Which you can invoke by passing width and height arguments. */ .rectangle { @include size(100px, 60px); @@ -110,31 +111,31 @@ div { @include size(40px, 40px); } -/* This compiles to: */ +/* Compiles to: */ .rectangle { width: 100px; - height: 60px; + height: 60px; } .square { width: 40px; - height: 40px; + height: 40px; } -/*Functions -==============================*/ - - - -/* Sass provides functions that can be used to accomplish a variety of +/* Functions +============================== */ + + + +/* Sass provides functions that can be used to accomplish a variety of tasks. Consider the following */ -/* Functions can be invoked by using their name and passing in the +/* Functions can be invoked by using their name and passing in the required arguments */ body { - width: round(10.25px); + width: round(10.25px); } .footer { @@ -149,18 +150,18 @@ body { .footer { background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.75); -} - -/* You may also define your own functions. Functions are very similar to +} + +/* You may also define your own functions. Functions are very similar to mixins. When trying to choose between a function or a mixin, remember - that mixins are best for generating CSS while functions are better for - logic that might be used throughout your Sass code. The examples in - the Math Operators' section are ideal candidates for becoming a reusable + that mixins are best for generating CSS while functions are better for + logic that might be used throughout your Sass code. The examples in + the Math Operators' section are ideal candidates for becoming a reusable function. */ -/* This function will take a target size and the parent size and calculate +/* This function will take a target size and the parent size and calculate and return the percentage */ - + @function calculate-percentage($target-size, $parent-size) { @return $target-size / $parent-size * 100%; } @@ -187,12 +188,12 @@ $main-content: calculate-percentage(600px, 960px); -/*Extend (Inheritance) -==============================*/ +/* Extend (Inheritance) +============================== */ -/*Extend is a way to share the properties of one selector with another. */ +/* Extend is a way to share the properties of one selector with another. */ .display { @include size(5em, 5em); @@ -208,36 +209,36 @@ $main-content: calculate-percentage(600px, 960px); .display, .display-success { width: 5em; height: 5em; - border: 5px solid #51527F; + border: 5px solid #51527F; } .display-success { - border-color: #22df56; + border-color: #22df56; } -/* Extending a CSS statement is preferable to creating a mixin - because of the way it groups together the classes that all share - the same base styling. If this was done with a mixin, the width, - height, and border would be duplicated for each statement that +/* Extending a CSS statement is preferable to creating a mixin + because of the way Sass groups together the classes that all share + the same base styling. If this was done with a mixin, the width, + height, and border would be duplicated for each statement that called the mixin. While it won't affect your workflow, it will add unnecessary bloat to the files created by the Sass compiler. */ - -/*Nesting -==============================*/ + +/* Nesting +============================== */ -/*Sass allows you to nest selectors within selectors */ +/* Sass allows you to nest selectors within selectors */ ul { list-style-type: none; margin-top: 2em; - + li { - background-color: #FF0000; - } + background-color: #FF0000; + } } /* '&' will be replaced by the parent selector. */ @@ -249,18 +250,18 @@ For example: */ ul { list-style-type: none; margin-top: 2em; - + li { background-color: red; - + &:hover { background-color: blue; } - + a { color: white; } - } + } } /* Compiles to: */ @@ -284,17 +285,17 @@ ul li a { -/*Partials and Imports -==============================*/ - - - +/* Partials and Imports +============================== */ + + + /* Sass allows you to create partial files. This can help keep your Sass code modularized. Partial files should begin with an '_', e.g. _reset.css. Partials are not generated into CSS. */ - + /* Consider the following CSS which we'll put in a file called _reset.css */ - + html, body, ul, @@ -302,14 +303,14 @@ ol { margin: 0; padding: 0; } - + /* Sass offers @import which can be used to import partials into a file. - This differs from the traditional CSS @import statement which makes - another HTTP request to fetch the imported file. Sass takes the + This differs from the traditional CSS @import statement which makes + another HTTP request to fetch the imported file. Sass takes the imported file and combines it with the compiled code. */ - + @import 'reset'; - + body { font-size: 16px; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, Sans-serif; @@ -320,25 +321,25 @@ body { html, body, ul, ol { margin: 0; padding: 0; -} +} body { font-size: 16px; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, Sans-serif; } - - -/*Placeholder Selectors -==============================*/ - - - + + +/* Placeholder Selectors +============================== */ + + + /* Placeholders are useful when creating a CSS statement to extend. If you wanted to create a CSS statement that was exclusively used with @extend, you can do so using a placeholder. Placeholders begin with a '%' instead of '.' or '#'. Placeholders will not appear in the compiled CSS. */ - + %content-window { font-size: 14px; padding: 10px; @@ -364,18 +365,18 @@ body { background-color: #0000ff; } - - -/*Math Operations -==============================*/ - - - + + +/* Math Operations +============================== */ + + + /* Sass provides the following operators: +, -, *, /, and %. These can be useful for calculating values directly in your Sass files instead of using values that you've already calculated by hand. Below is an example of a setting up a simple two column design. */ - + $content-area: 960px; $main-content: 600px; $sidebar-content: 300px; @@ -418,14 +419,11 @@ body { width: 6.25%; } - -``` - - +``` ## SASS or Sass? -Have you ever wondered whether Sass is an acronym or not? You probably haven't, but I'll tell you anyway. The name of the language is a word, "Sass", and not an acronym. -Because people were constantly writing it as "SASS", the creator of the language jokingly called it "Syntactically Awesome StyleSheets". +Have you ever wondered whether Sass is an acronym or not? You probably haven't, but I'll tell you anyway. The name of the language is a word, "Sass", and not an acronym. +Because people were constantly writing it as "SASS", the creator of the language jokingly called it "Syntactically Awesome StyleSheets". ## Practice Sass @@ -434,14 +432,13 @@ You can use either syntax, just go into the settings and select either Sass or S ## Compatibility - Sass can be used in any project as long as you have a program to compile it into CSS. You'll want to verify that the CSS you're using is compatible -with your target browsers. +with your target browsers. + +[QuirksMode CSS](http://www.quirksmode.org/css/) and [CanIUse](http://caniuse.com) are great resources for checking compatibility. -[QuirksMode CSS](http://www.quirksmode.org/css/) and [CanIUse](http://caniuse.com) are great resources for checking compatibility. - ## Further reading * [Official Documentation](http://sass-lang.com/documentation/file.SASS_REFERENCE.html) * [The Sass Way](http://thesassway.com/) provides tutorials (beginner-advanced) and articles. diff --git a/scala.html.markdown b/scala.html.markdown index 7f545196..745605ed 100644 --- a/scala.html.markdown +++ b/scala.html.markdown @@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ println(10) // Printing, without forcing a new line on next print print("Hello world") print(10) -// Hello world!10 +// Hello world10 // Declaring values is done using either var or val. // val declarations are immutable, whereas vars are mutable. Immutability is @@ -169,6 +169,12 @@ def sumOfSquaresShort(x: Int, y: Int): Int = x * x + y * y // Syntax for calling functions is familiar: sumOfSquares(3, 4) // => 25 +// You can use parameters names to specify them in different order +def subtract(x: Int, y: Int): Int = x - y + +subtract(10, 3) // => 7 +subtract(y=10, x=3) // => -7 + // In most cases (with recursive functions the most notable exception), function // return type can be omitted, and the same type inference we saw with variables // will work with function return values: @@ -231,7 +237,7 @@ r foreach println (5 to 1 by -1) foreach (println) -// A while loops +// A while loop var i = 0 while (i < 10) { println("i " + i); i += 1 } @@ -239,17 +245,18 @@ while (i < 10) { println("i " + i); i += 1 } // Yes, again. What happened? Why i // Show the value of i. Note that while is a loop in the classical sense - // it executes sequentially while changing the loop variable. while is very - // fast, faster that Java loops, but using the combinators and - // comprehensions above is easier to understand and parallelize + // fast, but using the combinators and comprehensions above is easier + // to understand and parallelize -// A do while loop +// A do-while loop i = 0 do { println("i is still less than 10") i += 1 } while (i < 10) -// Tail recursion is an idiomatic way of doing recurring things in Scala. +// Recursion is the idiomatic way of repeating an action in Scala (as in most +// other functional languages). // Recursive functions need an explicit return type, the compiler can't infer it. // Here it's Unit. def showNumbersInRange(a: Int, b: Int): Unit = { @@ -267,7 +274,7 @@ val x = 10 if (x == 1) println("yeah") if (x == 10) println("yeah") if (x == 11) println("yeah") -if (x == 11) println ("yeah") else println("nay") +if (x == 11) println("yeah") else println("nay") println(if (x == 10) "yeah" else "nope") val text = if (x == 10) "yeah" else "nope" @@ -278,21 +285,21 @@ val text = if (x == 10) "yeah" else "nope" ///////////////////////////////////////////////// val a = Array(1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13) -a(0) -a(3) +a(0) // Int = 1 +a(3) // Int = 5 a(21) // Throws an exception val m = Map("fork" -> "tenedor", "spoon" -> "cuchara", "knife" -> "cuchillo") -m("fork") -m("spoon") +m("fork") // java.lang.String = tenedor +m("spoon") // java.lang.String = cuchara m("bottle") // Throws an exception val safeM = m.withDefaultValue("no lo se") -safeM("bottle") +safeM("bottle") // java.lang.String = no lo se val s = Set(1, 3, 7) -s(0) -s(1) +s(0) // Boolean = false +s(1) // Boolean = true /* Look up the documentation of map here - * http://www.scala-lang.org/api/current/index.html#scala.collection.immutable.Map @@ -313,15 +320,22 @@ s(1) // Why have this? val divideInts = (x: Int, y: Int) => (x / y, x % y) -divideInts(10, 3) // The function divideInts gives you the result and the remainder +// The function divideInts gives you the result and the remainder +divideInts(10, 3) // (Int, Int) = (3,1) // To access the elements of a tuple, use _._n where n is the 1-based index of // the element -val d = divideInts(10, 3) +val d = divideInts(10, 3) // (Int, Int) = (3,1) + +d._1 // Int = 3 +d._2 // Int = 1 -d._1 +// Alternatively you can do multiple-variable assignment to tuple, which is more +// convenient and readable in many cases +val (div, mod) = divideInts(10, 3) -d._2 +div // Int = 3 +mod // Int = 1 ///////////////////////////////////////////////// @@ -453,6 +467,9 @@ def matchEverything(obj: Any): String = obj match { // You can nest patterns: case List(List((1, 2, "YAY"))) => "Got a list of list of tuple" + + // Match any case (default) if all previous haven't matched + case _ => "Got unknown object" } // In fact, you can pattern match any object with an "unapply" method. This @@ -605,6 +622,9 @@ import scala.collection.immutable.{List => ImmutableList} // Import all classes, except some. The following excludes Map and Set: import scala.collection.immutable.{Map => _, Set => _, _} +// Java classes can also be imported. Scala syntax can be used +import java.swing.{JFrame, JWindow} + // Your programs entry point is defined in an scala file using an object, with a // single method, main: object Application { diff --git a/self.html.markdown b/self.html.markdown index 9290a0c9..fc7f69db 100644 --- a/self.html.markdown +++ b/self.html.markdown @@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ also sending the message 'true' to the lobby." # Sending messages to objects -Messages can either be unary, binary or keyword. Precedence is in that order. Unlike Smalltalk, the precedence of binary messages must be specified, and all keywords after the first must start with a capital letter. Messages are separeated from their destination by whitespace. +Messages can either be unary, binary or keyword. Precedence is in that order. Unlike Smalltalk, the precedence of binary messages must be specified, and all keywords after the first must start with a capital letter. Messages are separated from their destination by whitespace. ``` "unary message, sends 'printLine' to the object '23' diff --git a/sk-sk/LearnGit-sk.txt b/sk-sk/LearnGit-sk.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..070a0489 --- /dev/null +++ b/sk-sk/LearnGit-sk.txt @@ -0,0 +1,208 @@ +$ git init + +# Zobraz a Nastav Základné Konfiguračné Premenné (Globálne) +$ git config --global user.email "MôjEmail@Zoho.com" +$ git config --global user.name "Moje Meno + +# Rýchlo zobraz všetky dostupné príkazy +$ git help + +# Zobraz všetky dostupné príkazy +$ git help -a + +# Zobraz konkrétnu pomoc - použivateľský manuál +# git help <príkaz_tu> +$ git help add +$ git help commit +$ git help init +# alebo git <príkaz_tu> --help +$ git add --help +$ git commit --help +$ git init --help + +# Zobrazí vetvu, nesledované súbory, zmeny a ostatné rozdiely +$ git status +# Zistí iné vychytávky o git statuse +$ git help status + +# pridá súbor z tvojho pracovného adresára +$ git add HelloWorld.java + +# pridá súbor z iného adresára +$ git add /cesta/k/súboru/HelloWorld.c + +# Môžeš použiť regulárne výrazy! +$ git add ./*.java + +# zobraz existujúce vetvy a vzdialené repozitáre +$ git branch -a + +# vytvor novú vetvu +$ git branch myNewBranch + +# vymaž vetvu +$ git branch -d myBranch + +# premenuj vetvu +# git branch -m <starémeno> <novémeno> +$ git branch -m mojaStaraVetva mojaNovaVetva + +# zmeň opis vetvy +$ git branch myBranchName --edit-description + +# Zobrazí tagy +$ git tag +# Vytvorí tag so správou +# -m špecifikuje správu, ktorá bude s tagom uložená. +# Ak nešpeficikuješ správu pri tagu so správou, +# Git spustí tvoj editor, aby si ju napísal. +$ git tag -a v2.0 -m 'moja verzia 2.0' + +# Ukáž informácie o tagu +# Zobrazí zadané informácie, dátum tagnutia commitu +# a správu pred zobrazením informácií o commite. +$ git show v2.0 + +# Zverejní (pushne) jediný tag do vzdialeného repozitára +$ git push origin v2.0 + +# Zverejní viacero tagov do vzdialeného repozitára +$ git push origin --tags + +# Aktualizuj strom, aby odpovedal (predvolene) +# hlavnej vetve repozitáru (master branch) +$ git checkout + +# Aktualizuj strom, aby odpovedal konrkétnej vetve +$ git checkout menoVetvy + +# Vytvor novú vetvu & prepni sa na ňu +# ekvivalentný príkaz: "git branch <meno>; git checkout <meno>" +$ git checkout -b nováVetva + +# Naklonuj learnxinyminutes-docs +$ git clone https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git + +# povrchné klonovanie - rýchlejšie, uloží iba najnovšiu snímku +$ git clone --depth 1 https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git + +# naklonuj iba konkrétnu vetvu +$ git clone -b master-cn https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git --single-branch + +# commitni so správou +$ git commit -m "Pridal som multiplyNumbers() funkciu do HelloWorld.c" + +# automaticky pridaj zmenené a vymazané súbory do staging indexu, potom ich commitni. +$ git commit -a -m "Zmenil som foo.php a vymazal bar.php" + +# zmeň posledný commit (toto nahradí predchádzajúci commit novým) +$ git commit --amend -m "Správna správa" + +# Ukáž rozdiel medzi pracovným repozitárom a indexom. +$ git diff + +# Ukáž rozdiely medzi indexom a najnovším commitom. +$ git diff --cached + +# Ukáž rozdiely medzi pracovným adresárom a najnovším commitom. +$ git diff HEAD + +# Nastav, aby sa vo výsledkoch vyhľadávania zobrazovalo číslo riadku +$ git config --global grep.lineNumber true + +# Urob výsledky vyhľadávania čitateľnejšie, vrátane zoskupovania +$ git config --global alias.g "grep --break --heading --line-number" + +# Vďaka Travisovi Jefferymu za túto sekciu +# Hľadaj "názovPremennej" vo všetkých java súboroch +$ git grep 'názovPremennej' -- '*.java' + +# Hľadaj riadok, ktorý obsahuje "názovPoľa" a "add" alebo "remove" +$ git grep -e 'arrayListName' --and \( -e add -e remove \) + +# Zobraz všetky commity +$ git log + +# Zobraz iba správy a referencie commitov +$ git log --oneline + +# Zobraz zlúčené (merged) commity +$ git log --merges + +# Zobraz všetky commity vo forme ASCII grafu +$ git log --graph + +# Zlúč vybranú vetvu do aktuálnej. +$ git merge názovVetvy + +# Vždy vytvor zlučovací commit +$ git merge --no-ff názovVetvy + +# Premenuj súbor +$ git mv HelloWorld.c HelloNewWorld.c + +# Presuň súbor +$ git mv HelloWorld.c ./nová/cesta/HelloWorld.c + +# "Nasilu" premenuj, alebo presuň +# "existujúciSúbor" už v adresári existuje, bude prepísaný +$ git mv -f môjSúbor existujúciSúbor + +# Aktualizuje tvoj lokálny repozitár zlúčením nových zmien +# zo vzdialených "origin" a "master" vetiev. +# git pull <alias-vzdialeného-repo> <vetva> +$ git pull origin master + +# Predvolene, git pull aktualizuje tvoju aktuálnu vetvu +# zlúčením nových zmien zo vzdialenej vetvy +$ git pull + +# Zlúč zmeny zo vzdialenej vetvy a presuň vetvu do nového základného commitu (rebase) +# vetva commitne na tvoj lokálny repozitár, ekvivalentný príkaz: "git pull <alias-vzdialeného-repo> <vrstva>, git rebase <branch>" +$ git pull origin master --rebase + +# Zverejni a zlúč zmeny z lokálneho repozitára do +# vzdialených vetiev s názvom "origin" a "master". +# git push <vzdialené> <vetvy> +$ git push origin master + +# Predvolene git zverejní a zlúči zmeny z +# aktuálnej vetvy do vzdialenej vetvy s ňou spojenej +$ git push + +# Na spojenie lokálnej vetvy so vzdialenou pridaj -u: +$ git push -u origin master +# Kedykoľvek budeš chcieť zverejniť z rovnakej lokálnej vetvy, použi príkaz: +$ git push + +# Aplikuj commity z experimentálnej vetvy na master +# git rebase <základnáVetva> <ináVetva> +$ git rebase master experimentBranch + +# Resetni index (vrstvu medzi pracovným stromom a Git repozitárom), aby odpovedal najnovšiemu commitu (adresár ostane nezmenený) +$ git reset + +# Resetni index, aby odpovedal najnovšiemu commitu (adresár sa prepíše) +$ git reset --hard + +# Presunie vrchol aktuálnuej vetvy do konkrétneho commitu (adresár ostane nezmenený) +# všetky zmeny sú zachované v adresári. +$ git reset 31f2bb1 + +# Vezmi späť konkrétny commit +$ git revert <commit> + +# odstráň HelloWorld.c +$ git rm HelloWorld.c + +# Odstráň súbor z vnoreného adresára +$ git rm /pather/to/the/file/HelloWorld.c + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/sk-sk/git.html.markdown b/sk-sk/git.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..21741406 --- /dev/null +++ b/sk-sk/git.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,523 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: git +contributors: + - ["Jake Prather", "http://github.com/JakeHP"] + - ["Leo Rudberg" , "http://github.com/LOZORD"] + - ["Betsy Lorton" , "http://github.com/schbetsy"] + - ["Bruno Volcov", "http://github.com/volcov"] + - ["Andrew Taylor", "http://github.com/andrewjt71"] +translators: + - ["Terka Slanináková", "http://github.com/TerkaSlan"] +lang: sk-sk +filename: LearnGit-sk.txt +--- + +Git je distribuovaný systém riadenia revízií a správy zdrojového kódu. + +Funguje robením "snímkov" tvojho projektu, s ktorými ďalej pracuje na revíziach a správe zdrojových kódov. + +## Koncept Revízií + +### Čo je riadenie revízií? + +Riadenie revízií je systém, ktorý postupom času zaznamenáva zmeny súboru (súborov). + +### Centralizované Revízie VS Distribuované revízie + +* Centralizované riadenie revízií sa zameriava na synchronizáciu, sledovanie a zálohovanie súborov. +* Distribuované riadenie revízií sa zameriava na zdieľanie zmien. Kaťdá zmena má jedinečný identifikátor (id). +* Distribuované systémy nemajú definovanú štruktúru. S gitom môžeš mať centralizovaný systém v subversion (SVN) štýle. + +[Ďalšie informácie](http://git-scm.com/book/en/Getting-Started-About-Version-Control) + +### Prečo Používať Git? + +* Môžeš pracovať offline. +* Spolupráca s ostatnými je jednoduchá! +* Vetvenie je jednoduché! +* Zlučovanie je jednoduché! +* Git je rýchly. +* Git je flexibilný. + +## Architektúra Gitu + + +### Repozitár + +Skupina súborov, adresárov, minulých záznamov, commitov (konkrétnych revízií) a odkazy na aktuálu vetvu (HEADs). Predstav si ho ako údajovú štruktúru, kde ti každý "prvok" zdrojového kódu poskytne (okrem iného) prístup k minulým revíziam. + +Git repozitár sa skladá z .git adresára a pracovného stromu + +### .git Adresár (časť repozitára) + +.git adresár obsahuje všetky konfigurácie, logy, vetvy, odkaz na aktuálnu vetvu (HEAD) a ostatné. +[Detailný zoznam.](http://gitready.com/advanced/2009/03/23/whats-inside-your-git-directory.html) + +### Pracovný Strom (Working Tree - časť repozitára) + +Toto sú adresáre a súbory v tvojom repozitári. Tiež sa tomu hovorí pracovný adresár. + +### Index (časť .git adresára) + +Index je také odpočívadlo Gitu. Je to v podstate vrstva, ktorá oddeľuje pracovný strom od Git repozitára. Toto dáva vývojárom viac možností nad tým, čo do repozitára naozaj pošlú. + +### Commit + +Commit je "snímka" zmien, či manipulácií s tvojím Pracovným Stromom. Ak si napríklad pridal 5 súborov a odstránil 2 ďalšie, tieto zmeny budú zachytené v commite. Ten môže (ale nemusí) byť zverejnený (pushed) do iných repozitárov. + +### Vetva (Branch) + +Vetva je ukazateľ na posledný vykonaný commit. Po ďalších commitnutiach sa ukazateľ bude automaticky posúvať na ten najnovší. + +### Tag + +Tag je označenie špecifického bodu v minulosti. Typicky sa používa na značenie vydaných verzií (v1.0, atď). + +### HEAD a head (časť .git adresára) + +HEAD je ukazateľ na aktuálnu vetvu. Repozitár má len 1 *aktívny* HEAD. +head je ukazateľ, ktorý môže ukazovať na akýkoľvek commit. Repozitár môže mať niekoľko headov. + +### Štádia Gitu +* Modified - Súbor bol zmenený, no nebol ešte commitnutý do Git Databázy. +* Staged - Zmenený súbor, ktorý pôjde do najbližšieho commit snímku. +* Committed - Súbory boli commitnuté do Git Databázy. + +### Koncepčné zdroje + +* [Git Pre Informatikov](http://eagain.net/articles/git-for-computer-scientists/) +* [Git Pre Designerov](http://hoth.entp.com/output/git_for_designers.html) + + +## Príkazy + + +### init + +Vytvorí prázdny Git repozitár. Jeho nastavenia, uložené informácie a mnoho iného sú uložené v adresári (zložke) s názvom ".git". + +```bash +$ git init +``` + +### config + +Konfiguruj nastavenia. Či už pre repozitár, samotný systém, alebo globálne konfigurácie (súbor pre globálny config je `~/.gitconfig`). + + +```bash +# Zobraz a Nastav Základné Konfiguračné Premenné (Globálne) +$ git config --global user.email "MôjEmail@Zoho.com" +$ git config --global user.name "Moje Meno " +``` + +[Prečítaj si viac o git configu.](http://git-scm.com/docs/git-config) + +### pomoc + +Máš tiež prístup k extrémne detailnej dokumentácií pre každý príkaz (po anglicky). Hodí sa, ak potrebuješ pripomenúť semantiku. + +```bash +# Rýchlo zobraz všetky dostupné príkazy +$ git help + +# Zobraz všetky dostupné príkazy +$ git help -a + +# Zobraz konkrétnu pomoc - použivateľský manuál +# git help <príkaz_tu> +$ git help add +$ git help commit +$ git help init +# alebo git <príkaz_tu> --help +$ git add --help +$ git commit --help +$ git init --help +``` + +### ignoruj súbory + +Zámerne prestaneš sledovať súbor(y) a zložky. Typicky sa používa pre súkromné a dočasné súbory, ktoré by boli inak zdieľané v repozitári. +```bash +$ echo "temp/" >> .gitignore +$ echo "private_key" >> .gitignore +``` + + +### status + +Na zobrazenie rozdielov medzi indexovými súbormi (tvoj pracovný repozitár) a aktuálnym HEAD commitom. + + +```bash +# Zobrazí vetvu, nesledované súbory, zmeny a ostatné rozdiely +$ git status + +# Zistí iné vychytávky o git statuse +$ git help status +``` + +### add + +Pripraví súbory na commit pridaním do tzv. staging indexu. Ak ich nepridáš pomocou `git add` do staging indexu, nebudú zahrnuté v commitoch! + +```bash +# pridá súbor z tvojho pracovného adresára +$ git add HelloWorld.java + +# pridá súbor z iného adresára +$ git add /cesta/k/súboru/HelloWorld.c + +# Môžeš použiť regulárne výrazy! +$ git add ./*.java +``` +Tento príkaz len pridáva súbory do staging indexu, necommituje ich do repozitára. + +### branch + +Spravuj svoje vetvy. Môžeš ich pomocou tohto príkazu zobraziť, meniť, vytvoriť, či zmazať. + +```bash +# zobraz existujúce vetvy a vzdialené repozitáre +$ git branch -a + +# vytvor novú vetvu +$ git branch myNewBranch + +# vymaž vetvu +$ git branch -d myBranch + +# premenuj vetvu +# git branch -m <starémeno> <novémeno> +$ git branch -m mojaStaraVetva mojaNovaVetva + +# zmeň opis vetvy +$ git branch myBranchName --edit-description +``` + +### tag + +Spravuj svoje tagy + +```bash +# Zobraz tagy +$ git tag +# Vytvor tag so správou +# -m špecifikuje správu, ktorá bude s tagom uložená. +# Ak nešpeficikuješ správu pri tagu so správou, +# Git spustí tvoj editor, aby si ju napísal. +$ git tag -a v2.0 -m 'moja verzia 2.0' +# Ukáž informácie o tagu +# Zobrazí zadané informácie, dátum tagnutia commitu +# a správu pred zobrazením informácií o commite. +$ git show v2.0 +# Zverejní (pushne) jediný tag do vzdialeného repozitára +$ git push origin v2.0 +# Zverejní viacero tagov do vzdialeného repozitára +$ git push origin --tags +``` + +### checkout + +Aktualizuje všetky súbory v pracovnom strome, aby odpovedali verzií v indexe, alebo v inom strome. + +```bash +# Aktualizuj strom, aby odpovedal (predvolene) +# hlavnej vetve repozitáru (master branch) +$ git checkout +# Aktualizuj strom, aby odpovedal konrkétnej vetve +$ git checkout menoVetvy +# Vytvor novú vetvu & prepni sa na ňu +# ekvivalentný príkaz: "git branch <meno>; git checkout <meno>" +$ git checkout -b nováVetva +``` + +### clone + +"Naklonuje", alebo vytvorí kópiu existujúceho repozitára do nového adresára. Tiež pridá špeciálne ďiaľkovo-monitorujúce vetvy (remote-tracking branches), ktoré ti umožnia zverejňovať do vzdialených vetiev. + +```bash +# Naklonuj learnxinyminutes-docs +$ git clone https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git +# povrchné klonovanie - rýchlejšie, uloží iba najnovšiu snímku +$ git clone --depth 1 https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git +# naklonuj iba konkrétnu vetvu +$ git clone -b master-cn https://github.com/adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs.git --single-branch +``` + +### commit + +Uloží aktuálny obsah indexu v novom "commite". Ten obsahuje vytvorené zmeny a s nimi súvisiace správy vytvorené použivateľom. + +```bash +# commitni so správou +$ git commit -m "Pridal som multiplyNumbers() funkciu do HelloWorld.c" + +# automaticky pridaj zmenené a vymazané súbory do staging indexu, potom ich commitni. +$ git commit -a -m "Zmenil som foo.php a vymazal bar.php" + +# zmeň posledný commit (toto nahradí predchádzajúci commit novým) +$ git commit --amend -m "Správna správa" +``` + +### diff + +Ukáže rozdiel medzi súborom v pracovnom repozitári, indexe a commitoch. + +```bash +# Ukáž rozdiel medzi pracovným repozitárom a indexom. +$ git diff + +# Ukáž rozdiely medzi indexom a najnovším commitom. +$ git diff --cached + +# Ukáž rozdiely medzi pracovným adresárom a najnovším commitom. +$ git diff HEAD +``` + +### grep + +Umožní ti rýchlo prehľadávať repozitár. + +Možná konfigurácia: + +```bash +# Nastav, aby sa vo výsledkoch vyhľadávania zobrazovalo číslo riadku +$ git config --global grep.lineNumber true + +# Urob výsledky vyhľadávania čitateľnejšie, vrátane zoskupovania +$ git config --global alias.g "grep --break --heading --line-number" +``` + +```bash +# Vďaka Travisovi Jefferymu za túto sekciu +# Hľadaj "názovPremennej" vo všetkých java súboroch +$ git grep 'názovPremennej' -- '*.java' + +# Hľadaj riadok, ktorý obsahuje "názovPoľa" a "add" alebo "remove" +$ git grep -e 'arrayListName' --and \( -e add -e remove \) +``` + +Google je tvoj kamarát; pre viac príkladov skoč na +[Git Grep Ninja](http://travisjeffery.com/b/2012/02/search-a-git-repo-like-a-ninja) + +### log + +Zobral commity do repozitára. + +```bash +# Zobraz všetky commity +$ git log + +# Zobraz iba správy a referencie commitov +$ git log --oneline + +# Zobraz zlúčené (merged) commity +$ git log --merges + +# Zobraz všetky commity vo forme ASCII grafu +$ git log --graph +``` + +### merge + +"Zlúč" zmeny externých commitov do aktuálnej vetvy. + +```bash +# Zlúč vybranú vetvu do aktuálnej. +$ git merge názovVetvy + +# Vždy vytvor zlučovací commit +$ git merge --no-ff názovVetvy +``` + +### mv + +Premenuj, alebo presuň súbor + +```bash +# Premenuj súbor +$ git mv HelloWorld.c HelloNewWorld.c + +# Presuň súbor +$ git mv HelloWorld.c ./nová/cesta/HelloWorld.c + +# "Nasilu" premenuj, alebo presuň +# "existujúciSúbor" už v adresári existuje, bude prepísaný +$ git mv -f môjSúbor existujúciSúbor +``` + +### pull + +Uloží obsah repozitára a zlúči ho s inou vetvou. + +```bash +# Aktualizuje tvoj lokálny repozitár zlúčením nových zmien +# zo vzdialených "origin" a "master" vetiev. +# git pull <alias-vzdialeného-repo> <vetva> +$ git pull origin master + +# Predvolene, git pull aktualizuje tvoju aktuálnu vetvu +# zlúčením nových zmien zo vzdialenej vetvy +$ git pull + +# Zlúč zmeny zo vzdialenej vetvy a presuň vetvu do nového základného commitu (rebase) +# vetva commitne na tvoj lokálny repozitár, ekvivalentný príkaz: "git pull <alias-vzdialeného-repo> <vrstva>, git rebase <branch>" +$ git pull origin master --rebase +``` + +### push + +Zverejní a zlúči zmeny z lokálnej do vzdialenej vetvy. + +```bash +# Zverejni a zlúč zmeny z lokálneho repozitára do +# vzdialených vetiev s názvom "origin" a "master". +# git push <vzdialené> <vetvy> +$ git push origin master + +# Predvolene git zverejní a zlúči zmeny z +# aktuálnej vetvy do vzdialenej vetvy s ňou spojenej +$ git push + +# Na spojenie lokálnej vetvy so vzdialenou pridaj -u: +$ git push -u origin master +# Kedykoľvek budeš chcieť zverejniť z rovnakej lokálnej vetvy, použi príkaz: +$ git push +``` + +### stash + +Umožní ti opustiť chaotický stav pracovného adresára a uloží ho na zásobník nedokončených zmien, ku ktorým sa môžeš kedykoľvek vrátiť. + +Povedzme, že si urobil nejaké zmeny vo svojom git repozitári, ale teraz potrebuješ pullnúť zo vzdialenej repo. Keďže máš necommitnuté zmeny, príkaz `git pull` nebude fungovať. Namiesto toho môžeš použiť `git stash` a uložiť svoje nedokončené zmeny na zásobník! + +```bash +$ git stash +Saved working directory and index state \ + "WIP on master: 049d078 added the index file" + HEAD is now at 049d078 added the index file + (To restore them type "git stash apply") +``` + +Teraz môžeš uložiť vzdialenú vetvu! + +```bash +$ git pull +``` + +Over, či je všetko v poriadku + +```bash +$ git status +# On branch master +nothing to commit, working directory clean +``` + +Môžeš si pozrieť, čo za chaos je na zásobníku cez `git stash list`. +Nedokončené zmeny sú uložené ako Last-In-First-Out (Prvý dnu, posledný von) štruktúra, navrchu sa objavia najnovšie zmeny. + +```bash +$ git stash list +stash@{0}: WIP on master: 049d078 added the index file +stash@{1}: WIP on master: c264051 Revert "added file_size" +stash@{2}: WIP on master: 21d80a5 added number to log +``` + +Keď so zmenami budeš chcieť pracovať, odstráň ich zo stacku. + +```bash +$ git stash pop +# On branch master +# Changes not staged for commit: +# (use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed) +# +# modified: index.html +# modified: lib/simplegit.rb +# +``` + +`git stash apply` urobí presne to isté + +Hotovo, môžeš pokračovať v práci! + +[Čítaj viac.](http://git-scm.com/book/en/v1/Git-Tools-Stashing) + +### rebase (pozor) + +Zober všetky zmeny commitnuté do vetvy a aplikuj ich na inú vetvu. +*Tento príkaz nerob na verejných repozitároch*. + +```bash +# Aplikuj commity z experimentálnej vetvy na master +# git rebase <základnáVetva> <ináVetva> +$ git rebase master experimentBranch +``` + +[Čítaj viac.](http://git-scm.com/book/en/Git-Branching-Rebasing) + +### reset (pozor) + +Resetni HEAD (ukazateľ na aktuálnu vetvu) do konrkétneho stavu. To ti umožní vziať späť zlúčenia, zverejnenia, commity, pridania atď. Je to užitočný, no nebezpečný príkaz, pokiaľ nevieš, čo robíš. + +```bash +# Resetni index (vrstvu medzi pracovným stromom a Git repozitárom), aby odpovedal najnovšiemu commitu (adresár ostane nezmenený) +$ git reset + +# Resetni index, aby odpovedal najnovšiemu commitu (adresár sa prepíše) +$ git reset --hard + +# Presunie vrchol aktuálnuej vetvy do konkrétneho commitu (adresár ostane nezmenený) +# všetky zmeny sú zachované v adresári. +$ git reset 31f2bb1 + +# Presunie vrchol aktuálnuej vetvy naopak do konkrétneho commitu +# a zosúladí ju s pracovným adresárom (vymaže nekomitnuté zmeny). +$ git reset --hard 31f2bb1 +``` +### revert + +Vezme naspäť ("od-urobí") commit. Nezamieňaj s resetom, ktorý obnoví stav +projektu do predchádzajúceho bodu v čase. Revert pridá nový commit, inverzný tomu, ktorý chceš vymazať, tým ho od-urobí. + +```bash +# Vezmi späť konkrétny commit +$ git revert <commit> +``` + +### rm + +Opak od git add, rm odstráni súbory z aktuálneho pracovného stromu. + +```bash +# odstráň HelloWorld.c +$ git rm HelloWorld.c + +# Odstráň súbor z vnoreného adresára +$ git rm /pather/to/the/file/HelloWorld.c +``` + +## Ďalšie informácie + +* [tryGit - Zábavný interaktívny spôsob, ako sa naučiť Git.](http://try.github.io/levels/1/challenges/1) + +* [Udemy Git Tutoriál: Kompletný návod](https://blog.udemy.com/git-tutorial-a-comprehensive-guide/) + +* [Git Immersion - Návod, ktorý Ťa prevedie základmi Gitu](http://gitimmersion.com/) + +* [git-scm - Video Tutoriály](http://git-scm.com/videos) + +* [git-scm - Dokumentácia](http://git-scm.com/docs) + +* [Atlassian Git - Tutoriály & Postupy](https://www.atlassian.com/git/) + +* [SalesForce Cheat Sheet](https://na1.salesforce.com/help/doc/en/salesforce_git_developer_cheatsheet.pdf) + +* [GitGuys](http://www.gitguys.com/) + +* [Git - jednoducho](http://rogerdudler.github.io/git-guide/index.html) + +* [Pro Git](http://www.git-scm.com/book/en/v2) + +* [Úvod do Gitu a GitHubu pre začiatočníkov (Tutoriál)](http://product.hubspot.com/blog/git-and-github-tutorial-for-beginners) diff --git a/sk-sk/latex.html.markdown.tex b/sk-sk/latex.html.markdown.tex new file mode 100644 index 00000000..5e2f9c7f --- /dev/null +++ b/sk-sk/latex.html.markdown.tex @@ -0,0 +1,227 @@ +--- +language: latex +contributors: + - ["Chaitanya Krishna Ande", "http://icymist.github.io"] + - ["Colton Kohnke", "http://github.com/voltnor"] + - ["Sricharan Chiruvolu", "http://sricharan.xyz"] +translators: + - ["Terka Slanináková", "http://github.com/TerkaSlan"] +filename: learn-latex-sk.tex +--- + +```tex +% Všetky komentáre začínajú s % +% Viac-riadkové komentáre sa nedajú urobiť + +% LaTeX NIE JE WYSIWY ("What You See Is What You Get") software ako MS Word, alebo OpenOffice Writer + +% Každý LaTeX príkaz začína s opačným lomítkom (\) + +% LaTeX dokumenty začínajú s definíciou typu kompilovaného dokumentu +% Ostatné typy sú napríklad kniha (book), správa (report), prezentácia (presentation), atď. +% Možnosti dokumentu sa píšu do [] zátvoriek. V tomto prípade tam upresňujeme veľkosť (12pt) fontu. +\documentclass[12pt]{article} + +% Ďalej definujeme balíčky, ktoré dokuemnt používa. +% Ak chceš zahrnúť grafiku, farebný text, či zdrojový kód iného jazyka, musíš rozšíriť možnosti LaTeXu dodatočnými balíčkami. +% Zahŕňam float a caption. Na podporu slovenčiny treba zahrnúť aj utf8 balíček. +\usepackage{caption} +\usepackage{float} +\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc} +% Tu môžme definovať ostatné vlastnosti dokumentu! +% Autori tohto dokumentu, "\\*" znamená "choď na nový riadok" +\author{Chaitanya Krishna Ande, Colton Kohnke \& Sricharan Chiruvolu, \\*Preklad: Terka Slanináková} +% Vygeneruje dnešný dátum +\date{\today} +\title{Nauč sa LaTeX za Y Minút!} +% Teraz môžme začať pracovať na samotnom dokumente. +% Všetko do tohto riadku sa nazýva "Preambula" ("The Preamble") +\begin{document} +% ak zadáme položky author, date a title, LaTeX vytvorí titulnú stranu. +\maketitle + +% Väčšina odborných článkov má abstrakt, na jeho vytvorenie môžeš použiť preddefinované príkazy. +% Ten by sa mal zobraziť v logickom poradí, teda po hlavičke, +% no pred hlavnými sekciami tela.. +% Tento príkaz je tiež dostupný v triedach article a report. +% Tzv. makro "abstract" je fixnou súčasťou LaTeXu, ak chceme použiť abstract +% a napísať ho po slovensky, musíme ho redefinovať nasledujúcim príkazom +\renewcommand\abstractname{Abstrakt} + +\begin{abstract} +LaTeX dokumentácia v LaTeXe! Aké netradičné riešenie cudzieho nápadu! +\end{abstract} + +% Príkazy pre sekciu sú intuitívne +% Všetky nadpisy sekcií sú pridané automaticky do obsahu. +\section{Úvod} +Čaute, volám sa Colton a spoločne sa pustíme do skúmania LaTeXu (toho druhého)! + +\section{Ďalšia sekcia} +Toto je text ďalšej sekcie. Myslím, že potrebuje podsekciu. + +\subsection{Toto je podsekcia} % Podsekcie sú tiež intuitívne. +Zdá sa mi, že treba ďalšiu. + +\subsubsection{Pytagoras} +To je ono! +\label{subsec:pytagoras} + +% Použitím '*' môžeme potlačiť zabudované číslovanie LaTeXu. +% Toto funguje aj na iné príkazy. +\section*{Toto je nečíslovaná sekcia} +Všetky číslované byť nemusia! + +\section{Nejaké poznámočky} +Zarovnávať veci tam, kde ich chceš mať, je všeobecne ľahké. Ak +potrebuješ \\ nový \\ riadok \\ pridaj \textbackslash\textbackslash do +zdrojového kódu. \\ + +\section{Zoznamy} +Zoznamy sú jednou z najjednoduchších vecí vôbec! Treba mi zajtra nakúpiť, urobím si zoznam. +\begin{enumerate} % "enumerate" spustí číslovanie prvkov. + % \item povie LaTeXu, ako že treba pripočítať 1 + \item Vlašský šalát. + \item 5 rožkov. + \item 3 Horalky. + % číslovanie môžeme pozmeniť použitím [] + \item[koľko?] Stredne veľkých guličkoviek. + + Ja už nie som položka zoznamu, no stále som časť "enumerate". + +\end{enumerate} % Všetky prostredia končia s "end". + +\section{Matika} + +Jedným z primárnych použití LaTeXu je písanie akademických, či technických prác. Zvyčajne za použitia matematiky a vedy. Podpora špeciálnych symbolov preto nemôže chýbať!\\ + +Matematika má veľa symbolov, omnoho viac, než by klávesnica mohla reprezentovať; +Množinové a relačné symboly, šípky, operátory a Grécke písmená sú len malou ukážkou.\\ + +Množiny a relácie hrajú hlavnú rolu v mnohých matematických článkoch. +Takto napíšeš, že niečo platí pre všetky x patriace do X, $\forall$ x $\in$ X. \\ +% Všimni si, že som pridal $ pred a po symboloch. Je to +% preto, lebo pri písaní sme v textovom móde, +% no matematické symboly existujú len v matematickom. +% Vstúpime doňho z textového práve '$' znamienkami. +% Platí to aj opačne. Premenná môže byť zobrazená v matematickom móde takisto. +% Do matematického módu sa dá dostať aj s \[\] + +\[a^2 + b^2 = c^2 \] + +Moje obľúbené Grécke písmeno je $\xi$. Tiež sa mi pozdávajú $\beta$, $\gamma$ a $\sigma$. +Ešte som neprišiel na Grécke písmeno, ktoré by LaTeX nepoznal! + +Operátory sú dôležitou súčasťou matematických dokumentov: +goniometrické funkcie ($\sin$, $\cos$, $\tan$), +logaritmy and exponenciálne výrazy ($\log$, $\exp$), +limity ($\lim$), atď. +majú pred-definované LaTeXové príkazy. +Napíšme si rovnicu, nech vidíme, ako to funguje: \\ + +$\cos(2\theta) = \cos^{2}(\theta) - \sin^{2}(\theta)$ + +Zlomky(Čitateľ-menovateľ) sa píšu v týchto formách: + +% 10 / 7 +$^{10}/_{7}$ + +% Relatívne komplexné zlomky sa píšu ako +% \frac{čitateľ}{menovateľ} +$\frac{n!}{k!(n - k)!}$ \\ + +Rovnice tiež môžeme zadať v "rovnicovom prostredí". + +% Takto funguje rovnicové prostredie +\begin{equation} % vstúpi do matematického módu + c^2 = a^2 + b^2. + \label{eq:pythagoras} % na odkazovanie +\end{equation} % všetky \begin príkazy musia mať konečný príkaz. + +Teraz môžeme odkázať na novovytvorenú rovnicu! +Rovn.~\ref{eq:pythagoras} je tiež známa ako Pytagorova Veta, ktorá je tiež predmetom Sekc.~\ref{subsec:pytagoras}. Odkazovať môžme na veľa vecí, napr na: čísla, rovnice, či sekcie. + +Sumácie a Integrály sa píšu príkazmi sum a int: + +% Niektoré prekladače LaTeXu sa môžu sťažovať na prázdne riadky (ak tam sú) +% v rovnicovom prostredí. +\begin{equation} + \sum_{i=0}^{5} f_{i} +\end{equation} +\begin{equation} + \int_{0}^{\infty} \mathrm{e}^{-x} \mathrm{d}x +\end{equation} + +\section{Obrázky} + +Vloženie obrázku môže byť zložitejšie. Ja si vždy možnosti vloženia pozerám pre každý obrázok. +\renewcommand\figurename{Obrázok} +\begin{figure}[H] % H značí možnosť zarovnania. + \centering % nacentruje obrázok na stránku + % Vloží obrázok na 80% šírky stránky. + %\includegraphics[width=0.8\linewidth]{right-triangle.png} + % Zakomentované kvôli kompilácií, použi svoju predstavivosť :). + \caption{Pravouhlý trojuholník so stranami $a$, $b$, $c$} + \label{fig:right-triangle} +\end{figure} +% Opäť, fixné makro "table" nahradíme slovenskou tabuľkou. Pokiaľ preferuješ table, nasledujúci riadok nepridávaj +\renewcommand\tablename{Tabuľka} + +\subsection{Tabuľky} +Tabuľky sa vkládajú podobne ako obrázky. + +\begin{table}[H] + \caption{Nadpis tabuľky.} + % zátvorky: {} hovoria ako sa vykreslí každý riadok. + % Toto si nikdy nepamätám a vždy to musím hľadať. Všetko. Každý. Jeden. Raz! + \begin{tabular}{c|cc} + Číslo & Priezvisko & Krstné meno \\ % Stĺpce sú rozdelené $ + \hline % horizontálna čiara + 1 & Ladislav & Meliško \\ + 2 & Eva & Máziková + \end{tabular} +\end{table} + +% \section{Hyperlinks} % Už čoskoro :) + +\section{Prikáž LaTeXu nekompilovať (napr. Zdrojový Kód)} +Povedzme, že chceme do dokumentu vložiť zdrojový kód, budeme musieť LaTeXu povedať, nech sa ho nesnaží skompilovať, ale nech s ním pracuje ako s textom. +Toto sa robí vo verbatim prostredí. + +% Tiež sú na to špeciálne balíčky, (napr. minty, lstlisting, atď.) +% ale verbatim je to najzákladnejšie, čo môžeš použiť. +\begin{verbatim} + print("Hello World!") + a%b; pozri! Vo verbatime môžme použiť % znamienka. + random = 4; #priradené randomným hodom kockou +\end{verbatim} + +\section{Kompilácia} + +Už by bolo načase túto nádheru skompilovať a zhliadnuť jej úžasnú úžasnosť v podobe LaTeX pdfka, čo povieš? +(áno, tento dokument sa musí kompilovať). \\ +Cesta k finálnemu dokumentu pomocou LaTeXu pozostáva z nasledujúcich krokov: + \begin{enumerate} + \item Napíš dokument v čistom texte (v "zdrojáku"). + \item Skompiluj zdroják na získanie pdfka. + Kompilácia by mala vyzerať nasledovne (v Linuxe): \\ + \begin{verbatim} + $pdflatex learn-latex.tex learn-latex.pdf + \end{verbatim} + \end{enumerate} + +Mnoho LaTeX editorov kombinuje Krok 1 a Krok 2 v jednom prostredí. Krok 1 teda uvidíš, krok 2 už nie. +Ten sa deje za oponou. Kompilácia v 2. kroku sa postará o produkciu dokumentu v tebou zadanom formáte. + +\section{Koniec} + +To je zatiaľ všetko! + +% koniec dokumentu +\end{document} +``` + +## Viac o LaTeXe (anglicky) + +* Úžasná LaTeX wikikniha: [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX) +* Naozajstný tutoriál: [http://www.latex-tutorial.com/](http://www.latex-tutorial.com/) diff --git a/sk-sk/learn-latex-sk.tex b/sk-sk/learn-latex-sk.tex new file mode 100644 index 00000000..5cc7b11f --- /dev/null +++ b/sk-sk/learn-latex-sk.tex @@ -0,0 +1,209 @@ +% Všetky komentáre začínajú s % +% Viac-riadkové komentáre sa nedajú urobiť + +% LaTeX NIE JE WYSIWY ("What You See Is What You Get") software ako MS Word, alebo OpenOffice Writer + +% Každý LaTeX príkaz začína s opačným lomítkom (\) + +% LaTeX dokumenty začínajú s definíciou typu kompilovaného dokumentu +% Ostatné typy sú napríklad kniha (book), správa (report), prezentácia (presentation), atď. +% Možnosti dokumentu sa píšu do [] zátvoriek. V tomto prípade tam upresňujeme veľkosť (12pt) fontu. +\documentclass[12pt]{article} + +% Ďalej definujeme balíčky, ktoré dokuemnt používa. +% Ak chceš zahrnúť grafiku, farebný text, či zdrojový kód iného jazyka, musíš rozšíriť možnosti LaTeXu dodatočnými balíčkami. +% Zahŕňam float a caption. Na podporu slovenčiny treba zahrnúť aj utf8 balíček. +\usepackage{caption} +\usepackage{float} +\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc} +% Tu môžme definovať ostatné vlastnosti dokumentu! +% Autori tohto dokumentu, "\\*" znamená "choď na nový riadok" +\author{Chaitanya Krishna Ande, Colton Kohnke \& Sricharan Chiruvolu, \\*Preklad: Terka Slanináková} +% Vygeneruje dnešný dátum +\date{\today} +\title{Nauč sa LaTeX za Y Minút!} +% Teraz môžme začať pracovať na samotnom dokumente. +% Všetko do tohto riadku sa nazýva "Preambula" ("The Preamble") +\begin{document} +% ak zadáme položky author, date a title, LaTeX vytvorí titulnú stranu. +\maketitle + +% Väčšina odborných článkov má abstrakt, na jeho vytvorenie môžeš použiť preddefinované príkazy. +% Ten by sa mal zobraziť v logickom poradí, teda po hlavičke, +% no pred hlavnými sekciami tela.. +% Tento príkaz je tiež dostupný v triedach article a report. +% Tzv. makro "abstract" je fixnou súčasťou LaTeXu, ak chceme použiť abstract +% a napísať ho po slovensky, musíme ho redefinovať nasledujúcim príkazom +\renewcommand\abstractname{Abstrakt} + +\begin{abstract} +LaTeX dokumentácia v LaTeXe! Aké netradičné riešenie cudzieho nápadu! +\end{abstract} + +% Príkazy pre sekciu sú intuitívne +% Všetky nadpisy sekcií sú pridané automaticky do obsahu. +\section{Úvod} +Čaute, volám sa Colton a spoločne sa pustíme do skúmania LaTeXu (toho druhého)! + +\section{Ďalšia sekcia} +Toto je text ďalšej sekcie. Myslím, že potrebuje podsekciu. + +\subsection{Toto je podsekcia} % Podsekcie sú tiež intuitívne. +Zdá sa mi, že treba ďalšiu. + +\subsubsection{Pytagoras} +To je ono! +\label{subsec:pytagoras} + +% Použitím '*' môžeme potlačiť zabudované číslovanie LaTeXu. +% Toto funguje aj na iné príkazy. +\section*{Toto je nečíslovaná sekcia} +Všetky číslované byť nemusia! + +\section{Nejaké poznámočky} +Zarovnávať veci tam, kde ich chceš mať, je všeobecne ľahké. Ak +potrebuješ \\ nový \\ riadok \\ pridaj \textbackslash\textbackslash do +zdrojového kódu. \\ + +\section{Zoznamy} +Zoznamy sú jednou z najjednoduchších vecí vôbec! Treba mi zajtra nakúpiť, urobím si zoznam. +\begin{enumerate} % "enumerate" spustí číslovanie prvkov. + % \item povie LaTeXu, ako že treba pripočítať 1 + \item Vlašský šalát. + \item 5 rožkov. + \item 3 Horalky. + % číslovanie môžeme pozmeniť použitím [] + \item[koľko?] Stredne veľkých guličkoviek. + + Ja už nie som položka zoznamu, no stále som časť "enumerate". + +\end{enumerate} % Všetky prostredia končia s "end". + +\section{Matika} + +Jedným z primárnych použití LaTeXu je písanie akademických, či technických prác. Zvyčajne za použitia matematiky a vedy. Podpora špeciálnych symbolov preto nemôže chýbať!\\ + +Matematika má veľa symbolov, omnoho viac, než by klávesnica mohla reprezentovať; +Množinové a relačné symboly, šípky, operátory a Grécke písmená sú len malou ukážkou.\\ + +Množiny a relácie hrajú hlavnú rolu v mnohých matematických článkoch. +Takto napíšeš, že niečo platí pre všetky x patriace do X, $\forall$ x $\in$ X. \\ +% Všimni si, že som pridal $ pred a po symboloch. Je to +% preto, lebo pri písaní sme v textovom móde, +% no matematické symboly existujú len v matematickom. +% Vstúpime doňho z textového práve '$' znamienkami. +% Platí to aj opačne. Premenná môže byť zobrazená v matematickom móde takisto. +% Do matematického módu sa dá dostať aj s \[\] + +\[a^2 + b^2 = c^2 \] + +Moje obľúbené Grécke písmeno je $\xi$. Tiež sa mi pozdávajú $\beta$, $\gamma$ a $\sigma$. +Ešte som neprišiel na Grécke písmeno, ktoré by LaTeX nepoznal! + +Operátory sú dôležitou súčasťou matematických dokumentov: +goniometrické funkcie ($\sin$, $\cos$, $\tan$), +logaritmy and exponenciálne výrazy ($\log$, $\exp$), +limity ($\lim$), atď. +majú pred-definované LaTeXové príkazy. +Napíšme si rovnicu, nech vidíme, ako to funguje: \\ + +$\cos(2\theta) = \cos^{2}(\theta) - \sin^{2}(\theta)$ + +Zlomky(Čitateľ-menovateľ) sa píšu v týchto formách: + +% 10 / 7 +$^{10}/_{7}$ + +% Relatívne komplexné zlomky sa píšu ako +% \frac{čitateľ}{menovateľ} +$\frac{n!}{k!(n - k)!}$ \\ + +Rovnice tiež môžeme zadať v "rovnicovom prostredí". + +% Takto funguje rovnicové prostredie +\begin{equation} % vstúpi do matematického módu + c^2 = a^2 + b^2. + \label{eq:pythagoras} % na odkazovanie +\end{equation} % všetky \begin príkazy musia mať konečný príkaz. + +Teraz môžeme odkázať na novovytvorenú rovnicu! +Rovn.~\ref{eq:pythagoras} je tiež známa ako Pytagorova Veta, ktorá je tiež predmetom Sekc.~\ref{subsec:pytagoras}. Odkazovať môžme na veľa vecí, napr na: čísla, rovnice, či sekcie. + +Sumácie a Integrály sa píšu príkazmi sum a int: + +% Niektoré prekladače LaTeXu sa môžu sťažovať na prázdne riadky (ak tam sú) +% v rovnicovom prostredí. +\begin{equation} + \sum_{i=0}^{5} f_{i} +\end{equation} +\begin{equation} + \int_{0}^{\infty} \mathrm{e}^{-x} \mathrm{d}x +\end{equation} + +\section{Obrázky} + +Vloženie obrázku môže byť zložitejšie. Ja si vždy možnosti vloženia pozerám pre každý obrázok. +\renewcommand\figurename{Obrázok} +\begin{figure}[H] % H značí možnosť zarovnania. + \centering % nacentruje obrázok na stránku + % Vloží obrázok na 80% šírky stránky. + %\includegraphics[width=0.8\linewidth]{right-triangle.png} + % Zakomentované kvôli kompilácií, použi svoju predstavivosť :). + \caption{Pravouhlý trojuholník so stranami $a$, $b$, $c$} + \label{fig:right-triangle} +\end{figure} +% Opäť, fixné makro "table" nahradíme slovenskou tabuľkou. Pokiaľ preferuješ table, nasledujúci riadok nepridávaj +\renewcommand\tablename{Tabuľka} + +\subsection{Tabuľky} +Tabuľky sa vkládajú podobne ako obrázky. + +\begin{table}[H] + \caption{Nadpis tabuľky.} + % zátvorky: {} hovoria ako sa vykreslí každý riadok. + % Toto si nikdy nepamätám a vždy to musím hľadať. Všetko. Každý. Jeden. Raz! + \begin{tabular}{c|cc} + Číslo & Priezvisko & Krstné meno \\ % Stĺpce sú rozdelené $ + \hline % horizontálna čiara + 1 & Ladislav & Meliško \\ + 2 & Eva & Máziková + \end{tabular} +\end{table} + +% \section{Hyperlinks} % Už čoskoro :) + +\section{Prikáž LaTeXu nekompilovať (napr. Zdrojový Kód)} +Povedzme, že chceme do dokumentu vložiť zdrojový kód, budeme musieť LaTeXu povedať, nech sa ho nesnaží skompilovať, ale nech s ním pracuje ako s textom. +Toto sa robí vo verbatim prostredí. + +% Tiež sú na to špeciálne balíčky, (napr. minty, lstlisting, atď.) +% ale verbatim je to najzákladnejšie, čo môžeš použiť. +\begin{verbatim} + print("Hello World!") + a%b; pozri! Vo verbatime môžme použiť % znamienka. + random = 4; #priradené randomným hodom kockou +\end{verbatim} + +\section{Kompilácia} + +Už by bolo načase túto nádheru skompilovať a zhliadnuť jej úžasnú úžasnosť v podobe LaTeX pdfka, čo povieš? +(áno, tento dokument sa musí kompilovať). \\ +Cesta k finálnemu dokumentu pomocou LaTeXu pozostáva z nasledujúcich krokov: + \begin{enumerate} + \item Napíš dokument v čistom texte (v "zdrojáku"). + \item Skompiluj zdroják na získanie pdfka. + Kompilácia by mala vyzerať nasledovne (v Linuxe): \\ + \begin{verbatim} + $pdflatex learn-latex.tex learn-latex.pdf + \end{verbatim} + \end{enumerate} + +Mnoho LaTeX editorov kombinuje Krok 1 a Krok 2 v jednom prostredí. Krok 1 teda uvidíš, krok 2 už nie. +Ten sa deje za oponou. Kompilácia v 2. kroku sa postará o produkciu dokumentu v tebou zadanom formáte. + +\section{Koniec} + +To je zatiaľ všetko! + +% koniec dokumentu +\end{document} diff --git a/smalltalk.html.markdown b/smalltalk.html.markdown index 3b388505..2c17b753 100644 --- a/smalltalk.html.markdown +++ b/smalltalk.html.markdown @@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ Feedback highly appreciated! Reach me at [@jigyasa_grover](https://twitter.com/j `"Comments are enclosed in quotes"` -`"Period (.) is the statement seperator"` +`"Period (.) is the statement separator"` ## Transcript: ``` @@ -305,7 +305,7 @@ result := (switch at: $B) value. x := 4. y := 1. [x > 0] whileTrue: [x := x - 1. y := y * 2]. "while true loop" [x >= 4] whileFalse: [x := x + 1. y := y * 2]. "while false loop" -x timesRepeat: [y := y * 2]. "times repear loop (i := 1 to x)" +x timesRepeat: [y := y * 2]. "times repeat loop (i := 1 to x)" 1 to: x do: [:a | y := y * 2]. "for loop" 1 to: x by: 2 do: [:a | y := y / 2]. "for loop with specified increment" #(5 4 3) do: [:a | x := x + a]. "iterate over array elements" @@ -320,7 +320,7 @@ y := x isUppercase. "test if upper case" y := x isLetter. "test if letter" y := x isDigit. "test if digit" y := x isAlphaNumeric. "test if alphanumeric" -y := x isSeparator. "test if seperator char" +y := x isSeparator. "test if separator char" y := x isVowel. "test if vowel" y := x digitValue. "convert to numeric digit value" y := x asLowercase. "convert to lower case" diff --git a/solidity.html.markdown b/solidity.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a511bbb3 --- /dev/null +++ b/solidity.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,795 @@ +--- +language: Solidity +filename: learnSolidity.sol +contributors: + - ["Nemil Dalal", "https://www.nemil.com"] + - ["Joseph Chow", ""] +--- + +Solidity lets you program on [Ethereum](https://www.ethereum.org/), a +blockchain-based virtual machine that allows the creation and +execution of smart contracts, without needing centralized or trusted parties. + +Solidity is a statically typed, contract programming language that has +similarities to Javascript and C. Like objects in OOP, each contract contains +state variables, functions, and common data types. Contract-specific features +include modifier (guard) clauses, event notifiers for listeners, and custom +global variables. + +Some Ethereum contract examples include crowdfunding, voting, and blind auctions. + +As Solidity and Ethereum are under active development, experimental or beta +features are explicitly marked, and subject to change. Pull requests welcome. + +```javascript +// First, a simple Bank contract +// Allows deposits, withdrawals, and balance checks + +// simple_bank.sol (note .sol extension) +/* **** START EXAMPLE **** */ + +// Start with Natspec comment (the three slashes) +// used for documentation - and as descriptive data for UI elements/actions + +/// @title SimpleBank +/// @author nemild + +/* 'contract' has similarities to 'class' in other languages (class variables, +inheritance, etc.) */ +contract SimpleBank { // CamelCase + // Declare state variables outside function, persist through life of contract + + // dictionary that maps addresses to balances + mapping (address => uint) private balances; + + // "private" means that other contracts can't directly query balances + // but data is still viewable to other parties on blockchain + + address public owner; + // 'public' makes externally readable (not writeable) by users or contracts + + // Events - publicize actions to external listeners + event DepositMade(address accountAddress, uint amount); + + // Constructor, can receive one or many variables here; only one allowed + function AcmeBank() { + // msg provides details about the message that's sent to the contract + // msg.sender is contract caller (address of contract creator) + owner = msg.sender; + } + + /// @notice Deposit ether into bank + /// @return The balance of the user after the deposit is made + function deposit() public returns (uint) { + balances[msg.sender] += msg.value; + // no "this." or "self." required with state variable + // all values set to data type's initial value by default + + DepositMade(msg.sender, msg.value); // fire event + + return balances[msg.sender]; + } + + /// @notice Withdraw ether from bank + /// @dev This does not return any excess ether sent to it + /// @param withdrawAmount amount you want to withdraw + /// @return The balance remaining for the user + function withdraw(uint withdrawAmount) public returns (uint remainingBal) { + if(balances[msg.sender] >= withdrawAmount) { + balances[msg.sender] -= withdrawAmount; + + if (!msg.sender.send(withdrawAmount)) { + // to be safe, may be sending to contract that + // has overridden 'send' which may then fail + balances[msg.sender] += withdrawAmount; + } + } + + return balances[msg.sender]; + } + + /// @notice Get balance + /// @return The balance of the user + // 'constant' prevents function from editing state variables; + // allows function to run locally/off blockchain + function balance() constant returns (uint) { + return balances[msg.sender]; + } + + // Fallback function - Called if other functions don't match call or + // sent ether without data + // Typically, called when invalid data is sent + // Added so ether sent to this contract is reverted if the contract fails + // otherwise, the sender's money is transferred to contract + function () { + throw; // throw reverts state to before call + } +} +// ** END EXAMPLE ** + + +// Now, the basics of Solidity + +// 1. DATA TYPES AND ASSOCIATED METHODS +// uint used for currency amount (there are no doubles +// or floats) and for dates (in unix time) +uint x; + +// int of 256 bits, cannot be changed after instantiation +int constant a = 8; +int256 constant a = 8; // same effect as line above, here the 256 is explicit +uint constant VERSION_ID = 0x123A1; // A hex constant +// with 'constant', compiler replaces each occurrence with actual value + + +// For int and uint, can explicitly set space in steps of 8 up to 256 +// e.g., int8, int16, int24 +uint8 b; +int64 c; +uint248 e; + +// Be careful that you don't overflow, and protect against attacks that do + +// No random functions built in, use other contracts for randomness + +// Type casting +int x = int(b); + +bool b = true; // or do 'var b = true;' for inferred typing + +// Addresses - holds 20 byte/160 bit Ethereum addresses +// No arithmetic allowed +address public owner; + +// Types of accounts: +// Contract account: address set on create (func of creator address, num transactions sent) +// External Account: (person/external entity): address created from public key + +// Add 'public' field to indicate publicly/externally accessible +// a getter is automatically created, but NOT a setter + +// All addresses can be sent ether +owner.send(SOME_BALANCE); // returns false on failure +if (owner.send) {} // typically wrap in 'if', as contract addresses have +// functions have executed on send and can fail + +// can override send by defining your own + +// Can check balance +owner.balance; // the balance of the owner (user or contract) + + +// Bytes available from 1 to 32 +byte a; // byte is same as bytes1 +bytes2 b; +bytes32 c; + +// Dynamically sized bytes +bytes m; // A special array, same as byte[] array (but packed tightly) +// More expensive than byte1-byte32, so use those when possible + +// same as bytes, but does not allow length or index access (for now) +string n = "hello"; // stored in UTF8, note double quotes, not single +// string utility functions to be added in future +// prefer bytes32/bytes, as UTF8 uses more storage + +// Type inferrence +// var does inferred typing based on first assignment, +// can't be used in functions parameters +var a = true; +// use carefully, inference may provide wrong type +// e.g., an int8, when a counter needs to be int16 + +// var can be used to assign function to variable +function a(uint x) returns (uint) { + return x * 2; +} +var f = a; +f(22); // call + +// by default, all values are set to 0 on instantiation + +// Delete can be called on most types +// (does NOT destroy value, but sets value to 0, the initial value) +uint x = 5; + + +// Destructuring/Tuples +(x, y) = (2, 7); // assign/swap multiple value + + +// 2. DATA STRUCTURES +// Arrays +bytes32[5] nicknames; // static array +bytes32[] names; // dynamic array +uint newLength = names.push("John"); // adding returns new length of the array +// Length +names.length; // get length +names.length = 1; // lengths can be set (for dynamic arrays in storage only) + +// multidimensional array +uint x[][5]; // arr with 5 dynamic array elements (opp order of most languages) + +// Dictionaries (any type to any other type) +mapping (string => uint) public balances; +balances["charles"] = 1; +console.log(balances["ada"]); // is 0, all non-set key values return zeroes +// 'public' allows following from another contract +contractName.balances("claude"); // returns 1 +// 'public' created a getter (but not setter) like the following: +function balances(address _account) returns (uint balance) { + return balances[_account]; +} + +// Nested mappings +mapping (address => mapping (address => uint)) public custodians; + +// To delete +delete balances["John"]; +delete balances; // sets all elements to 0 + +// Unlike other languages, CANNOT iterate through all elements in +// mapping, without knowing source keys - can build data structure +// on top to do this + +// Structs and enums +struct Bank { + address owner; + uint balance; +} +Bank b = Bank({ + owner: msg.sender, + balance: 5 +}); +// or +Bank c = Bank(msg.sender, 5); + +c.amount = 5; // set to new value +delete b; +// sets to initial value, set all variables in struct to 0, except mappings + +// Enums +enum State { Created, Locked, Inactive }; // often used for state machine +State public state; // Declare variable from enum +state = State.Created; +// enums can be explicitly converted to ints +uint createdState = uint(State.Created); // 0 + +// Data locations: Memory vs. storage vs. stack - all complex types (arrays, +// structs) have a data location +// 'memory' does not persist, 'storage' does +// Default is 'storage' for local and state variables; 'memory' for func params +// stack holds small local variables + +// for most types, can explicitly set which data location to use + + +// 3. Simple operators +// Comparisons, bit operators and arithmetic operators are provided +// exponentiation: ** +// exclusive or: ^ +// bitwise negation: ~ + + +// 4. Global Variables of note +// ** this ** +this; // address of contract +// often used at end of contract life to send remaining balance to party +this.balance; +this.someFunction(); // calls func externally via call, not via internal jump + +// ** msg - Current message received by the contract ** ** +msg.sender; // address of sender +msg.value; // amount of ether provided to this contract in wei +msg.data; // bytes, complete call data +msg.gas; // remaining gas + +// ** tx - This transaction ** +tx.origin; // address of sender of the transaction +tx.gasprice; // gas price of the transaction + +// ** block - Information about current block ** +now; // current time (approximately), alias for block.timestamp (uses Unix time) +block.number; // current block number +block.difficulty; // current block difficulty +block.blockhash(1); // returns bytes32, only works for most recent 256 blocks +block.gasLimit(); + +// ** storage - Persistent storage hash ** +storage['abc'] = 'def'; // maps 256 bit words to 256 bit words + + +// 4. FUNCTIONS AND MORE +// A. Functions +// Simple function +function increment(uint x) returns (uint) { + x += 1; + return x; +} + +// Functions can return many arguments, and by specifying returned arguments +// name don't need to explicitly return +function increment(uint x, uint y) returns (uint x, uint y) { + x += 1; + y += 1; +} +// Call previous functon +uint (a,b) = increment(1,1); + +// 'constant' indicates that function does not/cannot change persistent vars +// Constant function execute locally, not on blockchain +uint y; + +function increment(uint x) constant returns (uint x) { + x += 1; + y += 1; // this line would fail + // y is a state variable, and can't be changed in a constant function +} + +// 'Function Visibility specifiers' +// These can be placed where 'constant' is, including: +// public - visible externally and internally (default) +// external +// private - only visible in the current contract +// internal - only visible in current contract, and those deriving from it + +// Functions hoisted - and can assign a function to a variable +function a() { + var z = b; + b(); +} + +function b() { + +} + + +// Prefer loops to recursion (max call stack depth is 1024) + +// B. Events +// Events are notify external parties; easy to search and +// access events from outside blockchain (with lightweight clients) +// typically declare after contract parameters + +// Declare +event Sent(address from, address to, uint amount); // note capital first letter + +// Call +Sent(from, to, amount); + +// For an external party (a contract or external entity), to watch: +Coin.Sent().watch({}, '', function(error, result) { + if (!error) { + console.log("Coin transfer: " + result.args.amount + + " coins were sent from " + result.args.from + + " to " + result.args.to + "."); + console.log("Balances now:\n" + + "Sender: " + Coin.balances.call(result.args.from) + + "Receiver: " + Coin.balances.call(result.args.to)); + } +} +// Common paradigm for one contract to depend on another (e.g., a +// contract that depends on current exchange rate provided by another) + +// C. Modifiers +// Modifiers validate inputs to functions such as minimal balance or user auth; +// similar to guard clause in other languages + +// '_' (underscore) often included as last line in body, and indicates +// function being called should be placed there +modifier onlyAfter(uint _time) { if (now <= _time) throw; _ } +modifier onlyOwner { if (msg.sender == owner) _ } +// commonly used with state machines +modifier onlyIfState (State currState) { if (currState != State.A) _ } + +// Append right after function declaration +function changeOwner(newOwner) +onlyAfter(someTime) +onlyOwner() +onlyIfState(State.A) +{ + owner = newOwner; +} + +// underscore can be included before end of body, +// but explicitly returning will skip, so use carefully +modifier checkValue(uint amount) { + _ + if (msg.value > amount) { + msg.sender.send(amount - msg.value); + } +} + + +// 6. BRANCHING AND LOOPS + +// All basic logic blocks work - including if/else, for, while, break, continue +// return - but no switch + +// Syntax same as javascript, but no type conversion from non-boolean +// to boolean (comparison operators must be used to get the boolean val) + + +// 7. OBJECTS/CONTRACTS + +// A. Calling external contract +contract infoFeed { + function info() returns (uint ret) { return 42; } +} + +contract Consumer { + InfoFeed feed; // points to contract on blockchain + + // Set feed to existing contract instance + function setFeed(address addr) { + // automatically cast, be careful; constructor is not called + feed = InfoFeed(addr); + } + + // Set feed to new instance of contract + function createNewFeed() { + feed = new InfoFeed(); // new instance created; constructor called + } + + function callFeed() { + // final parentheses call contract, can optionally add + // custom ether value or gas + feed.info.value(10).gas(800)(); + } +} + +// B. Inheritance + +// Order matters, last inherited contract (i.e., 'def') can override parts of +// previously inherited contracts +contract MyContract is abc, def("a custom argument to def") { + +// Override function + function z() { + if (msg.sender == owner) { + def.z(); // call overridden function from def + super.z(); // call immediate parent overriden function + } + } +} + +// abstract function +function someAbstractFunction(uint x); +// cannot be compiled, so used in base/abstract contracts +// that are then implemented + +// C. Import + +import "filename"; +import "github.com/ethereum/dapp-bin/library/iterable_mapping.sol"; + +// Importing under active development +// Cannot currently be done at command line + + +// 8. OTHER KEYWORDS + +// A. Throwing +// Throwing +throw; // reverts unused money to sender, state is reverted +// Can't currently catch + +// Common design pattern is: +if (!addr.send(123)) { + throw; +} + +// B. Selfdestruct +// selfdestruct current contract, sending funds to address (often creator) +selfdestruct(SOME_ADDRESS); + +// removes storage/code from current/future blocks +// helps thin clients, but previous data persists in blockchain + +// Common pattern, lets owner end the contract and receive remaining funds +function remove() { + if(msg.sender == creator) { // Only let the contract creator do this + selfdestruct(creator); // Makes contract inactive, returns funds + } +} + +// May want to deactivate contract manually, rather than selfdestruct +// (ether sent to selfdestructed contract is lost) + + +// 9. CONTRACT DESIGN NOTES + +// A. Obfuscation +// All variables are publicly viewable on blockchain, so anything +// that is private needs to be obfuscated (e.g., hashed w/secret) + +// Steps: 1. Commit to something, 2. Reveal commitment +sha3("some_bid_amount", "some secret"); // commit + +// call contract's reveal function in the future +// showing bid plus secret that hashes to SHA3 +reveal(100, "mySecret"); + +// B. Storage optimization +// Writing to blockchain can be expensive, as data stored forever; encourages +// smart ways to use memory (eventually, compilation will be better, but for now +// benefits to planning data structures - and storing min amount in blockchain) + +// Cost can often be high for items like multidimensional arrays +// (cost is for storing data - not declaring unfilled variables) + +// C. Data access in blockchain +// Cannot restrict human or computer from reading contents of +// transaction or transaction's state + +// While 'private' prevents other *contracts* from reading data +// directly - any other party can still read data in blockchain + +// All data to start of time is stored in blockchain, so +// anyone can observe all previous data and changes + +// D. Cron Job +// Contracts must be manually called to handle time-based scheduling; can create external +// code to regularly ping, or provide incentives (ether) for others to + +// E. Observer Pattern +// An Observer Pattern lets you register as a subscriber and +// register a function which is called by the oracle (note, the oracle pays +// for this action to be run) +// Some similarities to subscription in Pub/sub + +// This is an abstract contract, both client and server classes import +// the client should implement +contract SomeOracleCallback { + function oracleCallback(int _value, uint _time, bytes32 info) external; +} + +contract SomeOracle { + SomeOracleCallback[] callbacks; // array of all subscribers + + // Register subscriber + function addSubscriber(SomeOracleCallback a) { + callbacks.push(a); + } + + function notify(value, time, info) private { + for(uint i = 0;i < callbacks.length; i++) { + // all called subscribers must implement the oracleCallback + callbacks[i].oracleCallback(value, time, info); + } + } + + function doSomething() public { + // Code to do something + + // Notify all subscribers + notify(_value, _time, _info); + } +} + +// Now, your client contract can addSubscriber by importing SomeOracleCallback +// and registering with Some Oracle + +// F. State machines +// see example below for State enum and inState modifier + + +// *** EXAMPLE: A crowdfunding example (broadly similar to Kickstarter) *** +// ** START EXAMPLE ** + +// CrowdFunder.sol + +/// @title CrowdFunder +/// @author nemild +contract CrowdFunder { + // Variables set on create by creator + address public creator; + address public fundRecipient; // creator may be different than recipient + uint public minimumToRaise; // required to tip, else everyone gets refund + string campaignUrl; + + // Data structures + enum State { + Fundraising, + ExpiredRefundPending, + Successful, + ExpiredRefundComplete + } + struct Contribution { + uint amount; + address contributor; + } + + // State variables + State public state = State.Fundraising; // initialize on create + uint public totalRaised; + uint public raiseBy; + Contribution[] contributions; + + event fundingReceived(address addr, uint amount, uint currentTotal); + event allRefundsSent(); + event winnerPaid(address winnerAddress); + + modifier inState(State _state) { + if (state != _state) throw; + _ + } + + modifier isCreator() { + if (msg.sender != creator) throw; + _ + } + + modifier atEndOfLifecycle() { + if(state != State.ExpiredRefundComplete && state != State.Successful) { + throw; + } + } + + function CrowdFunder( + uint timeInHoursForFundraising, + string _campaignUrl, + address _fundRecipient, + uint _minimumToRaise) + { + creator = msg.sender; + fundRecipient = _fundRecipient; + campaignUrl = _campaignUrl; + minimumToRaise = _minimumToRaise; + raiseBy = now + (timeInHoursForFundraising * 1 hours); + } + + function contribute() + public + inState(State.Fundraising) + { + contributions.push( + Contribution({ + amount: msg.value, + contributor: msg.sender + }) // use array, so can iterate + ); + totalRaised += msg.value; + + fundingReceived(msg.sender, msg.value, totalRaised); + + checkIfFundingCompleteOrExpired(); + } + + function checkIfFundingCompleteOrExpired() { + if (totalRaised > minimumToRaise) { + state = State.Successful; + payOut(); + + // could incentivize sender who initiated state change here + } else if ( now > raiseBy ) { + state = State.ExpiredRefundPending; + refundAll(); + } + } + + function payOut() + public + inState(State.Successful) + { + if(!fundRecipient.send(this.balance)) { + throw; + } + + winnerPaid(fundRecipient); + } + + function refundAll() + public + inState(State.ExpiredRefundPending) + { + uint length = contributions.length; + for (uint i = 0; i < length; i++) { + if(!contributions[i].contributor.send(contributions[i].amount)) { + throw; + } + } + + allRefundsSent(); + state = State.ExpiredRefundComplete; + } + + function removeContract() + public + isCreator() + atEndOfLifecycle() + { + selfdestruct(msg.sender); + } + + function () { throw; } +} +// ** END EXAMPLE ** + + +// 10. OTHER NATIVE FUNCTIONS + +// Currency units +// Currency is defined using wei, smallest unit of Ether +uint minAmount = 1 wei; +uint a = 1 finney; // 1 ether == 1000 finney +// Other units, see: http://ether.fund/tool/converter + +// Time units +1 == 1 second +1 minutes == 60 seconds + +// Can multiply a variable times unit, as units are not stored in a variable +uint x = 5; +(x * 1 days); // 5 days + +// Careful about leap seconds/years with equality statements for time +// (instead, prefer greater than/less than) + +// Cryptography +// All strings passed are concatenated before hash action +sha3("ab", "cd"); +ripemd160("abc"); +sha256("def"); + + +// 11. LOW LEVEL FUNCTIONS +// call - low level, not often used, does not provide type safety +successBoolean = someContractAddress.call('function_name', 'arg1', 'arg2'); + +// callcode - Code at target address executed in *context* of calling contract +// provides library functionality +someContractAddress.callcode('function_name'); + + +// 12. STYLE NOTES +// Based on Python's PEP8 style guide + +// Quick summary: +// 4 spaces for indentation +// Two lines separate contract declarations (and other top level declarations) +// Avoid extraneous spaces in parentheses +// Can omit curly braces for one line statement (if, for, etc) +// else should be placed on own line + + +// 13. NATSPEC COMENTS +// used for documentation, commenting, and external UIs + +// Contract natspec - always above contract definition +/// @title Contract title +/// @author Author name + +// Function natspec +/// @notice information about what function does; shown when function to execute +/// @dev Function documentation for developer + +// Function parameter/return value natspec +/// @param someParam Some description of what the param does +/// @return Description of the return value +``` + +## Additional resources +- [Solidity Docs](https://solidity.readthedocs.org/en/latest/) +- [Solidity Style Guide](https://ethereum.github.io/solidity//docs/style-guide/): Ethereum's style guide is heavily derived from Python's [pep8](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/) style guide. +- [Browser-based Solidity Editor](http://chriseth.github.io/browser-solidity/) +- [Gitter Chat room](https://gitter.im/ethereum/solidity) +- [Modular design strategies for Ethereum Contracts](https://docs.erisindustries.com/tutorials/solidity/) +- Editor Snippets ([Ultisnips format](https://gist.github.com/nemild/98343ce6b16b747788bc)) + +## Sample contracts +- [Dapp Bin](https://github.com/ethereum/dapp-bin) +- [Solidity Baby Step Contracts](https://github.com/fivedogit/solidity-baby-steps/tree/master/contracts) +- [ConsenSys Contracts](https://github.com/ConsenSys/dapp-store-contracts) +- [State of Dapps](http://dapps.ethercasts.com/) + +## Information purposefully excluded +- Libraries + +## Style +- Python's [PEP8](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/) is used as the baseline style guide, including its general philosophy + +## Future To Dos +- New keywords: protected, inheritable + +Feel free to send a pull request with any edits - or email nemild -/at-/ gmail diff --git a/sv-se/json-sv.html.markdown b/sv-se/json-sv.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c2ee36dd --- /dev/null +++ b/sv-se/json-sv.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- +language: json +filename: learnjson-sv.json +contributors: + - ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"] + - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] +translators: + - ["Lari Kovanen", "https://github.com/larkov"] +lang: sv-se +--- + +Eftersom JSON är ett extremt lätt data-utbytes format så kommer detta +förmodligen att vara den lättaste "Learn X in Y Minutes" någonsin. + +JSON i dess renaste form har inga kommentarer, men de flesta tolkarna accepterar +C-stils (`//`, `/* */`) kommentarer. Detta dokument kommer dock att tillämpa +100% giltigt JSON. Lyckligtvis så är resten av dokumentet självförklarande. + + +```json +{ + "nyckel": "värde", + + "nycklar": "måste alltid omslutas med dubbla citationstecken", + "nummer": 0, + "strängar": "Alla unicode-tecken (inklusive \"escaping\") är tillåtna.", + "boolska värden?": true, + "nullvärden": null, + + "stora tal": 1.2e+100, + + "objekt": { + "kommentar": "De flesta datastukturerna i JSON kommer i form av objekt.", + + "matris": [0, 1, 2, 3, "Matriser kan innehålla vad som helst.", 5], + + "ytterligare objekt": { + "kommentar": "Objekten kan vara nästlade." + } + }, + + "trams": [ + { + "kaliumkällor": ["bananer"] + }, + [ + [1, 0, 0, 0], + [0, 1, 0, 0], + [0, 0, 1, "neo"], + [0, 0, 0, 1] + ] + ], + + "alternativ formatering": { + "kommentar": "kolla på detta!" + , "kommats position": "spelar ingen roll - så länge det kommer innan värdet" + , "en kommentar till": "vad fint" + }, + + "det var kort": "Nu är du klar och kan allt vad JSON har att erbjuda." +} +``` diff --git a/swift.html.markdown b/swift.html.markdown index f451288d..e921e7ea 100644 --- a/swift.html.markdown +++ b/swift.html.markdown @@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ contributors: - ["Joey Huang", "http://github.com/kamidox"] - ["Anthony Nguyen", "http://github.com/anthonyn60"] - ["Clayton Walker", "https://github.com/cwalk"] + - ["Fernando Valverde", "http://visualcosita.xyz"] filename: learnswift.swift --- @@ -25,12 +26,13 @@ import UIKit // Xcode supports landmarks to annotate your code and lists them in the jump bar // MARK: Section mark +// MARK: - Section mark with a separator line // TODO: Do something soon // FIXME: Fix this code // In Swift 2, println and print were combined into one print method. Print automatically appends a new line. print("Hello, world") // println is now print -print("Hello, world", appendNewLine: false) // printing without appending a newline +print("Hello, world", terminator: "") // printing without appending a newline // variables (var) value can change after being set // constants (let) value can NOT be changed after being set @@ -44,7 +46,7 @@ let `class` = "keyword" // backticks allow keywords to be used as variable names let explicitDouble: Double = 70 let intValue = 0007 // 7 let largeIntValue = 77_000 // 77000 -let label = "some text " + String(myVariable) // Casting +let label = "some text " + String(myVariable) // String construction let piText = "Pi = \(π), Pi 2 = \(π * 2)" // String interpolation // Build Specific values @@ -58,14 +60,14 @@ let piText = "Pi = \(π), Pi 2 = \(π * 2)" // String interpolation print("Build value: \(buildValue)") // Build value: 7 /* - Optionals are a Swift language feature that either contains a value, - or contains nil (no value) to indicate that a value is missing. - A question mark (?) after the type marks the value as optional. +Optionals are a Swift language feature that either contains a value, +or contains nil (no value) to indicate that a value is missing. +A question mark (?) after the type marks the value as optional. - Because Swift requires every property to have a value, even nil must be - explicitly stored as an Optional value. +Because Swift requires every property to have a value, even nil must be +explicitly stored as an Optional value. - Optional<T> is an enum. +Optional<T> is an enum. */ var someOptionalString: String? = "optional" // Can be nil // same as above, but ? is a postfix operator (syntax candy) @@ -82,9 +84,9 @@ if someOptionalString != nil { someOptionalString = nil /* - Trying to use ! to access a non-existent optional value triggers a runtime - error. Always make sure that an optional contains a non-nil value before - using ! to force-unwrap its value. +Trying to use ! to access a non-existent optional value triggers a runtime +error. Always make sure that an optional contains a non-nil value before +using ! to force-unwrap its value. */ // implicitly unwrapped optional @@ -92,6 +94,8 @@ var unwrappedString: String! = "Value is expected." // same as above, but ! is a postfix operator (more syntax candy) var unwrappedString2: ImplicitlyUnwrappedOptional<String> = "Value is expected." +// If let structure - +// If let is a special structure in Swift that allows you to check if an Optional rhs holds a value, and in case it does - unwraps and assigns it to the lhs. if let someOptionalStringConstant = someOptionalString { // has `Some` value, non-nil if !someOptionalStringConstant.hasPrefix("ok") { @@ -118,8 +122,8 @@ anyObjectVar = "Changed value to a string, not good practice, but possible." // /* - Array and Dictionary types are structs. So `let` and `var` also indicate - that they are mutable (var) or immutable (let) when declaring these types. +Array and Dictionary types are structs. So `let` and `var` also indicate +that they are mutable (var) or immutable (let) when declaring these types. */ // Array @@ -128,6 +132,7 @@ shoppingList[1] = "bottle of water" let emptyArray = [String]() // let == immutable let emptyArray2 = Array<String>() // same as above var emptyMutableArray = [String]() // var == mutable +var explicitEmptyMutableStringArray: [String] = [] // same as above // Dictionary @@ -139,12 +144,21 @@ occupations["Jayne"] = "Public Relations" let emptyDictionary = [String: Float]() // let == immutable let emptyDictionary2 = Dictionary<String, Float>() // same as above var emptyMutableDictionary = [String: Float]() // var == mutable +var explicitEmptyMutableDictionary: [String: Float] = [:] // same as above // // MARK: Control Flow // +// Condition statements support "where" clauses, which can be used +// to help provide conditions on optional values. +// Both the assignment and the "where" clause must pass. +let someNumber = Optional<Int>(7) +if let num = someNumber where num > 3 { + print("num is greater than 3") +} + // for loop (array) let myArray = [1, 1, 2, 3, 5] for value in myArray { @@ -174,8 +188,8 @@ while i < 1000 { i *= 2 } -// do-while loop -do { +// repeat-while loop +repeat { print("hello") } while 1 == 2 @@ -194,7 +208,6 @@ default: // required (in order to cover all possible input) let vegetableComment = "Everything tastes good in soup." } - // // MARK: Functions // @@ -202,28 +215,28 @@ default: // required (in order to cover all possible input) // Functions are a first-class type, meaning they can be nested // in functions and can be passed around -// Function with Swift header docs (format as reStructedText) +// Function with Swift header docs (format as Swift-modified Markdown syntax) /** - A greet operation +A greet operation - - A bullet in docs - - Another bullet in the docs +- A bullet in docs +- Another bullet in the docs - :param: name A name - :param: day A day - :returns: A string containing the name and day value. +- Parameter name : A name +- Parameter day : A day +- Returns : A string containing the name and day value. */ func greet(name: String, day: String) -> String { return "Hello \(name), today is \(day)." } -greet("Bob", "Tuesday") +greet("Bob", day: "Tuesday") // similar to above except for the function parameter behaviors -func greet2(#requiredName: String, externalParamName localParamName: String) -> String { +func greet2(requiredName requiredName: String, externalParamName localParamName: String) -> String { return "Hello \(requiredName), the day is \(localParamName)" } -greet2(requiredName:"John", externalParamName: "Sunday") +greet2(requiredName: "John", externalParamName: "Sunday") // Function that returns multiple items in a tuple func getGasPrices() -> (Double, Double, Double) { @@ -236,11 +249,33 @@ let (_, price1, _) = pricesTuple // price1 == 3.69 print(price1 == pricesTuple.1) // true print("Gas price: \(price)") +// Labeled/named tuple params +func getGasPrices2() -> (lowestPrice: Double, highestPrice: Double, midPrice: Double) { + return (1.77, 37.70, 7.37) +} +let pricesTuple2 = getGasPrices2() +let price2 = pricesTuple2.lowestPrice +let (_, price3, _) = pricesTuple2 +print(pricesTuple2.highestPrice == pricesTuple2.1) // true +print("Highest gas price: \(pricesTuple2.highestPrice)") + +// guard statements +func testGuard() { + // guards provide early exits or breaks, placing the error handler code near the conditions. + // it places variables it declares in the same scope as the guard statement. + guard let aNumber = Optional<Int>(7) else { + return + } + + print("number is \(aNumber)") +} +testGuard() + // Variadic Args func setup(numbers: Int...) { // its an array - let number = numbers[0] - let argCount = numbers.count + let _ = numbers[0] + let _ = numbers.count } // Passing and returning functions @@ -261,7 +296,7 @@ func swapTwoInts(inout a: Int, inout b: Int) { } var someIntA = 7 var someIntB = 3 -swapTwoInts(&someIntA, &someIntB) +swapTwoInts(&someIntA, b: &someIntB) print(someIntB) // 7 @@ -289,23 +324,17 @@ numbers = numbers.map({ number in 3 * number }) print(numbers) // [3, 6, 18] // Trailing closure -numbers = sorted(numbers) { $0 > $1 } +numbers = numbers.sort { $0 > $1 } print(numbers) // [18, 6, 3] -// Super shorthand, since the < operator infers the types - -numbers = sorted(numbers, < ) - -print(numbers) // [3, 6, 18] - // // MARK: Structures // // Structures and classes have very similar capabilities struct NamesTable { - let names = [String]() + let names: [String] // Custom subscript subscript(index: Int) -> String { @@ -319,6 +348,44 @@ let name = namesTable[1] print("Name is \(name)") // Name is Them // +// MARK: Error Handling +// + +// The `ErrorType` protocol is used when throwing errors to catch +enum MyError: ErrorType { + case BadValue(msg: String) + case ReallyBadValue(msg: String) +} + +// functions marked with `throws` must be called using `try` +func fakeFetch(value: Int) throws -> String { + guard 7 == value else { + throw MyError.ReallyBadValue(msg: "Some really bad value") + } + + return "test" +} + +func testTryStuff() { + // assumes there will be no error thrown, otherwise a runtime exception is raised + let _ = try! fakeFetch(7) + + // if an error is thrown, then it proceeds, but if the value is nil + // it also wraps every return value in an optional, even if its already optional + let _ = try? fakeFetch(7) + + do { + // normal try operation that provides error handling via `catch` block + try fakeFetch(1) + } catch MyError.BadValue(let msg) { + print("Error message: \(msg)") + } catch { + // must be exhaustive + } +} +testTryStuff() + +// // MARK: Classes // @@ -327,7 +394,7 @@ print("Name is \(name)") // Name is Them public class Shape { public func getArea() -> Int { - return 0; + return 0 } } @@ -349,6 +416,11 @@ internal class Rect: Shape { } } + // Computed properties must be declared as `var`, you know, cause' they can change + var smallestSideLength: Int { + return self.sideLength - 1 + } + // Lazily load a property // subShape remains nil (uninitialized) until getter called lazy var subShape = Rect(sideLength: 4) @@ -453,9 +525,10 @@ enum Suit { // when the variable is explicitly declared var suitValue: Suit = .Hearts -// Non-Integer enums require direct raw value assignments +// String enums can have direct raw value assignments +// or their raw values will be derived from the Enum field enum BookName: String { - case John = "John" + case John case Luke = "Luke" } print("Name: \(BookName.John.rawValue)") @@ -499,7 +572,7 @@ protocol ShapeGenerator { // Protocols declared with @objc allow optional functions, // which allow you to check for conformance @objc protocol TransformShape { - optional func reshaped() + optional func reshape() optional func canReshape() -> Bool } @@ -512,9 +585,9 @@ class MyShape: Rect { // Place a question mark after an optional property, method, or // subscript to gracefully ignore a nil value and return nil // instead of throwing a runtime error ("optional chaining"). - if let allow = self.delegate?.canReshape?() { + if let reshape = self.delegate?.canReshape?() where reshape { // test for delegate then for method - self.delegate?.reshaped?() + self.delegate?.reshape?() } } } @@ -526,8 +599,8 @@ class MyShape: Rect { // `extension`s: Add extra functionality to an already existing type -// Square now "conforms" to the `Printable` protocol -extension Square: Printable { +// Square now "conforms" to the `CustomStringConvertible` protocol +extension Square: CustomStringConvertible { var description: String { return "Area: \(self.getArea()) - ID: \(self.identifier)" } @@ -552,8 +625,8 @@ print(14.multiplyBy(3)) // 42 // Generics: Similar to Java and C#. Use the `where` keyword to specify the // requirements of the generics. -func findIndex<T: Equatable>(array: [T], valueToFind: T) -> Int? { - for (index, value) in enumerate(array) { +func findIndex<T: Equatable>(array: [T], _ valueToFind: T) -> Int? { + for (index, value) in array.enumerate() { if value == valueToFind { return index } diff --git a/ta_in/css.html.markdown b/ta_in/css-ta.html.markdown index 56f94ed0..cbe88f1e 100644 --- a/ta_in/css.html.markdown +++ b/ta_in/css-ta.html.markdown @@ -7,9 +7,9 @@ contributors: - ["Connor Shea", "https://github.com/connorshea"] - ["Deepanshu Utkarsh", "https://github.com/duci9y"] translators: - - ["Rasendran Kirushan", "https://github.com/kirushanr"] -filename: learncss.css -lang:in-ta + - ["Rasendran Kirushan", "https://github.com/kirushanr"] +filename: learncss-ta.css +lang: in-ta --- diff --git a/ta_in/javascript.html.markdown b/ta_in/javascript-ta.html.markdown index f0b0a36a..d3fe5a85 100644 --- a/ta_in/javascript.html.markdown +++ b/ta_in/javascript-ta.html.markdown @@ -5,8 +5,8 @@ contributors: - ['Ariel Krakowski', 'http://www.learneroo.com'] translators: - ["Rasendran Kirushan", "https://github.com/kirushanr"] -filename: javascript.js -lang:in-ta +filename: javascript-ta.js +lang: in-ta --- javascript 1995 ஆம் ஆண்டு Netscape இல் பணிபுரிந்த Brendan Eich diff --git a/ta_in/json.html.markdown b/ta_in/json-ta.html.markdown index d85e0d82..d85e0d82 100644 --- a/ta_in/json.html.markdown +++ b/ta_in/json-ta.html.markdown diff --git a/ta_in/xml.html.markdown b/ta_in/xml-ta.html.markdown index a9bfa9cd..d782399d 100644 --- a/ta_in/xml.html.markdown +++ b/ta_in/xml-ta.html.markdown @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ --- language: xml -filename: learnxml.xml +filename: learnxml-ta.xml contributors: - ["João Farias", "https://github.com/JoaoGFarias"] translators: - ["Rasendran Kirushan", "https://github.com/kirushanr"] -lang:in-ta +lang: in-ta --- diff --git a/tmux.html.markdown b/tmux.html.markdown index 868302a8..c9e3db6b 100644 --- a/tmux.html.markdown +++ b/tmux.html.markdown @@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ filename: LearnTmux.txt --- -[tmux](http://tmux.sourceforge.net) +[tmux](http://tmux.github.io) is a terminal multiplexer: it enables a number of terminals to be created, accessed, and controlled from a single screen. tmux may be detached from a screen and continue running in the background @@ -240,7 +240,7 @@ set -g status-right "#[fg=green] | #[fg=white]#(tmux-mem-cpu-load)#[fg=green] | ### References -[Tmux | Home](http://tmux.sourceforge.net) +[Tmux | Home](http://tmux.github.io) [Tmux Manual page](http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi/OpenBSD-current/man1/tmux.1?query=tmux) diff --git a/tr-tr/brainfuck-tr.html.markdown b/tr-tr/bf-tr.html.markdown index baca4217..e7015cd0 100644 --- a/tr-tr/brainfuck-tr.html.markdown +++ b/tr-tr/bf-tr.html.markdown @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ --- -language: brainfuck +language: bf filename: brainfuck-tr contributors: - ["Prajit Ramachandran", "http://prajitr.github.io"] @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ gözardı edilir. Brainfuck 30,000 hücresi olan ve ilk değerleri sıfır olarak atanmış bir dizidir. İşaretçi ilk hücreyi işaret eder. -Sekik komut vardır: +Sekiz komut vardır: + : Geçerli hücrenin değerini bir artırır. - : Geçerli hücrenin değerini bir azaltır. > : Veri işaretçisini bir sonraki hücreye hareket ettirir(sağdaki hücreye). diff --git a/tr-tr/c-tr.html.markdown b/tr-tr/c-tr.html.markdown index 128901de..2d4240ed 100644 --- a/tr-tr/c-tr.html.markdown +++ b/tr-tr/c-tr.html.markdown @@ -91,9 +91,9 @@ int main() { // Örneğin, printf("%lu\n", sizeof(int)); // => 4 (bir çok makinede 4-byte words) - // If the argument of the `sizeof` operator an expression, then its argument - // is not evaluated (except VLAs (see below)). - // The value it yields in this case is a compile-time constant. + // Eger arguman düzenli ifae olan sizeof operatoru ise degerlendirilmez. + // VLAs hariç asagiya bakiniz). + // Bu durumda verimliligin degeri derleme-zamani sabitidir. int a = 1; // size_t bir objeyi temsil etmek için kullanılan 2 byte uzunluğundaki bir @@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ int main() { size_t size = sizeof(a++); // a++ is not evaluated printf("sizeof(a++) = %zu where a = %d\n", size, a); - // prints "sizeof(a++) = 4 where a = 1" (on a 32-bit architecture) + // yazdirilan "sizeof(a++) = 4 where a = 1" (32-bit mimaride) // Diziler somut bir boyut ile oluşturulmalıdır. char my_char_array[20]; // Bu dizi 1 * 20 = 20 byte alan kaplar @@ -119,19 +119,19 @@ int main() { my_array[1] = 2; printf("%d\n", my_array[1]); // => 2 - // In C99 (and as an optional feature in C11), variable-length arrays (VLAs) - // can be declared as well. The size of such an array need not be a compile - // time constant: - printf("Enter the array size: "); // ask the user for an array size + // C99'da (ve C11 istege bagli bir ozellik olarak), değidken-uzunluklu diziler (VLAs) bildirilebilirler. + // Böyle bir dizinin boyuunu derlenmesi gerekmez + // zaman sabiti: + printf("Enter the array size: "); // dizi boyutu kullaniciya soruluyor char buf[0x100]; fgets(buf, sizeof buf, stdin); - // strtoul parses a string to an unsigned integer + // strtoul isaretsiz integerlar icin string ayiricisidir. size_t size = strtoul(buf, NULL, 10); int var_length_array[size]; // declare the VLA printf("sizeof array = %zu\n", sizeof var_length_array); - // A possible outcome of this program may be: + // Bu programın olası bir sonucu olabilir: // > Enter the array size: 10 // > sizeof array = 40 @@ -151,8 +151,8 @@ int main() { printf("%d\n", a_string[16]); // => 0 // i.e., byte #17 is 0 (as are 18, 19, and 20) - // If we have characters between single quotes, that's a character literal. - // It's of type `int`, and *not* `char` (for historical reasons). + // Tek tirnak arasinda karakterlere sahipsek, bu karakterler degismezdir. + // Tip `int` ise, `char` *degildir* (tarihsel sebeplerle). int cha = 'a'; // fine char chb = 'a'; // fine too (implicit conversion from int to char) @@ -201,10 +201,10 @@ int main() { 0x01 << 1; // => 0x02 (bitwise left shift (by 1)) 0x02 >> 1; // => 0x01 (bitwise right shift (by 1)) - // Be careful when shifting signed integers - the following are undefined: - // - shifting into the sign bit of a signed integer (int a = 1 << 32) - // - left-shifting a negative number (int a = -1 << 2) - // - shifting by an offset which is >= the width of the type of the LHS: + // Isaretli sayilari kaydirirken dikkatli olun - tanimsizlar sunlardir: + // - isaretli sayinin isaret bitinde yapilan kaydirma (int a = 1 << 32) + // - negatif sayilarda sol kaydirma (int a = -1 << 2) + // - LHS tipinde >= ile olan ofset genisletmelerde yapilan kaydirma: // int a = 1 << 32; // UB if int is 32 bits wide /////////////////////////////////////// @@ -485,4 +485,4 @@ Readable code is better than clever code and fast code. For a good, sane coding Diğer taraftan google sizin için bir arkadaş olabilir. -[1] http://stackoverflow.com/questions/119123/why-isnt-sizeof-for-a-struct-equal-to-the-sum-of-sizeof-of-each-member
\ No newline at end of file +[1] http://stackoverflow.com/questions/119123/why-isnt-sizeof-for-a-struct-equal-to-the-sum-of-sizeof-of-each-member diff --git a/tr-tr/markdown-tr.html.markdown b/tr-tr/markdown-tr.html.markdown index bac8f6fc..b8f11e39 100644 --- a/tr-tr/markdown-tr.html.markdown +++ b/tr-tr/markdown-tr.html.markdown @@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ __Bu yazı da kalın.__ **_Bu da öyle!_** *__Hatta bu bile!__* -<!-- Github Flavored Markdown'da ayrıca üstü çizgili karakter de desteklenir: --> +<!-- GitHub Flavored Markdown'da ayrıca üstü çizgili karakter de desteklenir: --> ~~Bu yazı üstü çizili olarak gözükecek.~~ <!-- Paragraflar bir veya daha fazla boş satırla ayrılır. --> @@ -151,7 +151,7 @@ kullanabilirsiniz --> Ahmet `go_to()` fonksiyonun ne yaptığını bilmiyor! -<!-- Github Flavored Markdown'da, kod içerisinde aydınlatma kullanabilirsiniz --> +<!-- GitHub Flavored Markdown'da, kod içerisinde aydınlatma kullanabilirsiniz --> \`\`\`ruby <!-- buradaki ters slaş (\) işaretlerini kullanmayın, sadece ```ruby ! --> def foobar @@ -159,7 +159,7 @@ def foobar end \`\`\` <!-- burada da (\) işaretlerini kullanmayın, sadece ``` --> -<!-- Yukarıdaki örnekte girinti kullanmanıza gerek yok, Github da +<!-- Yukarıdaki örnekte girinti kullanmanıza gerek yok, GitHub da ``` işaretinden sonra belirttiğiniz yazılım diline göre gerekli syntax aydınlatmaları uygulanacaktır --> @@ -230,7 +230,7 @@ Bu yazının *yıldızlar arasında gözükmesini* istiyorum fakat italik olmama bunun için, şu şekilde: \*bu yazı italik değil, yıldızlar arasında\*. <!-- Tablolar --> -<!-- Tablolar sadece Github Flavored Markdown'da destekleniyor ve açıkçası +<!-- Tablolar sadece GitHub Flavored Markdown'da destekleniyor ve açıkçası performansı çok yoruyorlar, fakat illa ki kullanmak isterseniz: --> | Sütun1 | Sütun 2 | Sütün 3 | diff --git a/tr-tr/python3-tr.html.markdown b/tr-tr/python3-tr.html.markdown index 2477c5da..c7de2922 100644 --- a/tr-tr/python3-tr.html.markdown +++ b/tr-tr/python3-tr.html.markdown @@ -538,7 +538,7 @@ Insan.grunt() # => "*grunt*" # Modülleri içe aktarabilirsiniz import math -print(math.sqrt(16)) # => 4 +print(math.sqrt(16)) # => 4.0 # Modülden belirli bir fonksiyonları alabilirsiniz from math import ceil, floor diff --git a/tr-tr/swift-tr.html.markdown b/tr-tr/swift-tr.html.markdown index c13f5ecf..15056bb8 100644 --- a/tr-tr/swift-tr.html.markdown +++ b/tr-tr/swift-tr.html.markdown @@ -25,14 +25,14 @@ import UIKit //XCode işaretlemelerle kodunuzu bölümlere ayırmanızı ve sağ üstteki metot - listesinde gruplama yapmanıza olanak sağlıyor +//listesinde gruplama yapmanıza olanak sağlıyor // MARK: Bölüm işareti // TODO: Daha sonra yapılacak // FIXME: Bu kodu düzelt -//Swift 2 de, println ve print metotları print komutunda birleştirildi. Print - otomatik olarak yeni satır ekliyor. +//Swift 2 de, println ve print metotları print komutunda birleştirildi. +//Print otomatik olarak yeni satır ekliyor. print("Merhaba dünya") // println print olarak kullanılıyor. print("Merhaba dünya", appendNewLine: false) // yeni bir satır eklemeden yazar. @@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ print("Build degiskeni: \(buildDegiskeni)") // Build degeri: 7 */ var baziOptionalString: String? = "optional" // nil olabilir. // yukarıdakiyle aynı ama ? bir postfix (sona eklenir) operatördür. (kolay -okunabilir) +//okunabilir) var someOptionalString2: Optional<String> = "optional" @@ -104,7 +104,8 @@ if let baziOpsiyonelSabitString = baziOptionalString { // Swift değişkenlerde herhangi bir tip saklanabilir. // AnyObject == id // Objective-C deki `id` den farklı olarak, AnyObject tüm değişkenlerle - çalışabilir (Class, Int, struct, etc) +//çalışabilir +(Class, Int, struct, etc) var herhangiBirObject: AnyObject = 7 herhangiBirObject = "Değer string olarak değişti, iyi bir yöntem değil ama mümkün" @@ -234,7 +235,7 @@ func fiyatlariGetir() -> (Double, Double, Double) { let fiyatTuple = fiyatlariGetir() let fiyat = fiyatTuple.2 // 3.79 // _ (alt çizgi) kullanımı Tuple degerlerini veya diğer değerleri görmezden -gelir +//gelir let (_, fiyat1, _) = fiyatTuple // fiyat1 == 3.69 print(fiyat1 == fiyatTuple.1) // true print("Benzin fiyatı: \(fiyat)") diff --git a/typescript.html.markdown b/typescript.html.markdown index e9135510..47e41405 100644 --- a/typescript.html.markdown +++ b/typescript.html.markdown @@ -83,23 +83,23 @@ mySearch = function(src: string, sub: string) { // Classes - members are public by default class Point { // Properties - x: number; + x: number; - // Constructor - the public/private keywords in this context will generate - // the boiler plate code for the property and the initialization in the - // constructor. - // In this example, "y" will be defined just like "x" is, but with less code - // Default values are also supported + // Constructor - the public/private keywords in this context will generate + // the boiler plate code for the property and the initialization in the + // constructor. + // In this example, "y" will be defined just like "x" is, but with less code + // Default values are also supported - constructor(x: number, public y: number = 0) { - this.x = x; - } + constructor(x: number, public y: number = 0) { + this.x = x; + } - // Functions - dist() { return Math.sqrt(this.x * this.x + this.y * this.y); } + // Functions + dist() { return Math.sqrt(this.x * this.x + this.y * this.y); } - // Static members - static origin = new Point(0, 0); + // Static members + static origin = new Point(0, 0); } var p1 = new Point(10 ,20); @@ -107,15 +107,15 @@ var p2 = new Point(25); //y will be 0 // Inheritance class Point3D extends Point { - constructor(x: number, y: number, public z: number = 0) { - super(x, y); // Explicit call to the super class constructor is mandatory - } + constructor(x: number, y: number, public z: number = 0) { + super(x, y); // Explicit call to the super class constructor is mandatory + } - // Overwrite - dist() { - var d = super.dist(); - return Math.sqrt(d * d + this.z * this.z); - } + // Overwrite + dist() { + var d = super.dist(); + return Math.sqrt(d * d + this.z * this.z); + } } // Modules, "." can be used as separator for sub modules @@ -139,19 +139,19 @@ var s2 = new G.Square(10); // Generics // Classes class Tuple<T1, T2> { - constructor(public item1: T1, public item2: T2) { - } + constructor(public item1: T1, public item2: T2) { + } } // Interfaces interface Pair<T> { - item1: T; - item2: T; + item1: T; + item2: T; } // And functions var pairToTuple = function<T>(p: Pair<T>) { - return new Tuple(p.item1, p.item2); + return new Tuple(p.item1, p.item2); }; var tuple = pairToTuple({ item1:"hello", item2:"world"}); @@ -159,6 +159,14 @@ var tuple = pairToTuple({ item1:"hello", item2:"world"}); // Including references to a definition file: /// <reference path="jquery.d.ts" /> +// Template Strings (strings that use backticks) +// String Interpolation with Template Strings +var name = 'Tyrone'; +var greeting = `Hi ${name}, how are you?` +// Multiline Strings with Template Strings +var multiline = `This is an example +of a multiline string`; + ``` ## Further Reading diff --git a/uk-ua/bash-ua.html.markdown b/uk-ua/bash-ua.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..b7e4a5ba --- /dev/null +++ b/uk-ua/bash-ua.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,296 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: bash +contributors: + - ["Max Yankov", "https://github.com/golergka"] + - ["Darren Lin", "https://github.com/CogBear"] + - ["Alexandre Medeiros", "http://alemedeiros.sdf.org"] + - ["Denis Arh", "https://github.com/darh"] + - ["akirahirose", "https://twitter.com/akirahirose"] + - ["Anton Strömkvist", "http://lutic.org/"] + - ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"] + - ["Gregrory Kielian", "https://github.com/gskielian"] + - ["Etan Reisner", "https://github.com/deryni"] +translators: + - ["Ehreshi Ivan", "https://github.com/IvanEh"] +lang: uk-ua +--- + +Bash - командна оболонка unix (unix shell), що також розповсюджувалась як оболонка для +операційної системи GNU і зараз використовується як командна оболонка за замовчуванням +для Linux i Max OS X. +Почти все нижеприведенные примеры могут быть частью shell-скриптов или исполнены напрямую в shell. +Майже всі приклади, що наведені нижче можуть бути частиною shell-скриптів або +виконані в оболонці + +[Більш детально тут.](http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/bashref.html) + +```bash +#!/bin/bash +# Перший рядок скрипта - це shebang, який вказує системі, як потрібно виконувати +# скрипт. Як ви вже зрозуміли, коментарі починаються з #. Shebang - тоже коментар + +# Простий приклад hello world: +echo Hello world! + +# Окремі команди починаються з нового рядка або розділяються крапкою з комкою: +echo 'Перший рядок'; echo 'Другий рядок' + +# Оголошення змінної +VARIABLE="Просто рядок" + +# Але не так! +VARIABLE = "Просто рядок" +# Bash вирішить, що VARIABLE - це команда, яку він може виконати, +# і видасть помилку, тому що не зможе знайти її + +# І так також не можна писати: +VARIABLE= 'Просто рядок' +# Bash сприйме рядок 'Просто рядок' як команду. Але такої команди не має, тому +# видасть помилку. +# (тут 'VARIABLE=' інтерпретується як присвоєння тільки в контексті +# виконання команди 'Просто рядок') + +# Використання змінних: +echo $VARIABLE +echo "$VARIABLE" +echo '$VARIABLE' +# Коли ви використовуєте змінну - присвоюєте значення, експортуєте і т.д. - +# пишіть її імя без $. А для отримання значення змінної використовуйте $. +# Одинарні лапки ' не розкривають значення змінних + +# Підстановка рядків в змінні +echo ${VARIABLE/Просто/A} +# Цей вираз замінить перше входження підрядка "Просто" на "А" + +# Отримання підрядка із рядка +LENGTH=7 +echo ${VARIABLE:0:LENGTH} +# Цей вираз поверне тільки перші 7 символів змінної VARIABLE + +# Значення за замовчуванням +echo ${FOO:-"DefaultValueIfFOOIsMissingOrEmpty"} +# Це спрацює при відсутності значення (FOO=) і при пустому рядку (FOO="") +# Нуль (FOO=0) поверне 0. +# Зауважте, що у всіх випадках значення самої змінної FOO не зміниться + +# Вбудовані змінні: +# В bash є корисні вбудовані змінні, наприклад +echo "Значення, яке було повернуте в останній раз: $?" +echo "PID скрипта: $$" +echo "Кількість аргументів: $#" +echo "Аргументи скрипта: $@" +echo "Аргументи скрипта, розподілені по різним змінним: $1 $2..." + +# Зчитування змінних з пристроїв введення +echo "Як вас звати?" +read NAME # Зверніть увагу, що вам не потрібно оголошувати нову змінну +echo Привіт, $NAME! + +# В bash є звичайна умовна конструкція if: +# наберіть 'man test', щоб переглянути детальну інформацію про формати умов +if [ $NAME -ne $USER ] +then + echo "Ім’я користувача не збігається з введеним" +else + echo "Ім’я збігаєтьяс з іменем користувача" +fi + +# Зауважте! якщо $Name пуста, bash інтерпретує код вище як: +if [ -ne $USER ] +# що є неправильним синтаксисом +# тому безпечний спосіб використання потенційно пустих змінних має вигляд: +if [ "$Name" -ne $USER ] ... +# коли $Name пуста, інтерпретується наступним чином: +if [ "" -ne $USER ] ... +# що працює як і очікувалося + +# Умовне виконання (conditional execution) +echo "Виконується завжди" || echo "Виконається, якщо перша команда завершиться з помилкою" +echo "Виконується завжди" && echo "Виконається, якщо перша команда завершиться успішно" + +# Щоб використати && і || у конструкції if, потрібно декілька пар дужок: +if [ $NAME == "Steve" ] && [ $AGE -eq 15 ] +then + echo "Виконається, якщо $NAME="Steve" i AGE=15." +fi + +if [ $NAME == "Daniya" ] || [ $NAME == "Zach" ] +then + echo "Виконається, якщо NAME="Steve" або NAME="Zach"." +fi + +# Вирази позначаються наступним форматом: +echo $(( 10 + 5 )) + +# На відмінно від інших мов програмування, Bash - це командна оболонка, а +# отже, працює в контексті поточної директорії +ls + +# Ця команда може використовуватися з опціями +ls -l # Показати кожен файл і директорію на окремому рядку + +# Результат попередньої команди можна перенаправити на вхід наступної. +# Команда grep фільтрує вхід по шаблону. +# Таким чином ми можемо переглянути тільки *.txt файли в поточній директорії: +ls -l | grep "\.txt" + +# Ви можете перенаправ вхід і вихід команди (stdin, stdout, stderr). +# Наступна команда означає: читати із stdin, поки не зустрінеться ^EOF$, і +# перезаписати hello.py наступними рядками (до рядка "EOF"): +cat > hello.py << EOF +#!/usr/bin/env python +from __future__ import print_function +import sys +print("#stdout", file=sys.stdout) +print("#stderr", file=sys.stderr) +for line in sys.stdin: + print(line, file=sys.stdout) +EOF + +# Запуск hello.py з різними варіантами перенаправлення stdin, +# stdout, stderr (стандартні потоки введення, виведення і помилок): +python hello.py < "input.in" +python hello.py > "output.out" +python hello.py 2> "error.err" +python hello.py > "output-and-error.log" 2>&1 +python hello.py > /dev/null 2>&1 +# Поток помилок перезапише фпйл, якщо цей файл існує +# тому, якщо ви хочете дописувати до файлу, використовуйте ">>": +python hello.py >> "output.out" 2>> "error.err" + +# Перезаписати output.txt, дописати error.err і порахувати кількість рядків: +info bash 'Basic Shell Features' 'Redirections' > output.out 2>> error.err +wc -l output.out error.err + +# Запустити команду і вивести її файловий дескриптор (див.: man fd; наприклад /dev/fd/123) +echo <(echo "#helloworld") + +# Перезаписати output.txt рядком "#helloworld": +cat > output.out <(echo "#helloworld") +echo "#helloworld" > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | cat > output.out +echo "#helloworld" | tee output.out >/dev/null + +# Подчистить временные файлы с подробным выводом ('-i' - интерактивый режим) +# Очистити тимчасові файли з детальним виводом (додайте '-i' +# для інтерактивного режиму) +rm -v output.out error.err output-and-error.log + +# Команди можуть бути підставлені в інші команди використовуючи $(): +# наступна команда виводить кількість файлів і директорій в поточній директорії +echo "Тут $(ls | wc -l) елементів." + +# Те саме можна зробити використовуючи зворотні лапки +# Але вони не можуть бути вкладеними, тому перший варіант бажаніший +echo "Тут `ls | wc -l` елементів." + +# В Bash є структура case, яка схожа на switch в Java и C++: +case "$VARIABLE" in + # перерахуйте шаблони, які будуть використовуватися в якості умов + 0) echo "Тут нуль.";; + 1) echo "Тут один.";; + *) echo "Не пусте значення.";; +esac + +# Цикл for перебирає елементи передані в аргумент: +# Значення $VARIABLE буде напечатано тричі. +for VARIABLE in {1..3} +do + echo "$VARIABLE" +done + +# Aбо можна використати звичний синтаксис for: +for ((a=1; a <= 3; a++)) +do + echo $a +done + +# Цикл for можно використати, щоб виконувати дії над файлами. +# Цей код запустить команду 'cat' для файлів file1 и file2 +for VARIABLE in file1 file2 +do + cat "$VARIABLE" +done + +# ... або дії над виводом команд +# Запустимо cat для виведення із ls. +for OUTPUT in $(ls) +do + cat "$OUTPUT" +done + +# Цикл while: +while [ true ] +do + echo "Тіло циклу..." + break +done + +# Ви також можете оголосити функцію +# Оголошення: +function foo () +{ + echo "Аргументи функції доступні так само, як і аргументи скрипта: $@" + echo "$1 $2..." + echo "Це функція" + return 0 +} + +# Або просто +bar () +{ + echo "Інший спосіб оголошення функцій!" + return 0 +} + +# Виклик функцій +foo "Мое имя" $NAME + +# Є багато корисних команд: +# вивести останні 10 рядків файла file.txt +tail -n 10 file.txt +# вивести перші 10 рядків файла file.txt +head -n 10 file.txt +# відсортувати рядки file.txt +sort file.txt +# відібрати або пропустити рядки, що дублюються (з опцією -d відбирає) +uniq -d file.txt +# вивести тільки першу колонку перед символом ',' +cut -d ',' -f 1 file.txt +# замінити кожне 'okay' на 'great' у файлі file.txt (підтримується regex) +sed -i 's/okay/great/g' file.txt +# вивести в stdout все рядки з file.txt, що задовольняють шаблону regex; +# цей приклад виводить рядки, що починаються на foo і закінчуються на bar: +grep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt +# використайте опцію -c, щоб вивести кількість входжень +grep -c "^foo.*bar$" file.txt +# чтобы искать по строке, а не шаблону regex, используйте fgrep (или grep -F) +# щоб здійснити пошук по рядку, а не по шаблону regex, використовуйте fgrea (або grep -F) +fgrep "^foo.*bar$" file.txt + +# Читайте вбудовану документацію Bash командою 'help': +help +help help +help for +help return +help source +help . + +# Читайте Bash man-документацію +apropos bash +man 1 bash +man bash + +# Читайте документацію info (? для допомоги) +apropos info | grep '^info.*(' +man info +info info +info 5 info + +# Читайте bash info документацію: +info bash +info bash 'Bash Features' +info bash 6 +info --apropos bash +``` diff --git a/uk-ua/java-ua.html.markdown b/uk-ua/java-ua.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..1ea30f3d --- /dev/null +++ b/uk-ua/java-ua.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,783 @@ +--- +language: java +contributors: + - ["Jake Prather", "http://github.com/JakeHP"] + - ["Jakukyo Friel", "http://weakish.github.io"] + - ["Madison Dickson", "http://github.com/mix3d"] + - ["Simon Morgan", "http://sjm.io/"] + - ["Zachary Ferguson", "http://github.com/zfergus2"] + - ["Cameron Schermerhorn", "http://github.com/cschermerhorn"] + - ["Rachel Stiyer", "https://github.com/rstiyer"] +translators: + - ["Oleksandr Tatarchuk", "https://github.com/tatarchuk"] + - ["Andre Polykanine", "https://github.com/Oire"] +filename: LearnJavaUa.java +lang: uk-ua +--- + +Java є об’єктно-орієнтованою мовою програмування загального призначення з підтримкою паралельного програмування, яка базується на класах. +[Детальніше читайте тут, англ.](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/) + +```java +// Однорядковий коментар починається з // +/* +Багаторядковий коментар виглядає так. +*/ +/** +JavaDoc-коментар виглядає так. Використовується для опису класу та членів класу. +*/ + +// Імпорт класу ArrayList з пакета java.util +import java.util.ArrayList; +// Імпорт усіх класів з пакета java.security +import java.security.*; + +// Кожний .java файл містить один зовнішній публічний клас, ім’я якого співпадає +// з іменем файлу. +public class LearnJava { + + // Для запуску програма, написана на java, повинна мати точку входу у вигляді методу main. + public static void main (String[] args) { + + // Використання System.out.println() для виводу на друк рядків. + System.out.println("Привіт, світе!"); + System.out.println( + " Ціле число: " + 10 + + " Число з рухомою комою подвійної точности: " + 3.14 + + " Булеве значення: " + true); + + // Для друку без переходу на новий рядок використовується System.out.print(). + System.out.print("Привіт, "); + System.out.print("світе"); + + // Використання System.out.printf() для простого форматованого виводу на друк. + System.out.printf("pi = %.5f", Math.PI); // => pi = 3.14159 + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Змінні + /////////////////////////////////////// + + /* + * Оголошення змінних + */ + // Для оголошення змінних використовується формат <тип> <змінна> + int fooInt; + // Оголошення декількох змінних одного типу <тип> <ім’я1>, <ім’я2>, <ім’я3> + int fooInt1, fooInt2, fooInt3; + + /* + * Ініціалізація змінних + */ + + // Ініціалізація змінної з використанням формату <тип> <ім’я> = <значення> + int fooInt = 1; + // Ініціалізація декількох змінних одного типу з одним значенням <тип> <ім’я1>, <ім’я2>, <ім’я3> = <значення> + int fooInt1, fooInt2, fooInt3; + fooInt1 = fooInt2 = fooInt3 = 1; + + /* + * Типи змінних + */ + // Байт — 8-бітне ціле число зі знаком + // (-128 <= byte <= 127) + byte fooByte = 100; + + // Short — 16-бітне ціле число зі знаком + // (-32 768 <= short <= 32 767) + short fooShort = 10000; + + // Integer — 32-бітне ціле число зі знаком + // (-2 147 483 648 <= int <= 2 147 483 647) + int fooInt = 1; + + // Long — 64-бітне ціле число зі знаком + // (-9 223 372 036 854 775 808 <= long <= 9 223 372 036 854 775 807) + long fooLong = 100000L; + // L використовується для позначення того, що число має тип Long; + // інакше число буде трактуватись як integer. + + // Примітка: Java не має беззнакових типів. + + // Float — 32-бітне число з рухомою комою одиничної точності за стандартом IEEE 754 + // 2^-149 <= float <= (2-2^-23) * 2^127 + float fooFloat = 234.5f; + // f або F використовується для позначення того, що змінна має тип float; + // інакше трактується як double. + + // Double — 64-бітне число з рухомою комою подвійної точності за стандартом IEEE 754 + // 2^-1074 <= x <= (2-2^-52) * 2^1023 + double fooDouble = 123.4; + + // Boolean — true & false (істина чи хиба) + boolean fooBoolean = true; + boolean barBoolean = false; + + // Char — 16-бітний символ Unicode + char fooChar = 'A'; + + // final - посилання на такі змінні не можуть бути присвоєні іншим об’єктам, + final int HOURS_I_WORK_PER_WEEK = 9001; + // але вони можуть мати відкладену ініціалізацію. + final double E; + E = 2.71828; + + + // BigInteger -Незмінні знакові цілі числа довільної точності + // + // BigInteger є типом даних, який дає можливість розробнику виконувати операції + // з цілими числами, розрядність яких більша за 64 біти. Числа зберігаються у масиві + // байтів, операції над ними виконуються функціями, які мають клас BigInteger + // + // BigInteger можна ініціалізувати, використовуючи масив байтів чи рядок. + + BigInteger fooBigInteger = new BigInteger(fooByteArray); + + + // BigDecimal — Незмінні знакові дробові числа довільної точності + // + // BigDecimal складається з двох частин: цілого числа довільної точності + // з немасштабованим значенням та 32-бітного масштабованого цілого числа + // + // BigDecimal дозволяє розробникам контролювати десяткове округлення. + // Рекомендовано використовувати BigDecimal зі значеннями валют + // і там, де необхідна точність дробових обчислень. + // + // BigDecimal може бути ініціалізований типами даних int, long, double або String + // чи немасштабованим значенням (BigInteger) і масштабованим значенням (int). + + BigDecimal fooBigDecimal = new BigDecimal(fooBigInteger, fooInt); + + // Для дотримання заданої точності рекомендується використовувати + // конструктор, який приймає String + + BigDecimal tenCents = new BigDecimal("0.1"); + + + // Рядки + String fooString = "Це мій рядок!"; + + // \n є символом переходу на новий рядок + String barString = "Друк з нового рядка?\nНема питань!"; + // \t — це символ табуляції + String bazString = "Хочете додати табуляцію?\tТримайте!"; + System.out.println(fooString); + System.out.println(barString); + System.out.println(bazString); + + // Масиви + // Розмір масиву має бути визначений перед ініціалізацією + // Наведений формат ілюструє ініціалізацію масивів + // <тип даних>[] <ім’я змінної> = new <тип даних>[<розмір масиву>]; + // <тип даних> <ім’я змінної>[] = new <тип даних>[<розмір масиву>]; + int[] intArray = new int[10]; + String[] stringArray = new String[1]; + boolean boolArray[] = new boolean[100]; + + // Інший шлях оголошення та ініціалізації масиву + int[] y = {9000, 1000, 1337}; + String names[] = {"Bob", "John", "Fred", "Juan Pedro"}; + boolean bools[] = new boolean[] {true, false, false}; + + // Індексація масиву — доступ за елементами + System.out.println("intArray @ 0: " + intArray[0]); + + // Масиви є змінними та мають нульовий елемент. + intArray[1] = 1; + System.out.println("intArray @ 1: " + intArray[1]); // => 1 + + // Додатково + // ArrayLists — Схожі на масив, але мають більший функціонал та змінний розмір. + // LinkedLists — Реалізація двозв’язного списку. Всі операції + // виконуються так, як очікується від + // двозв’язного списку. + // Maps — Множина об’єктів, які пов’язують ключ зі значенням. Map є + // інтерфейсом, тому не може бути успадкований. + // Типи ключів і значень, які зберігаються в Map, мають + // вказуватись у класі, який його реалізує. + // Ключ не може повторюватись і пов’язаний лише з одним значенням + // HashMaps — Цей клас використовує хеш-таблицю для реалізації інтерфейсу Map. + // Це дозволяє виконувати певні операції, + // такі, як отримання та вставка елемента, + // залишаючись постійними навіть для великої кількості елементів. + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Оператори + /////////////////////////////////////// + System.out.println("\n->Оператори"); + + int i1 = 1, i2 = 2; // Коротка форма присвоєння + + // Арифметичні операції виконуються очевидним способом + System.out.println("1+2 = " + (i1 + i2)); // => 3 + System.out.println("2-1 = " + (i2 - i1)); // => 1 + System.out.println("2*1 = " + (i2 * i1)); // => 2 + System.out.println("1/2 = " + (i1 / i2)); // => 0 (int/int повертається як int) + System.out.println("1/2 = " + (i1 / (double)i2)); // => 0.5 + + // Ділення з остачею + System.out.println("11%3 = "+(11 % 3)); // => 2 + + // Оператори порівняння + System.out.println("3 == 2? " + (3 == 2)); // => false + System.out.println("3 != 2? " + (3 != 2)); // => true + System.out.println("3 > 2? " + (3 > 2)); // => true + System.out.println("3 < 2? " + (3 < 2)); // => false + System.out.println("2 <= 2? " + (2 <= 2)); // => true + System.out.println("2 >= 2? " + (2 >= 2)); // => true + + // Логічні оператори + System.out.println("3 > 2 && 2 > 3? " + ((3 > 2) && (2 > 3))); // => false + System.out.println("3 > 2 || 2 > 3? " + ((3 > 2) || (2 > 3))); // => true + System.out.println("!(3 == 2)? " + (!(3 == 2))); // => true + + // Бітові оператори! + /* + ~ Унарне бітове доповнення + << Знаковий зсув уліво + >> Знаковий/Арифметичний зсув управо + >>> Беззнаковий/Логічний зсув управо + & Бітове І + ^ Бітови виключне АБО + | Бітове АБО + */ + + // Інкремент + int i = 0; + System.out.println("\n->Інкремент/Декремент"); + // Оператори ++ і -- здійснюють інкремент та декремент ретроспективно. + // Якщо вони розташовані перед змінною, операція виконається перед поверненням; + // якщо після неї — повернеться інкремент або декремент. + System.out.println(i++); // i = 1, друкує 0 (постінкремент) + System.out.println(++i); // i = 2, друкує 2 (преінкремент) + System.out.println(i--); // i = 1, друкує 2 (постдекремент) + System.out.println(--i); // i = 0, друкує 0 (предекремент) + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Керуючі конструкції + /////////////////////////////////////// + System.out.println("\n->Керуючі конструкції"); + + // Оператор if використовується так само, як у мові C + int j = 10; + if (j == 10) { + System.out.println("Це надрукується"); + } else if (j > 10) { + System.out.println("А це — ні"); + } else { + System.out.println("Це — також ні"); + } + + // Цикл з передумовою While + int fooWhile = 0; + while(fooWhile < 100) { + System.out.println(fooWhile); + // Інкремент лічильника + // Виконається 100 разів, fooWhile 0,1,2...99 + fooWhile++; + } + System.out.println("fooWhile Value: " + fooWhile); + + // Цикл з післяумовою Do While + int fooDoWhile = 0; + do { + System.out.println(fooDoWhile); + // Інкремент лічильника + // Виконається 99 разів, fooDoWhile 0->99 + fooDoWhile++; + } while(fooDoWhile < 100); + System.out.println("Значення fooDoWhile: " + fooDoWhile); + + // Цикл з параметром For + // структура циклу => for(<початковий стан>; <умова завершення>; <крок>) + for (int fooFor = 0; fooFor < 10; fooFor++) { + System.out.println(fooFor); + // Виконається 10 разів, fooFor 0->9 + } + System.out.println("Значення fooFor: " + fooFor); + + // Вихід із вкладеного циклу через мітку + outer: + for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) { + for (int j = 0; j < 10; j++) { + if (i == 5 && j ==5) { + break outer; + // вихід із зовнішнього циклу, а не лише внутрішнього + } + } + } + + // Цикл For Each + // Призначений для перебору масивів та колекцій + int[] fooList = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}; + + for (int bar : fooList) { + System.out.println(bar); + // Повторюється 9 разів та друкує числа від 1 до 9 на нових рядках + } + + // Оператор вибору Switch Case + // Оператор вибору працює з типами даних byte, short, char, int. + // Також працює з переліками Enum, + // класом String та класами-обгортками примітивних типів: + // Character, Byte, Short та Integer. + int month = 3; + String monthString; + switch (month) { + case 1: monthString = "Січень"; + break; + case 2: monthString = "Лютий"; + break; + case 3: monthString = "Березень"; + break; + default: monthString = "Інший місяць"; + break; + } + System.out.println("Результат Switch Case: " + monthString); + + // Починаючи з Java 7 і далі, вибір рядкових змінних здійснюється так: + String myAnswer = "можливо"; + switch(myAnswer) { + case "так": + System.out.println("Ви відповіли «Так»."); + break; + case "ні": + System.out.println("Ви відповіли «ні»."); + break; + case "можливо": + System.out.println("Ви відповіли «Можливо»."); + break; + default: + System.out.println("Ви відповіли «" + myAnswer + "»"); + break; + } + + // Тернарний оператор вибору + // Можна використовувати оператор «?» (знак питання) для визначення умови. + // Читається так: «Якщо (умова) вірна, то <перше значення>, інакше + // <друге значення>» + int foo = 5; + String bar = (foo < 10) ? "A" : "B"; + System.out.println(bar); // Надрукується А, бо умова вірна + + + //////////////////////////////////////// + // Перетворення типів + //////////////////////////////////////// + + // Перетворення String на Integer + Integer.parseInt("123");//поверне числову версію рядка "123" + + // Перетворення Integer на String + Integer.toString(123);//повертає рядкову версію 123 + + // Для інших перетворень є наступні класи: + // Double + // Long + // String + + // Приведення типів + // Тут можна прочитати про приведення об’єктів (англ.): + // http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/subclasses.html + + + /////////////////////////////////////// + // Класи та функції + /////////////////////////////////////// + + System.out.println("\n->Класи та функції"); + + // (Клас Bicycle наведений нижче) + + // Новий об’єкт класу + Bicycle trek = new Bicycle(); + + // Виклик методу об’єкта + trek.speedUp(3); // Постійно використовуються методи з назвами set і get + trek.setCadence(100); + + // toString повертає рядкове представлення об’єкту. + System.out.println("Інформація про об’єкт trek: " + trek.toString()); + + // У Java немає синтаксису для явного створення статичних колекцій. + // Це можна зробити так: + + private static final Set<String> COUNTRIES = new HashSet<String>(); + static { + validCodes.add("DENMARK"); + validCodes.add("SWEDEN"); + validCodes.add("FINLAND"); + } + + // Але є інший спосіб — ініціалізація з подвійними фігурними дужками. + + private static final Set<String> COUNTRIES = new HashSet<String>() {{ + add("DENMARK"); + add("SWEDEN"); + add("FINLAND"); + }} + + // Використовується анонімний внутрішній клас + + } // Кінець методу main +} // Кінець класу LearnJava + + +// У .java-файл можна додавати інші, не public класи зовнішнього рівня, +// але це не є хорошою практикою. Розміщуйте класи в окремих файлах. + + +// Синтаксис оголошення класу: +// <public/private/protected> class <ім’я класу> { +// // поля, конструктори, функції та ін. +// // у Java функції називаються методами. +// } + +class Bicycle { + + // Поля (змінні) класу Bicycle + public int cadence; // Public: доступно звідусіль + private int speed; // Private: доступно лише у межах класу + protected int gear; // Protected: доступно лише класові та його нащадкам + String name; // за замовчанням: доступно у даному пакеті + + static String className; // статична змінна класу + + // статичний блок + // Java не має статичних конструкторів, але + // має статичний блок ініціалізації змінних класу + // Цей блок виконується при завантаженні класу. + static { + className = "Bicycle"; + } + + // Конструктори є способом створення класу + // Оце — конструктор + public Bicycle() { + // Можна викликати інший конструктор: + // this(1, 50, 5, "Bontrager"); + gear = 1; + cadence = 50; + speed = 5; + name = "Bontrager"; + } + + // Цей конструктор приймає аргументи + public Bicycle(int startCadence, int startSpeed, int startGear, + String name) { + this.gear = startGear; + this.cadence = startCadence; + this.speed = startSpeed; + this.name = name; + } + + // Синтаксис методу: + // <public/private/protected> <тип повернутого значення> <ім’я методу>(<аргументи>) + + // Java-класи часто мають методи для отримання та встановлення змінних + + // Синтаксис оголошення методу: + // <модифікатор доступу> <тип повернутого значення> <ім’я методу>(<аргументи>) + public int getCadence() { + return cadence; + } + + // void-методи не повертають значень + public void setCadence(int newValue) { + cadence = newValue; + } + + public void setGear(int newValue) { + gear = newValue; + } + + public void speedUp(int increment) { + speed += increment; + } + + public void slowDown(int decrement) { + speed -= decrement; + } + + public void setName(String newName) { + name = newName; + } + + public String getName() { + return name; + } + + //Метод показує значення змінних об’єкту. + @Override // Успадковано від класу Object. + public String toString() { + return "gear: " + gear + " cadence: " + cadence + " speed: " + speed + + " name: " + name; + } +} // кінець класу Bicycle + +// PennyFarthing є розширенням (нащадком) класу Bicycle +class PennyFarthing extends Bicycle { + // (Penny Farthings мають велике переднє колесо. + // Вони не мають передач.) + + public PennyFarthing(int startCadence, int startSpeed){ + // Виклик батьківського конструктора через super + super(startCadence, startSpeed, 0, "PennyFarthing"); + } + + // Перевизначений метод має бути відмічений аннотацією, яка починається зі знака @. + // Для ознайомлення з аннотаціями перейдіть за посиланням + // http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/annotations/ + @Override + public void setGear(int gear) { + gear = 0; + } +} + +// Інтерфейси +// Синтаксис оголошення інтерфейсів +// <рівень доступу> interface <ім’я інтерфейсу> extends <батьківський інтерфейс> { +// // Константи +// // Оголошення методів +// } + +//Приклад — їжа (Food): +public interface Edible { + public void eat(); // Будь-які класи, що реалізують цей інтерфейс, + // повинні реалізувати цей метод. +} + +public interface Digestible { + public void digest(); +} + + +// Можна створити клас, що реалізує обидва інтерфейси. +public class Fruit implements Edible, Digestible { + + @Override + public void eat() { + // ... + } + + @Override + public void digest() { + // ... + } +} + +// В Java можна успадковувати лише один клас, але реалізовувати багато +// інтерфейсів. Наприклад: +public class ExampleClass extends ExampleClassParent implements InterfaceOne, + InterfaceTwo { + + @Override + public void InterfaceOneMethod() { + } + + @Override + public void InterfaceTwoMethod() { + } + +} + +// Абстрактні класи + +// Синтаксис оголошення абстрактних класів: +// <рівень доступу> abstract <ім’я класу> extends <батьківський абстрактний клас> { +// // Константи і змінні +// // Оголошення методів +// } + +// Позначення класу як абстрактного означає, що оголошені у ньому методи мають +// бути реалізовані у дочірніх класах. Подібно до інтерфейсів, не можна створити екземпляри +// абстракних класів, але їх можна успадковувати. Нащадок зобов’язаний реалізувати всі абстрактні +// методи. на відміну від інтерфейсів, абстрактні класи можуть мати як визначені, +// так і абстрактні методи. Методи в інтерфейсах не мають тіла, +// за винятком статичних методів, а змінні неявно мають модифікатор final, на відміну від +// абстрактного класу. Абстрактні класи МОЖУТЬ мати метод «main». + +public abstract class Animal +{ + public abstract void makeSound(); + + // Метод може мати тіло + public void eat() + { + System.out.println("Я тварина, і я їм."); + // Зауваження: є доступ до приватних змінних. + age = 30; + } + + // Ініціалізація не потрібна + protected int age; + + public void printAge() + { + System.out.println(age); + } + + // Абстрактні класи МОЖУТЬ мати метод «main». + public static void main(String[] args) + { + System.out.println("Я абстрактний"); + } +} + +class Dog extends Animal +{ + // Слід помічати перевизначення абстрактних методів + @Override + public void makeSound() + { + System.out.println("Гав!"); + // age = 30; ==> ПОМИЛКА! age є private для Animal + } + + // Зауваження: Буде помилка, якщо використати аннотацію + // @Override тут, так як у java не можна + // перевизначати статичні методи. + // Те, що тут відбувається, називається приховування методів. + // Більш детально: http://stackoverflow.com/questions/16313649/ + public static void main(String[] args) + { + Dog pluto = new Dog(); + pluto.makeSound(); + pluto.eat(); + pluto.printAge(); + } +} + +// Фінальні класи + +// Синтаксис оголошення фінальних класів +// <рівень доступу> final <ім’я класу> { +// // Константи і змінні +// // Оголошення методів +// } + +// Фінальні класи не можуть мати нащадків, також самі вони є останніми нащадками. +// Фінальні класи є протилежністю абстрактних у цьому плані. + +public final class SaberToothedCat extends Animal +{ + // Перевизначення методу + @Override + public void makeSound() + { + System.out.println("Гррр!"); + } +} + +// Фінальні методи +public abstract class Mammal() +{ + // Синтаксис фінальних методів: + // <модифікатор доступу> final <тип повернутого значення> <ім’я функції>(<аргументи>) + + // Фінальні методи не можуть бути перевизначені класом-нащадком, + // вони є остаточною реалізацією методу. + public final boolean isWarmBlooded() + { + return true; + } +} + + +// Тип Enum (перелік) +// +// Enum є спеціальним типом даних, який дозволяє змінним бути певною множиною +// визначених констант. Змінна має відповідати одному зі значень, що +// заздалегідь визначені для неї. Оскільки це константи, імена типів полів у enum +// задаються у верхньому регістрі. Тип «перелік» у Java задається за допомогою +// ключового слова enum. Наприклад, перелік днів тижня можна задати так: + +public enum Day { + SUNDAY, MONDAY, TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY, + THURSDAY, FRIDAY, SATURDAY +} + +// Перелік Day можна використовувати так: + +public class EnumTest { + + // Змінна того же типу, що й перелік + Day day; + + public EnumTest(Day day) { + this.day = day; + } + + public void tellItLikeItIs() { + switch (day) { + case MONDAY: + System.out.println("Понеділкі важкі."); + break; + + case FRIDAY: + System.out.println("П’ятниці краще."); + break; + + case SATURDAY: + case SUNDAY: + System.out.println("Вихідні найліпші."); + break; + + default: + System.out.println("Середина тижня так собі."); + break; + } + } + + public static void main(String[] args) { + EnumTest firstDay = new EnumTest(Day.MONDAY); + firstDay.tellItLikeItIs(); // => Понеділки важкі. + EnumTest thirdDay = new EnumTest(Day.WEDNESDAY); + thirdDay.tellItLikeItIs(); // => Середина тижня так собі. + } +} + +// Переліки набагато потужніші, ніж тут показано. +// Тіло переліків може містити методи та інші змінні. +// Дивіться більше тут: https://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/javaOO/enum.html + +``` + +## Додатково для читання + +Посилання, наведені нижче, дозволяють тільки зрозуміти тему. Щоб знайти конкретні приклади, використовуйте Ґуґл. + +**Офіційні посібники Oracle**: + +* [Посібник Java від Sun / Oracle](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/index.html) + +* [Java — модифікатори доступу](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/javaOO/accesscontrol.html) + +* [ООП-концепції](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/concepts/index.html): + * [Наслідування](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/subclasses.html) + * [Поліморфізм](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/polymorphism.html) + * [Абстракція](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/abstract.html) + +* [Виключення](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/essential/exceptions/index.html) + +* [Інтерфейси](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/IandI/createinterface.html) + +* [параметризація](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/generics/index.html) + +* [Стиль коду у Java](http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/codeconvtoc-136057.html) + +**Online-практика та посібники** + +* [Learneroo.com — Вивчаємо Java](http://www.learneroo.com) + +* [Codingbat.com](http://codingbat.com/java) + + +**Книжки**: + +* [Head First Java](http://www.headfirstlabs.com/books/hfjava/) + +* [Thinking in Java](http://www.mindview.net/Books/TIJ/) + +* [Objects First with Java](http://www.amazon.com/Objects-First-Java-Practical-Introduction/dp/0132492660) + +* [Java The Complete Reference](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0071606300) diff --git a/uk-ua/javascript-ua.html.markdown b/uk-ua/javascript-ua.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..9614f9ca --- /dev/null +++ b/uk-ua/javascript-ua.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,495 @@ +--- +language: javascript +contributors: + - ["Adam Brenecki", "http://adam.brenecki.id.au"] + - ["Ariel Krakowski", "http://www.learneroo.com"] +filename: javascript-uk.js +translators: + - ["Ivan", "https://github.com/IvanEh"] + - ["Serhii Maksymchuk", "https://github.com/Serg-Maximchuk"] +lang: uk-ua +--- + +JavaScript було створено в 1995 році Бренданом Айком, який працював у копаніх Netscape. +Він був задуманий як проста мова сценаріїв для веб-сайтів, який би доповнював Java +для більш складних веб-застосунків. Але тісна інтеграція з веб-сторінками і +вбудована підтримка браузерами призвела до того, що JavaScript став популярніший +за власне Java. + +Зараз JavaScript не обмежується тільки веб-браузеорм. Наприклад, Node.js, +програмна платформа, що дозволяє виконувати JavaScript код з використанням +рушія V8 від браузера Google Chrome, стає все більш і більш популярною. + +```js +// С-подібні коментарі. Однорядкові коментарі починаються з двох символів /(слеш) +/* а багаторядкові коментарі починаються з послідовності слеша та зірочки і + закінчуються символами зірочка-слеш */ + +//Інструкції можуть закінчуватися крапкою з комою ; +doStuff(); + +// ... але не обов’язково, тому що крапка з комою автоматично вставляється на +// місці символу нового рядка, крім деяких випадків. +doStuff() + +// Ми завжди будемо використовувати крапку з комою в цьому посібнику, тому що ці +// винятки можуть призвести до неочікуваних результатів + +/////////////////////////////////// +// 1. Числа, Рядки і Оператори + +// В JavaScript числа зберігаються тільки в одному форматі (64-bit IEEE 754 double) +// Цей тип має 52-бітну мантису, якої достатньо для збереження чисел з +// точністю до 9✕10¹⁵. +3; // = 3 +1.5; // = 1.5 + +// Деякі прості арифметичні операції працють так, як ми очікуємо. +1 + 1; // = 2 +0.1 + 0.2; // = 0.30000000000000004 (а деякі - ні) +8 - 1; // = 7 +10 * 2; // = 20 +35 / 5; // = 7 + +// В тому числі ділення з остачею +5 / 2; // = 2.5 + +// В JavaScript є побітові операції; коли ви виконуєте таку операцію, +// число з плаваючою точкою переводиться в ціле зі знаком +// довжиною *до* 32 розрядів. +1 << 2; // = 4 + +// Пріоритет у виразах можна задати явно круглими дужками +(1 + 3) * 2; // = 8 + +// Є три спеціальні значення, які не є реальними числами: +Infinity; // "нескінченність", наприклад, як результат ділення на 0 +-Infinity; // "мінус нескінченність", як результат ділення від’ємного числа на 0 +NaN; // "не число", наприклад, ділення 0/0 + +// Логічні типи +true; +false; + +// Рядки створюються за допомогою подвійних та одинарних лапок +'абв'; +"Привіт, світе!"; + +// Для логічного заперечення використовується знак оклику. +!true; // = false +!false; // = true + +// Строга рівність === +1 === 1; // = true +2 === 1; // = false + +// Строга нерівність !== +1 !== 1; // = false +2 !== 1; // = true + +// Інші оператори порівняння +1 < 10; // = true +1 > 10; // = false +2 <= 2; // = true +2 >= 2; // = true + +// Рядки об’єднуються за допомогою оператора + +"hello, " + "world!"; // = "hello, world!" + +// І порівнюються за допомогою > та < +"a" < "b"; // = true + +// Перевірка на рівність з приведнням типів здійснюється оператором == +"5" == 5; // = true +null == undefined; // = true + +// ... але приведення не виконується при === +"5" === 5; // = false +null === undefined; // = false + +// ... приведення типів може призвести до дивних результатів +13 + !0; // 14 +"13" + !0; // '13true' + +// Можна отримати доступ до будь-якого символа рядка за допомгою charAt +"Це рядок".charAt(0); // = 'Ц' + +// ... або використати метод substring, щоб отримати більший кусок +"Hello, world".substring(0, 5); // = "Hello" + +// length - це не метод, а поле +"Hello".length; // = 5 + +// Типи null и undefined +null; // навмисна відсутність результату +undefined; // використовується для позначення відсутності присвоєного значення + +// false, null, undefined, NaN, 0 та "" — хиба; все інше - істина. +// Потрібно відмітити, що 0 — це хиба, а "0" — істина, не зважаючи на те що: +// 0 == "0". + +/////////////////////////////////// +// 2. Змінні, Масиви, Об’єкти + +// Змінні оголошуються за допомогою ключового слова var. JavaScript — мова з +// динамічною типізацією, тому не потрібно явно вказувати тип. Для присвоєння +// значення змінної використовується символ = +var someVar = 5; + +// якщо пропустити слово var, ви не отримаєте повідомлення про помилку, ... +someOtherVar = 10; + +// ... але вашу змінну буде створено в глобальному контексті, а не там, де +// ви її оголосили + +// Змінні, які оголошені без присвоєння, автоматично приймають значення undefined +var someThirdVar; // = undefined + +// У математичних операцій є скорочені форми: +someVar += 5; // як someVar = someVar + 5; +someVar *= 10; // тепер someVar = 100 + +// Інкремент і декремент +someVar++; // тепер someVar дорівнює 101 +someVar--; // а зараз 100 + +// Масиви — це нумеровані списки, які зберігають значення будь-якого типу. +var myArray = ["Привіт", 45, true]; + +// Доступ до елементів можна отримати за допомогою синтаксиса з квадратними дужками +// Індексація починається з нуля +myArray[1]; // = 45 + +// Масиви в JavaScript змінюють свою довжину при додаванні нових елементів +myArray.push("Привіт"); +myArray.length; // = 4 + +// Додавання і редагування елементів +myArray[3] = "світ"; + +// Об’єкти в JavaScript схожі на словники або асоціативні масиви в інших мовах +var myObj = {key1: "Hello", key2: "World"}; + +// Ключі - це рядки, але лапки не обов’язкі, якщо ключ задовольняє +// правилам формування назв змінних. Значення можуть бути будь-яких типів. +var myObj = {myKey: "myValue", "my other key": 4}; + +// Атрибути можна отримати використовуючи квадратні дужки +myObj["my other key"]; // = 4 + +// Або через точку, якщо ключ є правильним ідентифікатором +myObj.myKey; // = "myValue" + +// Об’єкти можна динамічно змінювати й додавати нові поля +myObj.myThirdKey = true; + +// Коли ви звертаєтесь до поля, що не існує, ви отримуєте значення undefined +myObj.myFourthKey; // = undefined + +/////////////////////////////////// +// 3. Керуючі конструкції + +// Синтаксис для цього розділу майже такий самий, як у Java + +// Умовна конструкція +var count = 1; +if (count == 3) { + // виконується, якщо count дорівнює 3 +} else if (count == 4) { + // .. +} else { + // ... +} + +// ... цикл while. +while (true){ + // Нескінченний цикл! +} + +// Цикл do-while такий самий, як while, але завжди виконується принаймні один раз. +var input +do { + input = getInput(); +} while (!isValid(input)) + +// цикл for такий самий, як в C і Java: +// ініціалізація; умова; крок. +for (var i = 0; i < 5; i++) { + // виконається 5 разів +} + +// && — логічне І, || — логічне АБО +if (house.size == "big" && house.color == "blue") { + house.contains = "bear"; +} +if (color == "red" || color == "blue") { + // колір червоний або синій +} + +// && та || використовують скорочене обчислення +// тому їх можна використовувати для задання значень за замовчуванням. +var name = otherName || "default"; + +// Оператор switch виконує перевірку на рівність за допомогою === +// використовуйте break, щоб призупити виконання наступного case, +grade = 4; +switch (grade) { + case 5: + console.log("Відмінно"); + break; + case 4: + console.log("Добре"); + break; + case 3: + console.log("Можна краще"); + break; + default: + console.log("Погано!"); + break; +} + + +/////////////////////////////////// +// 4. Функції, область видимості і замикання + +// Функції в JavaScript оголошуються за допомогою ключового слова function. +function myFunction(thing) { + return thing.toUpperCase(); +} +myFunction("foo"); // = "FOO" + +// Зверніть увагу, що значення яке буде повернено, повинно починатися на тому ж +// рядку, що і ключове слово return, інакше завжди буде повертатися значення undefined +// через автоматичну вставку крапки з комою +function myFunction() +{ + return // <- крапка з комою вставляється автоматично + { + thisIsAn: 'object literal' + } +} +myFunction(); // = undefined + +// В JavaScript функції - це об`єкти першого класу, тому вони можуть присвоюватися +// іншим змінним і передаватися іншим функціям, наприклад, щоб визначити обробник +// події. +function myFunction() { + // код буде виконано через 5 сек. +} +setTimeout(myFunction, 5000); +// setTimeout не є частиною мови, але реалізований в браузерах і Node.js + +// Функції не обов’язково мають мати ім’я при оголошенні — ви можете написати +// анонімну функцію як аргумент іншої функції +setTimeout(function() { + // Цей код буде виконано через п’ять секунд +}, 5000); + +// В JavaScript реалізована концепція області видимості; функції мають свою +// область видимості, а інші блоки не мають +if (true) { + var i = 5; +} +i; // = 5, а не undefined, як це звичайно буває в інших мовах + +// Така особливість призвела до шаблону "анонімних функцій, які викликають самих себе" +// що дозволяє уникнути проникнення змінних в глобальну область видимості +(function() { + var temporary = 5; + // об’єкт window зберігає глобальний контекст; таким чином ми можемо також додавати + // змінні до глобальної області + window.permanent = 10; +})(); +temporary; // повідомлення про помилку ReferenceError +permanent; // = 10 + +// Замикання - один з найпотужніших інструментів JavaScript. Якщо функція визначена +// всередині іншої функції, то внутрішня функція має доступ до змінних зовнішньої +// функції навіть після того, як код буде виконуватися поза контекстом зовнішньої функції +function sayHelloInFiveSeconds(name) { + var prompt = "Привіт, " + name + "!"; + // Внутрішня функція зберігається в локальній області так, + // ніби функція була оголошена за допомогою ключового слова var + function inner() { + alert(prompt); + } + setTimeout(inner, 5000); + // setTimeout асинхронна, тому функція sayHelloInFiveSeconds одразу завершиться, + // після чого setTimeout викличе функцію inner. Але функція inner + // «замкнута» кругом sayHelloInFiveSeconds, вона все рівно має доступ до змінної prompt +} +sayHelloInFiveSeconds("Адам"); // Через 5 с відкриється вікно «Привіт, Адам!» + +/////////////////////////////////// +// 5. Об’єкти: конструктори і прототипи + +// Об’єкти можуть містити функції +var myObj = { + myFunc: function() { + return "Hello, world!"; + } +}; +myObj.myFunc(); // = "Hello, world!" + +// Функції, що прикріплені до об’єктів мають доступ до поточного об’єкта за +// допомогою ключового слова this. +myObj = { + myString: "Hello, world!", + myFunc: function() { + return this.myString; + } +}; +myObj.myFunc(); // = "Hello, world!" + +// Значення this залежить від того, як функція викликається +// а не від того, де вона визначена. Таким чином наша функція не працює, якщо +// вона викликана не в контексті об’єкта +var myFunc = myObj.myFunc; +myFunc(); // = undefined + +// Функція може бути присвоєна іншому об’єкту. Тоді вона матиме доступ до +// цього об’єкта через this +var myOtherFunc = function() { +} +myObj.myOtherFunc = myOtherFunc; +myObj.myOtherFunc(); // = "HELLO, WORLD!" + +// Контекст виконання функції можна задати за допомогою сall або apply +var anotherFunc = function(s) { + return this.myString + s; +} +anotherFunc.call(myObj, " Hello!"); // = "Hello, world! Hello!" + +// Функцiя apply приймає в якості аргументу масив +anotherFunc.apply(myObj, [" Hello!"]); // = "Hello, world! Hello!" + +// apply можна використати, коли функція працює послідовністю аргументів, а +// ви хочете передати масив +Math.min(42, 6, 27); // = 6 +Math.min([42, 6, 27]); // = NaN (Ой-ой!) +Math.min.apply(Math, [42, 6, 27]); // = 6 + +// Але call і apply — тимчасові. Коли ми хочемо зв’язати функцію і об’єкт +// використовують bind +var boundFunc = anotherFunc.bind(myObj); +boundFunc(" Hello!"); // = "Hello world, Hello!" + +// Bind можна використати для задання аргументів +var product = function(a, b) { return a * b; } +var doubler = product.bind(this, 2); +doubler(8); // = 16 + +// Коли ви викликаєте функцію за допомогою ключового слова new, створюється новий об’єкт, +// доступний функції за допомогою this. Такі функції називають конструкторами. +var MyConstructor = function() { + this.myNumber = 5; +} +myNewObj = new MyConstructor(); // = {myNumber: 5} +myNewObj.myNumber; // = 5 + +// У кожного об’єкта є прототип. Коли ви звертаєтесь до поля, яке не існує в цьому +// об’єкті, інтерпретатор буде шукати поле в прототипі + +// Деякі реалізації мови дозволяють отримати доступ до прототипа об’єкта через +// "магічну" властивість __proto__. Це поле не є частиною стандарта, але існують +// стандартні способи використання прототипів, які ми побачимо пізніше +var myObj = { + myString: "Hello, world!" +}; +var myPrototype = { + meaningOfLife: 42, + myFunc: function() { + return this.myString.toLowerCase() + } +}; + +myObj.__proto__ = myPrototype; +myObj.meaningOfLife; // = 42 + +// Аналогічно для функцій +myObj.myFunc(); // = "Hello, world!" + +// Якщо інтерпретатор не знайде властивості в прототипі, то він продовжить пошук +// в прототипі прототипа і так далі +myPrototype.__proto__ = { + myBoolean: true +}; +myObj.myBoolean; // = true + +// Кожен об’єкт зберігає посилання на свій прототип. Це значить, що ми можемо змінити +// наш прототип, і наші зміни будуть всюди відображені. +myPrototype.meaningOfLife = 43; +myObj.meaningOfLife; // = 43 + +// Ми сказали, що властивість __proto__ нестандартна, і нема ніякого стандартного способу +// змінити прототип об’єкта, що вже існує. Але є два способи створити новий об’єкт із заданим +// прототипом + +// Перший спосіб — це Object.create, який з’явився в JavaScript недавно, +// а тому в деяких реалізаціях може бути недоступним. +var myObj = Object.create(myPrototype); +myObj.meaningOfLife; // = 43 + +// Другий спосіб: у конструкторів є властивість з іменем prototype. Це *не* +// прототип функції-конструктора, це прототип для нових об’єктів, які будуть створені +// цим конструктором і ключового слова new. +MyConstructor.prototype = { + myNumber: 5, + getMyNumber: function() { + return this.myNumber; + } +}; +var myNewObj2 = new MyConstructor(); +myNewObj2.getMyNumber(); // = 5 +myNewObj2.myNumber = 6 +myNewObj2.getMyNumber(); // = 6 + +// У вбудованих типів(рядок, число) теж є конструктори, які створють еквівалентні +// об’єкти-обгортки +var myNumber = 12; +var myNumberObj = new Number(12); +myNumber == myNumberObj; // = true + +// Але вони не ідентичні +typeof myNumber; // = 'number' +typeof myNumberObj; // = 'object' +myNumber === myNumberObj; // = false +if (0) { + // Цей код не виконається, тому що 0 - це хиба. +} + +// Об’єкти-обгортки і вбудовані типи мають спільні прототипи, тому +// ви можете розширити функціонал рядків: +String.prototype.firstCharacter = function() { + return this.charAt(0); +} +"abc".firstCharacter(); // = "a" + +// Такий прийом часто використовуються в поліфілах, які реалізують нові можливості +// JavaScript в старій реалізації мови, так що вони можуть бути використані в старих +// середовищах + +// Наприклад, Object.create доступний не у всіх реалізаціях, але ми можемо +// використати функції за допомогою наступного поліфіла: +if (Object.create === undefined) { // не перезаписуємо метод, якщо він існує + Object.create = function(proto) { + // Створюємо правильний конструктор з правильним прототипом + var Constructor = function(){}; + Constructor.prototype = proto; + + return new Constructor(); + } +} +``` + +## Що почитати + +[1]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript +[2]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript +[3]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Using_the_W3C_DOM_Level_1_Core +[4]: http://www.learneroo.com/modules/64/nodes/350 +[5]: http://bonsaiden.github.io/JavaScript-Garden/ +[6]: http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596805527/ +[7]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/A_re-introduction_to_JavaScript +[8]: http://eloquentjavascript.net/ +[9]: http://jstherightway.org/ diff --git a/uk-ua/json-ua.html.markdown b/uk-ua/json-ua.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a860e9a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/uk-ua/json-ua.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +--- +language: json +filename: learnjson-ru.json +contributors: + - ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"] + - ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"] +translators: + - ["Ehreshi Ivan", "https://github.com/IvanEh"] +lang: uk-ua +--- + +JSON - це надзвичайно простий формат обміну даними. Це мабуть буде найлегшим курсом +"Learn X in Y Minutes". + +В загальному випадку в JSON немає коментарів, але більшість парсерів дозволяють +використовувати коментарі в С-стилі(//, /\* \*/). Можна залишити кому після останнього +поля, але все-таки краще такого уникати для кращої сумісності + +```json +{ + "ключ": "значеннь", + + "ключі": "завжди мають бути обгорнуті в подвійні лапки", + "числа": 0, + "рядки": "Пρивіт, світe. Допускаються всі unicode-символи разом із \"екрануванням\".", + "логічний тип": true, + "нічого": null, + + "велике число": 1.2e+100, + + "об’єкти": { + "коментар": "Більшість ваших структур будуть складатися з об’єктів", + + "масив": [0, 1, 2, 3, "масиви можуть містити будь-які типи", 5], + + "інший об’єкт": { + "коментар": "Об’єкти можуть містити інші об’єкти. Це дуже корисно." + } + }, + + "безглуздя": [ + { + "джерело калію": ["банани"] + }, + [ + [1, 0, 0, 0], + [0, 1, 0, 0], + [0, 0, 1, "нео"], + [0, 0, 0, 1] + ] + ], + + "альтернативнтй стиль": { + "коментар": "Гляньте!" + , "позиція коми": "неважлива, поки вона знаходиться до наступного поля" + , "інший коментар": "класно" + }, + + "Це було не довго": "І ви впорались! Тепер ви знаєте все про JSON." +} + +Одиничний масив значень теж є правильним JSON + +[1, 2, 3, "text", true] + + +``` diff --git a/vi-vn/ruby-ecosystem-vi.html.markdown b/vi-vn/ruby-ecosystem-vi.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..518cf072 --- /dev/null +++ b/vi-vn/ruby-ecosystem-vi.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,148 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: ruby ecosystem +contributors: + - ["Jon Smock", "http://github.com/jonsmock"] + - ["Rafal Chmiel", "http://github.com/rafalchmiel"] + - ["Vinh Nguyen", "http://rubydaily.net"] +lang: vi-vn +--- + +Nhìn chung các lập trình viên Ruby luôn có cách để cài đặt các phiên bản +Ruby khác nhau, quản lý các gói (hoặc gems), và quản lý các thư viện. + +## Trình quản lý Ruby + +Một vài nền tảng phải có Ruby đã được cài đặt trước hoặc có sẵn như một gói. +Số đông lập trình viên Ruby không sử dụng cái này, hoặc nếu có, họ chỉ sử +dụng chúng để bootstrap cài đặt Ruby. Thay vào đó, các lập trình viên Ruby +có xu hướng cài đặt trình quản lý Ruby để cài đặt và chuyển đổi các phiên +bản của Ruby và môi trường Ruby cho dự án của họ. + +Dưới đây là các trình quản lý môi trường Ruby nổi tiếng: + +* [RVM](https://rvm.io/) - Cài đặt và chuyển đổi các phiên bản Ruby. RVM cũng + có các khái niệm về tập các gems để quản lý môi trường dự án một + cách tốt nhất. +* [ruby-build](https://github.com/sstephenson/ruby-build) - Chỉ cài đặt các + phiên bản Ruby. Sử dụng cái này giúp cho việc cài đặt Ruby tốt hơn. +* [rbenv](https://github.com/sstephenson/rbenv) - Chỉ dùng để chuyển đổi các + phiên bản Ruby. Được sử dụng đi kèm với ruby-build. Tiện ích này sẽ giúp + cho việc dùng Ruby tốt hơn. +* [chruby](https://github.com/postmodern/chruby) - Chỉ dùng để chuyển đổi các + phiên bản Ruby. Tương tự như rbenv. Không quan tâm làm thế nào Ruby được + cài đặt. + +## Các phiên bản Ruby + +Ruby được tạo ra bởi Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto, người được xem như là một +[BDFL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benevolent_Dictator_for_Life), mặc dầu gần +đây luôn thay đổi. Kết quả là, tham chiếu của Ruby được gọi là MRI(Matz' +Reference Implementation), và khi bạn biết về một phiên bản Ruby, nó đang +được tham chiếu để phát hành một phiên bản của MRI. + +Có ba phiên bản Ruby chính thức được dùng là: + +* 2.0.0 - Được phát hành vào tháng 2 năm 2013. Hầu hết các thư viện lớn, và +nền tảng đều hỗ trợ 2.0.0. +* 1.9.3 - Được phát hành vào tháng 10 năm 2011. Đây là phiên bản hầu hết các +lập trình viên Ruby đang dùng. [Nhưng đã không còn hỗ trợ]( + https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/news/2015/02/23/support-for-ruby-1-9-3-has-ended + /) +* 1.8.7 - [Ruby 1.8.7 đã không còn được sử dụng]( + http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/news/2013/06/30/we-retire-1-8-7/). + +Sự thay đổi giữa phiên bản 1.8.7 đến 1.9.x lớn hơn nhiều so với thay đổi từ +1.9.3 đến 2.0.0. Ví dụ, các phiên bản 1.9 giới thiệu các bảng mã và một +byecote VM. Có các dự án vẫn đang ở 1.8.7, nhưng chúng chiếm một số lượng ít +, phần lớn cộng đồng đã chuyển sang ít nhất là 1.9.2 hoặc 1.9.3 + +## Các ứng dụng Ruby + +Hệ sinh thái Ruby có rất nhiều ứng dụng, với mỗi thế mạnh độc đáo và khả +năng tương thích. Để rõ ràng hơn, sự khác nhau giữa các ứng dụng được viết +bằng các ngôn ngữ khác nhau, nhưng *chúng vẫn là Ruby*. +Mỗi ứng dụng có các hook đặc trưng và những tính năng đặc biệt, nhưng tất cả +đều chạy Ruby rất tốt. Ví dụ, JRuby được viết bằng Java, nhưng bạn không +cần biết Java để sử dụng. + +Một số ứng dụng nổi tiếng/tương thích cao: + +* [MRI](https://github.com/ruby/ruby) - Được viết bằng C, đây là ứng dụng + tham chiếu của Ruby. Nó tương thích 100%. Tất cả các phiên bản Ruby có khả + năng duy trì với MRI(xem [RubySpec](#rubyspec) bên dưới). +* [JRuby](http://jruby.org/) - Được viết bằng Java và Ruby, ứng dụng này khá + nhanh. Điểm mạnh quan trọng nhất của JRuby là JVM/Java interop, tận dụng + các công cụ, dự án và ngôn ngữ hiện có của JVM. +* [Rubinius](http://rubini.us/) - Được viết bằng ngôn ngữ chính là Ruby với + một C++ bytecode VM. Rất nhanh. Bởi vì nó được phát triển bằng chính Ruby. + +Một số ứng dụng khá nổi tiếng/tương thích: + +* [Maglev](http://maglev.github.io/) - Đứng đầu Gemstone, một Smalltalk VM. + SmallTalk có một vài tiện ích hấp dẫn, và trong dự án này đã mang nó vào + môi trường Ruby. +* [RubyMotion](http://www.rubymotion.com/) - Mang Ruby đến việc phát triển iOS. + +Một số ứng dụng tốt/tương thích: + +* [Topaz](http://topazruby.com/) - Được biết bằng RPython (sử dụng Pypy), + Topaz vẫn còn rất trẻ và chưa hoàn toàn tương thích. Nó hứa hẹn khả năng + trở thành một ứng dụng Ruby tương thích cao. +* [IronRuby](http://ironruby.net/) - Được viết bằng C# hướng đến nền tảng .NET + , IronRuby dường như đã dừng hoạt động kể từ khi Microsoft rút hỗ trợ. + +Các ứng dụng Ruby có các phiên bản riêng của mình, nhưng chúng luôn luôn +hướng đến sự một phiên bản đặc biệt của MRI cho sự tương thích. Nhiều ứng +dụng có khả năng đến các chế độ khác nhau (ví dụ, 1.8 hoặc 1.9) để hướng đến +phiên bản MRI. + +## RubySpec + +Hầu hết các ứng dụng Ruby dựa vào [RubySpec](http://rubyspec.org/). Ruby không +có thông báo chính thức, nhưng cộng đồng đã viết những specs thực thi trong +Ruby để kiểm tra sự tương thích với MRI. + +## RubyGems + +[RubyGems](http://rubygems.org/) là một cộng đồng quản lý các gói cho Ruby. +RubyGems đi kèm với Ruby, bởi vậy không cần cài đặt riêng lẻ. + +Các gói Ruby được gọi là "gems", và chúng được host bởi cộng đồng tại +RubyGems.org. Một gem chứa mã nguồn của nó và một vài mô tả, bao gồm những +thứ như phiên bản, các thư viện độc lập, các tác giả và các loại giấy phép. + +## Bundler + +[Bundler](http://bundler.io/) là một gem giải quyết độc lập. Nó sử dụng một +Gemfile để tìm kiếm các thư viện độc lập trong dự án, và sau đó sẽ lấy về +các thư viện của các thư viện độc lập này. Nó thực hiện cho đến khi việc +tải các thư viện hoàn tất, hoặc nó sẽ dừng nếu xuất hiện bất kỳ xung đột nào. + +Bundler sẽ hiển thị lỗi nếu tìm thấy bất kỳ xung đột giữa các thư viện. Ví +dụ, nếu như gem A yêu cầu gem Z có phiên bản 3 hoặc cao hơn, nhưng gem B lại +yêu cầu gem Z phiên bản 2. Bundler sẽ thông báo cho bạn sự xung đột này. +Điều này đã rất hữu ích khi nhiều gem tham chiếu các các gem khác (trong +gem này lại tham chiếu đến các gem khác nữa), có thể hình thành một đồ thị +lớn để nói. + +# Kiểm thử + +Kiểm thử là một phần lớn của Ruby. Ruby mang đến một nền tảng kiểm thử theo +kiểu Unit được gọi là minitest (hoặc TestUnit for phiên bản Ruby 1.8.x). +Có nhiều thư viện kiểm thử với các mục đích khác nhau. + +* [TestUnit](http://ruby-doc.org/stdlib-1.8.7/libdoc/test/unit/rdoc/Test/ + Unit.html) - Nền tảng kiểm thử theo kiểu Unit của Ruby 1.8. +* [minitest](http://ruby-doc.org/stdlib-2.0.0/libdoc/minitest + /rdoc/MiniTest.html) -Nền tảng kiểm thử được xây dựng cho Ruby 1.9/2.0 +* [RSpec](http://rspec.info/) - Một nền tảng kiểm thử tập trung vào sự + hoạt động. +* [Cucumber](http://cukes.info/) - Một nền tảng kiểm thử theo kiểu BDD dưới + định dạng Gherkin. + +## Be Nice + +Cộng đồng Ruby tự hào là một cộng đồng mở, đa dạng và chào đón tất cả mọi +người. Bản thân Matz là một người cực kỳ thân thiện, và các lập trình viên +Ruby rất tuyệt vời. diff --git a/visualbasic.html.markdown b/visualbasic.html.markdown index bdfdcc10..0371e6f6 100644 --- a/visualbasic.html.markdown +++ b/visualbasic.html.markdown @@ -9,13 +9,13 @@ filename: learnvisualbasic.vb Module Module1 Sub Main() - ' A Quick Overview of Visual Basic Console Applications before we dive - ' in to the deep end. - ' Apostrophe starts comments. - ' To Navigate this tutorial within the Visual Basic Complier, I've put - ' together a navigation system. - ' This navigation system is explained however as we go deeper into this - ' tutorial, you'll understand what it all means. + 'A Quick Overview of Visual Basic Console Applications before we dive + 'in to the deep end. + 'Apostrophe starts comments. + 'To Navigate this tutorial within the Visual Basic Complier, I've put + 'together a navigation system. + 'This navigation system is explained however as we go deeper into this + 'tutorial, you'll understand what it all means. Console.Title = ("Learn X in Y Minutes") Console.WriteLine("NAVIGATION") 'Display Console.WriteLine("") @@ -32,6 +32,9 @@ Module Module1 Console.WriteLine("50. About") Console.WriteLine("Please Choose A Number From The Above List") Dim selection As String = Console.ReadLine + 'The "Case" in the Select statement is optional. + 'For example, "Select selection" instead of "Select Case selection" + 'will also work. Select Case selection Case "1" 'HelloWorld Output Console.Clear() 'Clears the application and opens the private sub @@ -42,10 +45,10 @@ Module Module1 Case "3" 'Calculating Whole Numbers Console.Clear() CalculatingWholeNumbers() - Case "4" 'Calculting Decimal Numbers + Case "4" 'Calculating Decimal Numbers Console.Clear() CalculatingDecimalNumbers() - Case "5" 'Working Calcculator + Case "5" 'Working Calculator Console.Clear() WorkingCalculator() Case "6" 'Using Do While Loops @@ -74,10 +77,10 @@ Module Module1 'One - I'm using numbers to help with the above navigation when I come back 'later to build it. - 'We use private subs to seperate different sections of the program. + 'We use private subs to separate different sections of the program. Private Sub HelloWorldOutput() 'Title of Console Application - Console.Title = "Hello World Ouput | Learn X in Y Minutes" + Console.Title = "Hello World Output | Learn X in Y Minutes" 'Use Console.Write("") or Console.WriteLine("") to print outputs. 'Followed by Console.Read() alternatively Console.Readline() 'Console.ReadLine() prints the output to the console. @@ -88,18 +91,18 @@ Module Module1 'Two Private Sub HelloWorldInput() Console.Title = "Hello World YourName | Learn X in Y Minutes" - ' Variables - ' Data entered by a user needs to be stored. - ' Variables also start with a Dim and end with an As VariableType. + 'Variables + 'Data entered by a user needs to be stored. + 'Variables also start with a Dim and end with an As VariableType. - ' In this tutorial, we want to know what your name, and make the program - ' respond to what is said. + 'In this tutorial, we want to know what your name, and make the program + 'respond to what is said. Dim username As String 'We use string as string is a text based variable. Console.WriteLine("Hello, What is your name? ") 'Ask the user their name. username = Console.ReadLine() 'Stores the users name. Console.WriteLine("Hello " + username) 'Output is Hello 'Their name' - Console.ReadLine() 'Outsputs the above. + Console.ReadLine() 'Outputs the above. 'The above will ask you a question followed by printing your answer. 'Other variables include Integer and we use Integer for whole numbers. End Sub @@ -107,7 +110,7 @@ Module Module1 'Three Private Sub CalculatingWholeNumbers() Console.Title = "Calculating Whole Numbers | Learn X in Y Minutes" - Console.Write("First number: ") 'Enter a whole number, 1, 2, 50, 104 ect + Console.Write("First number: ") 'Enter a whole number, 1, 2, 50, 104, etc Dim a As Integer = Console.ReadLine() Console.Write("Second number: ") 'Enter second whole number. Dim b As Integer = Console.ReadLine() @@ -123,10 +126,10 @@ Module Module1 'Of course we would like to be able to add up decimals. 'Therefore we could change the above from Integer to Double. - 'Enter a whole number, 1.2, 2.4, 50.1, 104.9 ect + 'Enter a floating-point number, 1.2, 2.4, 50.1, 104.9, etc Console.Write("First number: ") Dim a As Double = Console.ReadLine - Console.Write("Second number: ") 'Enter second whole number. + Console.Write("Second number: ") 'Enter second floating-point number. Dim b As Double = Console.ReadLine Dim c As Double = a + b Console.WriteLine(c) @@ -142,15 +145,15 @@ Module Module1 'Copy and paste the above again. Console.Write("First number: ") Dim a As Double = Console.ReadLine - Console.Write("Second number: ") 'Enter second whole number. - Dim b As Integer = Console.ReadLine - Dim c As Integer = a + b - Dim d As Integer = a * b - Dim e As Integer = a - b - Dim f As Integer = a / b + Console.Write("Second number: ") 'Enter second floating-point number. + Dim b As Double = Console.ReadLine + Dim c As Double = a + b + Dim d As Double = a * b + Dim e As Double = a - b + Dim f As Double = a / b 'By adding the below lines we are able to calculate the subtract, - 'multply as well as divide the a and b values + 'multiply as well as divide the a and b values Console.Write(a.ToString() + " + " + b.ToString()) 'We want to pad the answers to the left by 3 spaces. Console.WriteLine(" = " + c.ToString.PadLeft(3)) @@ -176,11 +179,11 @@ Module Module1 Console.Write("First number: ") Dim a As Double = Console.ReadLine Console.Write("Second number: ") - Dim b As Integer = Console.ReadLine - Dim c As Integer = a + b - Dim d As Integer = a * b - Dim e As Integer = a - b - Dim f As Integer = a / b + Dim b As Double = Console.ReadLine + Dim c As Double = a + b + Dim d As Double = a * b + Dim e As Double = a - b + Dim f As Double = a / b Console.Write(a.ToString() + " + " + b.ToString()) Console.WriteLine(" = " + c.ToString.PadLeft(3)) @@ -193,10 +196,10 @@ Module Module1 Console.ReadLine() 'Ask the question, does the user wish to continue? Unfortunately it 'is case sensitive. - Console.Write("Would you like to continue? (yes / no)") + Console.Write("Would you like to continue? (yes / no) ") 'The program grabs the variable and prints and starts again. answer = Console.ReadLine - 'The command for the variable to work would be in this case "yes" + 'The command for the variable to work would be in this case "yes" Loop While answer = "yes" End Sub @@ -208,7 +211,7 @@ Module Module1 Console.Title = "Using For Loops | Learn X in Y Minutes" 'Declare Variable and what number it should count down in Step -1, - 'Step -2, Step -3 ect. + 'Step -2, Step -3, etc. For i As Integer = 10 To 0 Step -1 Console.WriteLine(i.ToString) 'Print the value of the counter Next i 'Calculate new value @@ -219,7 +222,7 @@ Module Module1 'Eight Private Sub ConditionalStatement() Console.Title = "Conditional Statements | Learn X in Y Minutes" - Dim userName As String = Console.ReadLine + Dim userName As String Console.WriteLine("Hello, What is your name? ") 'Ask the user their name. userName = Console.ReadLine() 'Stores the users name. If userName = "Adam" Then @@ -235,36 +238,34 @@ Module Module1 'Nine Private Sub IfElseStatement() - Console.Title = "If / Else Statement | Learn X in Y Minutes" + Console.Title = "If / Else Statement | Learn X in Y Minutes" 'Sometimes it is important to consider more than two alternatives. 'Sometimes there are a good few others. 'When this is the case, more than one if statement would be required. 'An if statement is great for vending machines. Where the user enters a code. - 'A1, A2, A3, ect to select an item. - 'All choices can be combined into a single if statement. + 'A1, A2, A3, etc to select an item. + 'All choices can be combined into a single if block. - Dim selection As String = Console.ReadLine 'Value for selection - Console.WriteLine("A1. for 7Up") - Console.WriteLine("A2. for Fanta") - Console.WriteLine("A3. for Dr. Pepper") - Console.WriteLine("A4. for Diet Coke") - Console.ReadLine() - If selection = "A1" Then - Console.WriteLine("7up") - Console.ReadLine() - ElseIf selection = "A2" Then - Console.WriteLine("fanta") - Console.ReadLine() - ElseIf selection = "A3" Then - Console.WriteLine("dr. pepper") - Console.ReadLine() - ElseIf selection = "A4" Then - Console.WriteLine("diet coke") - Console.ReadLine() - Else - Console.WriteLine("Please select a product") - Console.ReadLine() - End If + Dim selection As String 'Declare a variable for selection + Console.WriteLine("Please select a product form our lovely vending machine.") + Console.WriteLine("A1. for 7Up") + Console.WriteLine("A2. for Fanta") + Console.WriteLine("A3. for Dr. Pepper") + Console.WriteLine("A4. for Diet Coke") + + selection = Console.ReadLine() 'Store a selection from the user + If selection = "A1" Then + Console.WriteLine("7up") + ElseIf selection = "A2" Then + Console.WriteLine("fanta") + ElseIf selection = "A3" Then + Console.WriteLine("dr. pepper") + ElseIf selection = "A4" Then + Console.WriteLine("diet coke") + Else + Console.WriteLine("Sorry, I don't have any " + selection) + End If + Console.ReadLine() End Sub diff --git a/whip.html.markdown b/whip.html.markdown index 61c301a5..e7e5e427 100644 --- a/whip.html.markdown +++ b/whip.html.markdown @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ filename: whip.lisp --- Whip is a LISP-dialect made for scripting and simplified concepts. -It has also borrowed a lot of functions and syntax from Haskell(a non-related language). +It has also borrowed a lot of functions and syntax from Haskell (a non-related language). These docs were written by the creator of the language himself. So is this line. @@ -172,12 +172,12 @@ undefined ; user to indicate a value that hasn't been set ; Comprehensions ; `range` or `..` generates a list of numbers for -; each number between it's two args. +; each number between its two args. (range 1 5) ; => (1 2 3 4 5) (.. 0 2) ; => (0 1 2) -; `map` applies it's first arg(which should be a lambda/function) -; to each item in the following arg(which should be a list) +; `map` applies its first arg (which should be a lambda/function) +; to each item in the following arg (which should be a list) (map (-> (x) (+ x 1)) (1 2 3)) ; => (2 3 4) ; Reduce diff --git a/wolfram.html.markdown b/wolfram.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4514006d --- /dev/null +++ b/wolfram.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,137 @@ +--- +language: wolfram +contributors: + - ["hyphz", "http://github.com/hyphz/"] +filename: learnwolfram.nb +--- + +The Wolfram Language is the underlying language originally used in Mathematica, but now available for use in multiple contexts. + +Wolfram Language has several interfaces: +* The command line kernel interface on Raspberry Pi (just called _The Wolfram Language_) which runs interactively and can't produce graphical input. +* _Mathematica_ which is a rich text/maths editor with interactive Wolfram built in: pressing shift+Return on a "code cell" creates an output cell with the result, which is not dynamic +* _Wolfram Workbench_ which is Eclipse interfaced to the Wolfram Language backend + +The code in this example can be typed in to any interface and edited with Wolfram Workbench. Loading directly into Mathematica may be awkward because the file contains no cell formatting information (which would make the file a huge mess to read as text) - it can be viewed/edited but may require some setting up. + +``` +(* This is a comment *) + +(* In Mathematica instead of using these comments you can create a text cell + and annotate your code with nicely typeset text and images *) + +(* Typing an expression returns the result *) +2*2 (* 4 *) +5+8 (* 13 *) + +(* Function Call *) +(* Note, function names (and everything else) are case sensitive *) +Sin[Pi/2] (* 1 *) + +(* Alternate Syntaxes for Function Call with one parameter *) +Sin@(Pi/2) (* 1 *) +(Pi/2) // Sin (* 1 *) + +(* Every syntax in WL has some equivalent as a function call *) +Times[2, 2] (* 4 *) +Plus[5, 8] (* 13 *) + +(* Using a variable for the first time defines it and makes it global *) +x = 5 (* 5 *) +x == 5 (* True, C-style assignment and equality testing *) +x (* 5 *) +x = x + 5 (* 10 *) +x (* 10 *) +Set[x, 20] (* I wasn't kidding when I said EVERYTHING has a function equivalent *) +x (* 20 *) + +(* Because WL is based on a computer algebra system, *) +(* using undefined variables is fine, they just obstruct evaluation *) +cow + 5 (* 5 + cow, cow is undefined so can't evaluate further *) +cow + 5 + 10 (* 15 + cow, it'll evaluate what it can *) +% (* 15 + cow, % fetches the last return *) +% - cow (* 15, undefined variable cow cancelled out *) +moo = cow + 5 (* Beware, moo now holds an expression, not a number! *) + +(* Defining a function *) +Double[x_] := x * 2 (* Note := to prevent immediate evaluation of the RHS + And _ after x to indicate no pattern matching constraints *) +Double[10] (* 20 *) +Double[Sin[Pi/2]] (* 2 *) +Double @ Sin @ (Pi/2) (* 2, @-syntax avoids queues of close brackets *) +(Pi/2) // Sin // Double(* 2, //-syntax lists functions in execution order *) + +(* For imperative-style programming use ; to separate statements *) +(* Discards any output from LHS and runs RHS *) +MyFirst[] := (Print@"Hello"; Print@"World") (* Note outer parens are critical + ;'s precedence is lower than := *) +MyFirst[] (* Hello World *) + +(* C-Style For Loop *) +PrintTo[x_] := For[y=0, y<x, y++, (Print[y])] (* Start, test, incr, body *) +PrintTo[5] (* 0 1 2 3 4 *) + +(* While Loop *) +x = 0; While[x < 2, (Print@x; x++)] (* While loop with test and body *) + +(* If and conditionals *) +x = 8; If[x==8, Print@"Yes", Print@"No"] (* Condition, true case, else case *) +Switch[x, 2, Print@"Two", 8, Print@"Yes"] (* Value match style switch *) +Which[x==2, Print@"No", x==8, Print@"Yes"] (* Elif style switch *) + +(* Variables other than parameters are global by default, even inside functions *) +y = 10 (* 10, global variable y *) +PrintTo[5] (* 0 1 2 3 4 *) +y (* 5, global y clobbered by loop counter inside PrintTo *) +x = 20 (* 20, global variable x *) +PrintTo[5] (* 0 1 2 3 4 *) +x (* 20, x in PrintTo is a parameter and automatically local *) + +(* Local variables are declared using the Module metafunction *) +(* Version with local variable *) +BetterPrintTo[x_] := Module[{y}, (For[y=0, y<x, y++, (Print@y)])] +y = 20 (* Global variable y *) +BetterPrintTo[5] (* 0 1 2 3 4 *) +y (* 20, that's better *) + +(* Module actually lets us declare any scope we like *) +Module[{count}, count=0; (* Declare scope of this variable count *) + (IncCount[] := ++count); (* These functions are inside that scope *) + (DecCount[] := --count)] +count (* count - global variable count is not defined *) +IncCount[] (* 1, using the count variable inside the scope *) +IncCount[] (* 2, incCount updates it *) +DecCount[] (* 1, so does decCount *) +count (* count - still no global variable by that name *) + +(* Lists *) +myList = {1, 2, 3, 4} (* {1, 2, 3, 4} *) +myList[[1]] (* 1 - note list indexes start at 1, not 0 *) +Map[Double, myList] (* {2, 4, 6, 8} - functional style list map function *) +Double /@ myList (* {2, 4, 6, 8} - Abbreviated syntax for above *) +Scan[Print, myList] (* 1 2 3 4 - imperative style loop over list *) +Fold[Plus, 0, myList] (* 10 (0+1+2+3+4) *) +FoldList[Plus, 0, myList] (* {0, 1, 3, 6, 10} - fold storing intermediate results *) +Append[myList, 5] (* {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} - note myList is not updated *) +Prepend[myList, 5] (* {5, 1, 2, 3, 4} - add "myList = " if you want it to be *) +Join[myList, {3, 4}] (* {1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 4} *) +myList[[2]] = 5 (* {1, 5, 3, 4} - this does update myList *) + +(* Associations, aka Dictionaries/Hashes *) +myHash = <|"Green" -> 2, "Red" -> 1|> (* Create an association *) +myHash[["Green"]] (* 2, use it *) +myHash[["Green"]] := 5 (* 5, update it *) +myHash[["Puce"]] := 3.5 (* 3.5, extend it *) +KeyDropFrom[myHash, "Green"] (* Wipes out key Green *) +Keys[myHash] (* {Red} *) +Values[myHash] (* {1} *) + +(* And you can't do any demo of Wolfram without showing this off *) +Manipulate[y^2, {y, 0, 20}] (* Return a reactive user interface that displays y^2 + and allows y to be adjusted between 0-20 with a slider. + Only works on graphical frontends *) +``` + +##Ready For More? + +* [Wolfram Language Documentation Center](http://reference.wolfram.com/language/) diff --git a/xml.html.markdown b/xml.html.markdown index b95d6088..b4b54330 100644 --- a/xml.html.markdown +++ b/xml.html.markdown @@ -4,18 +4,76 @@ filename: learnxml.xml contributors: - ["João Farias", "https://github.com/JoaoGFarias"] - ["Rachel Stiyer", "https://github.com/rstiyer"] + - ["Deepanshu Utkarsh", "https://github.com/duci9y"] --- -XML is a markup language designed to store and transport data. +XML is a markup language designed to store and transport data. It is supposed to be both human readable and machine readable. Unlike HTML, XML does not specify how to display or to format data, it just carries it. -* XML Syntax +Distinctions are made between the **content** and the **markup**. In short, content could be anything, markup is defined. + +## Some definitions and introductions + +XML Documents are basically made up of *elements* which can have *attributes* describing them and may contain some textual content or more elements as its children. All XML documents must have a root element, which is the ancestor of all the other elements in the document. + +XML Parsers are designed to be very strict, and will stop parsing malformed documents. Therefore it must be ensured that all XML documents follow the [XML Syntax Rules](http://www.w3schools.com/xml/xml_syntax.asp). ```xml -<!-- Comments in XML are like this --> +<!-- This is a comment. It must not contain two consecutive hyphens (-). --> +<!-- Comments can span + multiple lines --> + +<!-- Elements --> +<!-- An element is a basic XML component. There are two types, empty: --> +<element1 attribute="value" /> <!-- Empty elements do not hold any content --> +<!-- and non-empty: --> +<element2 attribute="value">Content</element2> +<!-- Element names may only contain alphabets and numbers. --> + +<empty /> <!-- An element either consists an empty element tag… --> +<!-- …which does not hold any content and is pure markup. --> + +<notempty> <!-- Or, it consists of a start tag… --> + <!-- …some content… --> +</notempty> <!-- and an end tag. --> + +<!-- Element names are case sensitive. --> +<element /> +<!-- is not the same as --> +<eLEMENT /> + +<!-- Attributes --> +<!-- An attribute is a key-value pair and exists within an element. --> +<element attribute="value" another="anotherValue" many="space-separated list" /> +<!-- An attribute may appear only once in an element. It holds just one value. + Common workarounds to this involve the use of space-separated lists. --> + +<!-- Nesting elements --> +<!-- An element's content may include other elements: --> +<parent> + <child>Text</child> + <emptysibling /> +</parent> +<!-- Standard tree nomenclature is followed. Each element being called a node. + An ancestor a level up is the parent, descendants a level down are children. + Elements within the same parent element are siblings. --> + +<!-- XML preserves whitespace. --> +<child> + Text +</child> +<!-- is not the same as --> +<child>Text</child> +``` + +## An XML document +This is what makes XML versatile. It is human readable too. The following document tells us that it defines a bookstore which sells three books, one of which is Learning XML by Erik T. Ray. All this without having used an XML Parser yet. + +```xml <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> +<!-- This is called an XML prolog. Optional, but recommended. --> <bookstore> <book category="COOKING"> <title lang="en">Everyday Italian</title> @@ -36,85 +94,49 @@ Unlike HTML, XML does not specify how to display or to format data, it just carr <price>39.95</price> </book> </bookstore> - -<!-- Above is a typical XML file. - It starts with a declaration, informing some metadata (optional). - - XML uses a tree structure. Above, the root node is 'bookstore', which has - three child nodes, all 'books'. Those nodes have more child nodes (or - children), and so on... - - Nodes are created using open/close tags, and children are just nodes between - the open and close tags.--> - - -<!-- XML carries two kinds of data: - 1 - Attributes -> That's metadata about a node. - Usually, the XML parser uses this information to store the data properly. - It is characterized by appearing with the format name="value" within the opening - tag. - 2 - Elements -> That's pure data. - That's what the parser will retrieve from the XML file. - Elements appear between the open and close tags. --> - - -<!-- Below, an element with two attributes --> -<file type="gif" id="4293">computer.gif</file> - - ``` -* Well-Formated Document x Validation - -An XML document is well-formatted if it is syntactically correct. -However, it is possible to inject more constraints in the document, -using document definitions, such as DTD and XML Schema. +## Well-formedness and Validation -An XML document which follows a document definition is called valid, -in regards to that document. - -With this tool, you can check the XML data outside the application logic. +A XML document is *well-formed* if it is syntactically correct. However, it is possible to add more constraints to the document, using Document Type Definitions (DTDs). A document whose elements are attributes are declared in a DTD and which follows the grammar specified in that DTD is called *valid* with respect to that DTD, in addition to being well-formed. ```xml - -<!-- Below, you can see an simplified version of bookstore document, - with the addition of DTD definition.--> - +<!-- Declaring a DTD externally: --> <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> -<!DOCTYPE note SYSTEM "Bookstore.dtd"> +<!DOCTYPE bookstore SYSTEM "Bookstore.dtd"> +<!-- Declares that bookstore is our root element and 'Bookstore.dtd' is the path + to our DTD file. --> <bookstore> <book category="COOKING"> - <title>Everyday Italian</title> + <title lang="en">Everyday Italian</title> + <author>Giada De Laurentiis</author> + <year>2005</year> <price>30.00</price> </book> </bookstore> -<!-- This DTD could be something like:--> - -<!DOCTYPE note -[ +<!-- The DTD file: --> <!ELEMENT bookstore (book+)> -<!ELEMENT book (title,price)> +<!-- The bookstore element may contain one or more child book elements. --> +<!ELEMENT book (title, price)> +<!-- Each book must have a title and a price as its children. --> <!ATTLIST book category CDATA "Literature"> +<!-- A book should have a category attribute. If it doesn't, its default value + will be 'Literature'. --> <!ELEMENT title (#PCDATA)> +<!-- The element title must only contain parsed character data. That is, it may + only contain text which is read by the parser and must not contain children. + Compare with CDATA, or character data. --> <!ELEMENT price (#PCDATA)> ]> - -<!-- The DTD starts with a declaration. - Following, the root node is declared, requiring 1 or more child nodes 'book'. - Each 'book' should contain exactly one 'title' and 'price' and an attribute - called 'category', with "Literature" as its default value. - The 'title' and 'price' nodes contain a parsed character data.--> - <!-- The DTD could be declared inside the XML file itself.--> <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> -<!DOCTYPE note -[ +<!DOCTYPE bookstore [ <!ELEMENT bookstore (book+)> -<!ELEMENT book (title,price)> +<!ELEMENT book (title, price)> <!ATTLIST book category CDATA "Literature"> <!ELEMENT title (#PCDATA)> <!ELEMENT price (#PCDATA)> @@ -127,3 +149,18 @@ With this tool, you can check the XML data outside the application logic. </book> </bookstore> ``` + +## DTD Compatibility and XML Schema Definitions + +Support for DTDs is ubiquitous because they are so old. Unfortunately, modern XML features like namespaces are not supported by DTDs. XML Schema Definitions (XSDs) are meant to replace DTDs for defining XML document grammar. + +## Resources + +* [Validate your XML](http://www.xmlvalidation.com) + +## Further Reading + +* [XML Schema Definitions Tutorial](http://www.w3schools.com/schema/) +* [DTD Tutorial](http://www.w3schools.com/xml/xml_dtd_intro.asp) +* [XML Tutorial](http://www.w3schools.com/xml/default.asp) +* [Using XPath queries to parse XML](http://www.w3schools.com/xml/xml_xpath.asp) diff --git a/yaml.html.markdown b/yaml.html.markdown index 6e3e2c94..507c4d1f 100644 --- a/yaml.html.markdown +++ b/yaml.html.markdown @@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ language: yaml filename: learnyaml.yaml contributors: - ["Adam Brenecki", "https://github.com/adambrenecki"] + - ["Suhas SG", "https://github.com/jargnar"] --- YAML is a data serialisation language designed to be directly writable and @@ -24,6 +25,8 @@ YAML doesn't allow literal tab characters at all. key: value another_key: Another value goes here. a_number_value: 100 +# If you want to use number 1 as a value, you have to enclose it in quotes, +# otherwise, YAML parser will assume that it is a boolean value of true. scientific_notation: 1e+12 boolean: true null_value: null @@ -66,14 +69,19 @@ a_nested_map: # Maps don't have to have string keys. 0.25: a float key -# Keys can also be multi-line objects, using ? to indicate the start of a key. +# Keys can also be complex, like multi-line objects +# We use ? followed by a space to indicate the start of a complex key. ? | This is a key that has multiple lines : and this is its value -# YAML also allows collection types in keys, but many programming languages -# will complain. +# YAML also allows mapping between sequences with the complex key syntax +# Some language parsers might complain +# An example +? - Manchester United + - Real Madrid +: [ 2001-01-01, 2002-02-02 ] # Sequences (equivalent to lists or arrays) look like this: a_sequence: @@ -101,12 +109,31 @@ json_seq: [3, 2, 1, "takeoff"] anchored_content: &anchor_name This string will appear as the value of two keys. other_anchor: *anchor_name +# Anchors can be used to duplicate/inherit properties +base: &base + name: Everyone has same name + +foo: &foo + <<: *base + age: 10 + +bar: &bar + <<: *base + age: 20 + +# foo and bar would also have name: Everyone has same name + # YAML also has tags, which you can use to explicitly declare types. explicit_string: !!str 0.5 # Some parsers implement language specific tags, like this one for Python's # complex number type. python_complex_number: !!python/complex 1+2j +# We can also use yaml complex keys with language specific tags +? !!python/tuple [5, 7] +: Fifty Seven +# Would be {(5, 7): 'Fifty Seven'} in python + #################### # EXTRA YAML TYPES # #################### diff --git a/zfs.html.markdown b/zfs.html.markdown index 74487e35..3fe05896 100644 --- a/zfs.html.markdown +++ b/zfs.html.markdown @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ filename: LearnZfs.txt [ZFS](http://open-zfs.org/wiki/Main_Page) is a rethinking of the storage stack, combining traditional file systems as well as volume -managers into one cohesive tool. ZFS has some specific teminology that sets it appart from +managers into one cohesive tool. ZFS has some specific terminology that sets it apart from more traditional storage systems, however it has a great set of features with a focus on usability for systems administrators. @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ types of VDEV's that offer various advantages, including redundancy and speed. VDEV's offer better reliability and safety than a RAID card. It is discouraged to use a RAID setup with ZFS, as ZFS expects to directly manage the underlying disks. -Types of VDEV's +Types of VDEV's * stripe (a single disk, no redundancy) * mirror (n-way mirrors supported) * raidz @@ -39,13 +39,13 @@ increase your IOPS. ### Storage Pools ZFS uses Storage Pools as an abstraction over the lower level storage provider (VDEV), allow -you to separate the user visable file system from the physcal layout. +you to separate the user visible file system from the physical layout. ### ZFS Dataset -ZFS datasets are analagous to traditional filesystems but with many more features. They +ZFS datasets are analogous to traditional filesystems but with many more features. They provide many of ZFS's advantages. Datasets support [Copy on Write](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copy-on-write) -snapshots, quota's, compression and deduplication. +snapshots, quota's, compression and de-duplication. ### Limits @@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ Actions: List zpools ```bash -# Create a raidz zpool +# Create a raidz zpool $ zpool create bucket raidz1 gpt/zfs0 gpt/zfs1 gpt/zfs2 # List ZPools @@ -347,7 +347,7 @@ $ zfs promote tank/home/sarlalian_new ### Putting it all together -This following a script utilizing FreeBSD, jails and ZFS to automate +This following a script utilizing FreeBSD, jails and ZFS to automate provisioning a clean copy of a mysql staging database from a live replication slave. @@ -384,7 +384,7 @@ mv /jails/staging/etc/rc.conf.staging /jails/staging/etc/rc.conf.local echo "==== Starting the staging db server ====" jail -c staging -echo "==== Make sthe staging database not pull from the master ====" +echo "==== Makes the staging database not pull from the master ====" echo "STOP SLAVE;" | /usr/local/bin/mysql -u root -pmyrootpassword -h staging echo "RESET SLAVE;" | /usr/local/bin/mysql -u root -pmyrootpassword -h staging ``` @@ -393,7 +393,7 @@ echo "RESET SLAVE;" | /usr/local/bin/mysql -u root -pmyrootpassword -h staging ### Additional Reading * [BSDNow's Crash Course on ZFS](http://www.bsdnow.tv/tutorials/zfs) -* [FreeBSD Handbook on ZFS](https://wiki.freebsd.org/ZF://wiki.freebsd.org/ZFS) +* [FreeBSD Handbook on ZFS](https://www.freebsd.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/zfs.html) * [BSDNow's Crash Course on ZFS](http://www.bsdnow.tv/tutorials/zfs) * [Oracle's Tuning Guide](http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/articles/servers-storage-admin/sto-recommended-zfs-settings-1951715.html) * [OpenZFS Tuning Guide](http://open-zfs.org/wiki/Performance_tuning) diff --git a/zh-cn/brainfuck-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/bf-cn.html.markdown index a6f3fa09..6cea3012 100644 --- a/zh-cn/brainfuck-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/bf-cn.html.markdown @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ --- -language: brainfuck +language: bf lang: zh-cn contributors: - ["Prajit Ramachandran", "http://prajitr.github.io/"] diff --git a/zh-cn/haskell-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/haskell-cn.html.markdown index 8904970f..b0b1183f 100644 --- a/zh-cn/haskell-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/haskell-cn.html.markdown @@ -200,13 +200,13 @@ foo 5 -- 75 -- 你可以使用 `$` 来移除多余的括号。 -- 修改前 -(even (fib 7)) -- true +(even (fib 7)) -- False -- 修改后 -even . fib $ 7 -- true +even . fib $ 7 -- False -- 等价地 -even $ fib 7 -- true +even $ fib 7 -- False ---------------------------------------------------- -- 5. 类型声明 diff --git a/zh-cn/java-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/java-cn.html.markdown index 12afa59a..1e9c38f6 100644 --- a/zh-cn/java-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/java-cn.html.markdown @@ -302,7 +302,7 @@ class Bicycle { // 构造函数是初始化一个对象的方式 // 以下是一个默认构造函数 - public Bi450635425cycle() { + public Bicycle() { gear = 1; cadence = 50; speed = 5; @@ -328,7 +328,7 @@ class Bicycle { return cadence; } - // void返450635425回值函数没有返回值 + // void返回值函数没有返回值 public void setCadence(int newValue) { cadence = newValue; } @@ -405,4 +405,4 @@ class PennyFarthing extends Bicycle { * [泛型](http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/generics/index.html) -* [Java代码规范](http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/codeconv-138413.html) +* [Java代码规范](http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/codeconvtoc-136057.html) diff --git a/zh-cn/lua-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/lua-cn.html.markdown index 098d0ab5..f7065445 100644 --- a/zh-cn/lua-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/lua-cn.html.markdown @@ -91,10 +91,10 @@ until num == 0 -- 2. 函数。 ---------------------------------------------------- -function fib(n) - if n < 2 then return 1 end - return fib(n - 2) + fib(n - 1) -end +function fib(n) + if n < 2 then return n end + return fib(n - 2) + fib(n - 1) +end -- 支持闭包及匿名函数： function adder(x) @@ -129,9 +129,11 @@ function f(x) return x * x end f = function (x) return x * x end -- 这些也是等价的： -local function g(x) return math.sin(x) end -local g; g = function (x) return math.sin(x) end --- 'local g'使得g可以自引用。 +local function g(x) return math.sin(x) end +local g; g = function (x) return math.sin(x) end +-- 以上均因'local g'，使得g可以自引用。 +local g = function(x) return math.sin(x) end +-- 等价于 local function g(x)..., 但函数体中g不可自引用 -- 顺便提下，三角函数以弧度为单位。 @@ -210,7 +212,7 @@ f2 = {a = 2, b = 3} metafraction = {} function metafraction.__add(f1, f2) - sum = {} + local sum = {} sum.b = f1.b * f2.b sum.a = f1.a * f2.b + f2.a * f1.b return sum @@ -273,7 +275,7 @@ eatenBy = myFavs.animal -- 可以工作！感谢元表 Dog = {} -- 1. function Dog:new() -- 2. - newObj = {sound = 'woof'} -- 3. + local newObj = {sound = 'woof'} -- 3. self.__index = self -- 4. return setmetatable(newObj, self) -- 5. end @@ -307,7 +309,7 @@ mrDog:makeSound() -- 'I say woof' -- 8. LoudDog = Dog:new() -- 1. function LoudDog:makeSound() - s = self.sound .. ' ' -- 2. + local s = self.sound .. ' ' -- 2. print(s .. s .. s) end @@ -328,7 +330,7 @@ seymour:makeSound() -- 'woof woof woof' -- 4. -- 如果有必要，子类也可以有new()，与基类相似： function LoudDog:new() - newObj = {} + local newObj = {} -- 初始化newObj self.__index = self return setmetatable(newObj, self) @@ -340,7 +342,9 @@ end --[[ 我把这部分给注释了，这样脚本剩下的部分可以运行 +``` +```lua -- 假设文件mod.lua的内容类似这样： local M = {} @@ -411,4 +415,9 @@ lua-users.org上的[Lua简明参考](http://lua-users.org/files/wiki_insecure/us * <a href="http://lua-users.org/wiki/IoLibraryTutorial">io library</a> * <a href="http://lua-users.org/wiki/OsLibraryTutorial">os library</a> +顺便说一下，整个文件是可运行的Lua; +保存为 learn-cn.lua 用命令 `lua learn.lua` 启动吧！ + +本文首次撰写于 [tylerneylon.com](http://tylerneylon.com) 同时也有 [github gist](https://gist.github.com/tylerneylon/5853042) 版. + 使用Lua，欢乐常在！ diff --git a/zh-cn/markdown-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/markdown-cn.html.markdown index b633714d..87ed46ad 100644 --- a/zh-cn/markdown-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/markdown-cn.html.markdown @@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ __此文本也是__ **_或者这样。_** *__这个也是！__* -<!-- 在 Github 采用的 Markdown 中 --> +<!-- 在 GitHub 采用的 Markdown 中 --> ~~此文本为删除线效果。~~ @@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ __此文本也是__ John 甚至不知道 `go_to()` 方程是干嘛的! -<!-- 在Github的 Markdown中，对于代码你可以使用特殊的语法 --> +<!-- 在GitHub的 Markdown中，对于代码你可以使用特殊的语法 --> \`\`\`ruby <!-- 插入时记得移除反斜线， 仅留```ruby ！ --> def foobar @@ -150,7 +150,7 @@ def foobar end \`\`\` <!-- 这里也是，移除反斜线，仅留 ``` --> -<!-- 以上代码不需要缩进，而且 Github 会根据```后表明的语言来进行语法高亮 --> +<!-- 以上代码不需要缩进，而且 GitHub 会根据```后表明的语言来进行语法高亮 --> <!-- 水平线 （<hr />） --> <!-- 水平线可由三个或以上的星号或者减号创建，可带可不带空格。 --> @@ -220,7 +220,7 @@ end 斜体化, 所以我就: \*这段置文字于星号之间\*。 <!-- 表格 --> -<!-- 表格只被 Github 的 Markdown 支持，并且有一点笨重，但如果你真的要用的话: --> +<!-- 表格只被 GitHub 的 Markdown 支持，并且有一点笨重，但如果你真的要用的话: --> | 第一列 | 第二列 | 第三列 | | :---------- | :------: | ----------: | diff --git a/zh-cn/python3-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/python3-cn.html.markdown index c223297c..76455a46 100644 --- a/zh-cn/python3-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/python3-cn.html.markdown @@ -535,7 +535,7 @@ Human.grunt() # => "*grunt*" # 用import导入模块 import math -print(math.sqrt(16)) # => 4 +print(math.sqrt(16)) # => 4.0 # 也可以从模块中导入个别值 from math import ceil, floor diff --git a/zh-cn/scala-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/scala-cn.html.markdown index 508dd58e..f3327b5b 100644 --- a/zh-cn/scala-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/scala-cn.html.markdown @@ -369,7 +369,7 @@ object Dog { // Case 类是有额外内建功能的类。Scala 初学者常遇到的问题之一便是何时用类 // 和何时用 case 类。界线比较模糊，但通常类倾向于封装，多态和行为。类中的值 -// 的作用域一般为 private ， 只有方向是暴露的。case 类的主要目的是放置不可变 +// 的作用域一般为 private ， 只有方法是暴露的。case 类的主要目的是放置不可变 // 数据。它们通常只有几个方法，且方法几乎没有副作用。 case class Person(name: String, phoneNumber: String) diff --git a/zh-cn/swift-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/swift-cn.html.markdown index 28001e3f..3efe4941 100644 --- a/zh-cn/swift-cn.html.markdown +++ b/zh-cn/swift-cn.html.markdown @@ -5,7 +5,8 @@ contributors: - ["Grant Timmerman", "http://github.com/grant"] translators: - ["Xavier Yao", "http://github.com/xavieryao"] - - ["Joey Huang", "http://github.com/kamidox"] + - ["Joey Huang", "http://github.com/kamidox"] + - ["CY Lim", "http://github.com/cylim"] lang: zh-cn --- @@ -13,13 +14,13 @@ Swift 是 Apple 开发的用于 iOS 和 OS X 开发的编程语言。Swift 于20 Swift 的官方语言教程 [Swift Programming Language](https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/swift-programming-language/id881256329) 可以从 iBooks 免费下载. -亦可参阅：Apple's [getting started guide](https://developer.apple.com/library/prerelease/ios/referencelibrary/GettingStarted/RoadMapiOS/index.html) ——一个完整的Swift 教程 +亦可参阅：Apple's [getting started guide](https://developer.apple.com/library/prerelease/ios/referencelibrary/GettingStarted/DevelopiOSAppsSwift/) ——一个完整的Swift 教程 ```swift // 导入外部模块 import UIKit -// +// // MARK: 基础 // @@ -28,12 +29,14 @@ import UIKit // TODO: TODO 标记 // FIXME: FIXME 标记 -println("Hello, world") +// Swift2.0 println() 及 print() 已经整合成 print()。 +print("Hello, world") // 这是原本的 println()，会自动进入下一行 +print("Hello, world", appendNewLine: false) // 如果不要自动进入下一行，需设定进入下一行为 false // 变量 (var) 的值设置后可以随意改变 // 常量 (let) 的值设置后不能改变 var myVariable = 42 -let øπΩ = "value" // 可以支持 unicode 变量名 +let øπΩ = "value" // 可以支持 unicode 变量名 let π = 3.1415926 let myConstant = 3.1415926 let explicitDouble: Double = 70 // 明确指定变量类型为 Double ，否则编译器将自动推断变量类型 @@ -46,16 +49,17 @@ let piText = "Pi = \(π), Pi 2 = \(π * 2)" // 格式化字符串 // 条件编译 // 使用 -D 定义编译开关 #if false - println("Not printed") + print("Not printed") let buildValue = 3 #else let buildValue = 7 #endif -println("Build value: \(buildValue)") // Build value: 7 +print("Build value: \(buildValue)") // Build value: 7 /* - Optionals 是 Swift 的新特性，它允许你存储两种状态的值给 Optional 变量：有效值或 None - + Optionals 是 Swift 的新特性，它允许你存储两种状态的值给 Optional 变量：有效值或 None 。 + 可在值名称后加个问号 （？） 来表示这个值是 Optional。 + Swift 要求所有的 Optinal 属性都必须有明确的值，如果为空，则必须明确设定为 nil Optional<T> 是个枚举类型 @@ -67,13 +71,17 @@ var someOptionalString2: Optional<String> = "optional" if someOptionalString != nil { // 变量不为空 if someOptionalString!.hasPrefix("opt") { - println("has the prefix") + print("has the prefix") } - + let empty = someOptionalString?.isEmpty } someOptionalString = nil +/* + 使用 （！） 可以解决无法访问optional值的运行错误。若要使用 （！）来强制解析，一定要确保 Optional 里不是 nil参数。 +*/ + // 显式解包 optional 变量 var unwrappedString: String! = "Value is expected." // 下面语句和上面完全等价，感叹号 (!) 是个后缀运算符，这也是个语法糖 @@ -94,7 +102,7 @@ anyObjectVar = "Changed value to a string, not good practice, but possible." /* 这里是注释 - + /* 支持嵌套的注释 */ @@ -116,6 +124,7 @@ shoppingList[1] = "bottle of water" let emptyArray = [String]() // 使用 let 定义常量，此时 emptyArray 数组不能添加或删除内容 let emptyArray2 = Array<String>() // 与上一语句等价，上一语句更常用 var emptyMutableArray = [String]() // 使用 var 定义变量，可以向 emptyMutableArray 添加数组元素 +var explicitEmptyMutableStringArray: [String] = [] // 与上一语句等价 // 字典 var occupations = [ @@ -126,6 +135,7 @@ occupations["Jayne"] = "Public Relations" // 修改字典，如果 key 不存 let emptyDictionary = [String: Float]() // 使用 let 定义字典常量，字典常量不能修改里面的值 let emptyDictionary2 = Dictionary<String, Float>() // 与上一语句类型等价，上一语句更常用 var emptyMutableDictionary = [String: Float]() // 使用 var 定义字典变量 +var explicitEmptyMutableDictionary: [String: Float] = [:] // 与上一语句类型等价 // @@ -136,21 +146,21 @@ var emptyMutableDictionary = [String: Float]() // 使用 var 定义字典变量 let myArray = [1, 1, 2, 3, 5] for value in myArray { if value == 1 { - println("One!") + print("One!") } else { - println("Not one!") + print("Not one!") } } // 字典的 for 循环 var dict = ["one": 1, "two": 2] for (key, value) in dict { - println("\(key): \(value)") + print("\(key): \(value)") } // 区间的 loop 循环：其中 `...` 表示闭环区间，即[-1, 3]；`..<` 表示半开闭区间，即[-1,3) for i in -1...shoppingList.count { - println(i) + print(i) } shoppingList[1...2] = ["steak", "peacons"] // 可以使用 `..<` 来去掉最后一个元素 @@ -163,7 +173,7 @@ while i < 1000 { // do-while 循环 do { - println("hello") + print("hello") } while 1 == 2 // Switch 语句 @@ -177,7 +187,7 @@ case "cucumber", "watercress": let vegetableComment = "That would make a good tea sandwich." case let localScopeValue where localScopeValue.hasSuffix("pepper"): let vegetableComment = "Is it a spicy \(localScopeValue)?" -default: // 在 Swift 里，switch 语句的 case 必须处理所有可能的情况，如果 case 无法全部处理，则必须包含 default语句 +default: // 在 Swift 里，switch 语句的 case 必须处理所有可能的情况，如果 case 无法全部处理，则必须包含 default语句 let vegetableComment = "Everything tastes good in soup." } @@ -219,8 +229,8 @@ let pricesTuple = getGasPrices() let price = pricesTuple.2 // 3.79 // 通过下划线 (_) 来忽略不关心的值 let (_, price1, _) = pricesTuple // price1 == 3.69 -println(price1 == pricesTuple.1) // true -println("Gas price: \(price)") +print(price1 == pricesTuple.1) // true +print("Gas price: \(price)") // 可变参数 func setup(numbers: Int...) { @@ -248,7 +258,7 @@ func swapTwoInts(inout a: Int, inout b: Int) { var someIntA = 7 var someIntB = 3 swapTwoInts(&someIntA, &someIntB) -println(someIntB) // 7 +print(someIntB) // 7 // @@ -256,7 +266,7 @@ println(someIntB) // 7 // var numbers = [1, 2, 6] -// 函数是闭包的一个特例 +// 函数是闭包的一个特例 ({}) // 闭包实例 // `->` 分隔了闭包的参数和返回值 @@ -296,7 +306,7 @@ print(numbers) // [3, 6, 18] struct NamesTable { let names = [String]() - + // 自定义下标运算符 subscript(index: Int) -> String { return names[index] @@ -306,7 +316,7 @@ struct NamesTable { // 结构体有一个自动生成的隐含的命名构造函数 let namesTable = NamesTable(names: ["Me", "Them"]) let name = namesTable[1] -println("Name is \(name)") // Name is Them +print("Name is \(name)") // Name is Them // // MARK: 类 @@ -329,7 +339,7 @@ public class Shape { internal class Rect: Shape { // 值属性 (Stored properties) var sideLength: Int = 1 - + // 计算属性 (Computed properties) private var perimeter: Int { get { @@ -340,11 +350,11 @@ internal class Rect: Shape { sideLength = newValue / 4 } } - + // 延时加载的属性，只有这个属性第一次被引用时才进行初始化，而不是定义时就初始化 // subShape 值为 nil ，直到 subShape 第一次被引用时才初始化为一个 Rect 实例 lazy var subShape = Rect(sideLength: 4) - + // 监控属性值的变化。 // 当我们需要在属性值改变时做一些事情，可以使用 `willSet` 和 `didSet` 来设置监控函数 // `willSet`: 值改变之前被调用 @@ -352,14 +362,14 @@ internal class Rect: Shape { var identifier: String = "defaultID" { // `willSet` 的参数是即将设置的新值，参数名可以指定，如果没有指定，就是 `newValue` willSet(someIdentifier) { - println(someIdentifier) + print(someIdentifier) } // `didSet` 的参数是已经被覆盖掉的旧的值，参数名也可以指定，如果没有指定，就是 `oldValue` didSet { - println(oldValue) + print(oldValue) } } - + // 命名构造函数 (designated inits)，它必须初始化所有的成员变量， // 然后调用父类的命名构造函数继续初始化父类的所有变量。 init(sideLength: Int) { @@ -367,13 +377,13 @@ internal class Rect: Shape { // 必须显式地在构造函数最后调用父类的构造函数 super.init super.init() } - + func shrink() { if sideLength > 0 { --sideLength } } - + // 函数重载使用 override 关键字 override func getArea() -> Int { return sideLength * sideLength @@ -394,16 +404,16 @@ class Square: Rect { } var mySquare = Square() -println(mySquare.getArea()) // 25 +print(mySquare.getArea()) // 25 mySquare.shrink() -println(mySquare.sideLength) // 4 +print(mySquare.sideLength) // 4 // 类型转换 let aShape = mySquare as Shape // 使用三个等号来比较是不是同一个实例 if mySquare === aShape { - println("Yep, it's mySquare") + print("Yep, it's mySquare") } class Circle: Shape { @@ -411,12 +421,12 @@ class Circle: Shape { override func getArea() -> Int { return 3 * radius * radius } - + // optional 构造函数，可能会返回 nil init?(radius: Int) { self.radius = radius super.init() - + if radius <= 0 { return nil } @@ -425,13 +435,13 @@ class Circle: Shape { // 根据 Swift 类型推断，myCircle 是 Optional<Circle> 类型的变量 var myCircle = Circle(radius: 1) -println(myCircle?.getArea()) // Optional(3) -println(myCircle!.getArea()) // 3 +print(myCircle?.getArea()) // Optional(3) +print(myCircle!.getArea()) // 3 var myEmptyCircle = Circle(radius: -1) -println(myEmptyCircle?.getArea()) // "nil" +print(myEmptyCircle?.getArea()) // "nil" if let circle = myEmptyCircle { // 此语句不会输出，因为 myEmptyCircle 变量值为 nil - println("circle is not nil") + print("circle is not nil") } @@ -461,7 +471,7 @@ enum BookName: String { case John = "John" case Luke = "Luke" } -println("Name: \(BookName.John.rawValue)") +print("Name: \(BookName.John.rawValue)") // 与特定数据类型关联的枚举 enum Furniture { @@ -469,7 +479,7 @@ enum Furniture { case Desk(height: Int) // 和 String, Int 关联的枚举记录 case Chair(brand: String, height: Int) - + func description() -> String { switch self { case .Desk(let height): @@ -481,9 +491,9 @@ enum Furniture { } var desk: Furniture = .Desk(height: 80) -println(desk.description()) // "Desk with 80 cm" +print(desk.description()) // "Desk with 80 cm" var chair = Furniture.Chair(brand: "Foo", height: 40) -println(chair.description()) // "Chair of Foo with 40 cm" +print(chair.description()) // "Chair of Foo with 40 cm" // @@ -512,7 +522,7 @@ protocol ShapeGenerator { class MyShape: Rect { var delegate: TransformShape? - + func grow() { sideLength += 2 @@ -539,21 +549,21 @@ extension Square: Printable { } } -println("Square: \(mySquare)") // Area: 16 - ID: defaultID +print("Square: \(mySquare)") // Area: 16 - ID: defaultID // 也可以给系统内置类型添加功能支持 extension Int { var customProperty: String { return "This is \(self)" } - + func multiplyBy(num: Int) -> Int { return num * self } } -println(7.customProperty) // "This is 7" -println(14.multiplyBy(3)) // 42 +print(7.customProperty) // "This is 7" +print(14.multiplyBy(3)) // 42 // 泛型: 和 Java 及 C# 的泛型类似，使用 `where` 关键字来限制类型。 // 如果只有一个类型限制，可以省略 `where` 关键字 @@ -566,7 +576,7 @@ func findIndex<T: Equatable>(array: [T], valueToFind: T) -> Int? { return nil } let foundAtIndex = findIndex([1, 2, 3, 4], 3) -println(foundAtIndex == 2) // true +print(foundAtIndex == 2) // true // 自定义运算符: // 自定义运算符可以以下面的字符打头: @@ -581,11 +591,24 @@ prefix func !!! (inout shape: Square) -> Square { } // 当前值 -println(mySquare.sideLength) // 4 +print(mySquare.sideLength) // 4 // 使用自定义的 !!! 运算符来把矩形边长放大三倍 !!!mySquare -println(mySquare.sideLength) // 12 +print(mySquare.sideLength) // 12 -``` +// 运算符也可以是泛型 +infix operator <-> {} +func <-><T: Equatable> (inout a: T, inout b: T) { + let c = a + a = b + b = c +} +var foo: Float = 10 +var bar: Float = 20 + +foo <-> bar +print("foo is \(foo), bar is \(bar)") // "foo is 20.0, bar is 10.0" + +``` diff --git a/zh-cn/tmux-cn.html.markdown b/zh-cn/tmux-cn.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..cf865dce --- /dev/null +++ b/zh-cn/tmux-cn.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,253 @@ +--- +category: tool +tool: tmux +filename: LearnTmux-cn.txt +contributors: + - ["mdln", "https://github.com/mdln"] +translators: + - ["Arnie97", "https://github.com/Arnie97"] +lang: zh-cn +--- + + +[tmux](http://tmux.github.io)是一款终端复用工具。 +在它的帮助下，你可以在同一个控制台上建立、访问并控制多个终端。 +你可以断开与一个 tmux 终端的连接，此时程序将在后台运行， +当你需要时，可以随时重新连接到这个终端。 + +``` + + tmux [command] # 运行一条命令 + # 如果单独使用 'tmux' 而不指定某个命令，将会建立一个新的会话 + + new # 创建一个新的会话 + -s "Session" # 创建一个会话，并命名为“Session” + -n "Window" # 创建一个窗口，并命名为“Window” + -c "/dir" # 在指定的工作目录中启动会话 + + attach # 连接到上一次的会话（如果可用） + -t "#" # 连接到指定的会话 + -d # 断开其他客户端的会话 + + ls # 列出打开的会话 + -a # 列出所有打开的会话 + + lsw # 列出窗口 + -a # 列出所有窗口 + -s # 列出会话中的所有窗口 + + lsp # 列出窗格 + -a # 列出所有窗格 + -s # 列出会话中的所有窗格 + -t "#" # 列出指定窗口中的所有窗格 + + kill-window # 关闭当前窗口 + -t "#" # 关闭指定的窗口 + -a # 关闭所有窗口 + -a -t "#" # 关闭除指定窗口以外的所有窗口 + + kill-session # 关闭当前会话 + -t "#" # 关闭指定的会话 + -a # 关闭所有会话 + -a -t "#" # 关闭除指定会话以外的所有会话 + +``` + + +### 快捷键 + +通过“前缀”快捷键，可以控制一个已经连入的 tmux 会话。 + +``` +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + (C-b) = Ctrl + b # 在使用下列快捷键之前，需要按这个“前缀”快捷键 + + (M-1) = Meta + 1 或 Alt + 1 +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + + ? # 列出所有快捷键 + : # 进入 tmux 的命令提示符 + r # 强制重绘当前客户端 + c # 创建一个新窗口 + + ! # 将当前窗格从窗口中移出，成为为一个新的窗口 + % # 将当前窗格分为左右两半 + " # 将当前窗格分为上下两半 + + n # 切换到下一个窗口 + p # 切换到上一个窗口 + { # 将当前窗格与上一个窗格交换 + } # 将当前窗格与下一个窗格交换 + + s # 在交互式界面中，选择并连接至另一个会话 + w # 在交互式界面中，选择并激活一个窗口 + 0 至 9 # 选择 0 到 9 号窗口 + + d # 断开当前客户端 + D # 选择并断开一个客户端 + + & # 关闭当前窗口 + x # 关闭当前窗格 + + Up, Down # 将焦点移动至相邻的窗格 + Left, Right + + M-1 到 M-5 # 排列窗格： + # 1) 水平等分 + # 2) 垂直等分 + # 3) 将一个窗格作为主要窗格，其他窗格水平等分 + # 4) 将一个窗格作为主要窗格，其他窗格垂直等分 + # 5) 平铺 + + C-Up, C-Down # 改变当前窗格的大小，每按一次增减一个单位 + C-Left, C-Right + + M-Up, M-Down # 改变当前窗格的大小，每按一次增减五个单位 + M-Left, M-Right + +``` + + +### 配置 ~/.tmux.conf + +tmux.conf 可以在 tmux 启动时自动设置选项，类似于 .vimrc 或 init.el 的用法。 + +``` +# tmux.conf 示例 +# 2014.10 + + +### 通用设置 +########################################################################### + +# 启用 UTF-8 编码 +setw -g utf8 on +set-option -g status-utf8 on + +# 命令回滚/历史数量限制 +set -g history-limit 2048 + +# 从 1 开始编号，而不是从 0 开始 +set -g base-index 1 + +# 启用鼠标 +set-option -g mouse-select-pane on + +# 重新加载配置文件 +unbind r +bind r source-file ~/.tmux.conf + + +### 快捷键设置 +########################################################################### + +# 取消默认的前缀键 C-b +unbind C-b + +# 设置新的前缀键 ` +set-option -g prefix ` + +# 多次按下前缀键时，切换到上一个窗口 +bind C-a last-window +bind ` last-window + +# 按下F11/F12，可以选择不同的前缀键 +bind F11 set-option -g prefix C-a +bind F12 set-option -g prefix ` + +# Vim 风格的快捷键绑定 +setw -g mode-keys vi +set-option -g status-keys vi + +# 使用 Vim 风格的按键在窗格间移动 +bind h select-pane -L +bind j select-pane -D +bind k select-pane -U +bind l select-pane -R + +# 循环切换不同的窗口 +bind e previous-window +bind f next-window +bind E swap-window -t -1 +bind F swap-window -t +1 + +# 较易于使用的窗格分割快捷键 +bind = split-window -h +bind - split-window -v +unbind '"' +unbind % + +# 在嵌套使用 tmux 的情况下，激活最内层的会话，以便向其发送命令 +bind a send-prefix + + +### 外观主题 +########################################################################### + +# 状态栏颜色 +set-option -g status-justify left +set-option -g status-bg black +set-option -g status-fg white +set-option -g status-left-length 40 +set-option -g status-right-length 80 + +# 窗格边框颜色 +set-option -g pane-active-border-fg green +set-option -g pane-active-border-bg black +set-option -g pane-border-fg white +set-option -g pane-border-bg black + +# 消息框颜色 +set-option -g message-fg black +set-option -g message-bg green + +# 窗口状态栏颜色 +setw -g window-status-bg black +setw -g window-status-current-fg green +setw -g window-status-bell-attr default +setw -g window-status-bell-fg red +setw -g window-status-content-attr default +setw -g window-status-content-fg yellow +setw -g window-status-activity-attr default +setw -g window-status-activity-fg yellow + + +### 用户界面 +########################################################################### + +# 通知方式 +setw -g monitor-activity on +set -g visual-activity on +set-option -g bell-action any +set-option -g visual-bell off + +# 自动设置窗口标题 +set-option -g set-titles on +set-option -g set-titles-string '#H:#S.#I.#P #W #T' # 窗口编号,程序名称,是否活动 + +# 调整状态栏 +set -g status-left "#[fg=red] #H#[fg=green]:#[fg=white]#S#[fg=green] |#[default]" + +# 在状态栏中显示性能计数器 +# 需要用到 https://github.com/thewtex/tmux-mem-cpu-load +set -g status-interval 4 +set -g status-right "#[fg=green] | #[fg=white]#(tmux-mem-cpu-load)#[fg=green] | #[fg=cyan]%H:%M #[default]" + +``` + + +### 参考资料 + +[Tmux 主页](http://tmux.github.io) + +[Tmux 手册](http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi/OpenBSD-current/man1/tmux.1?query=tmux) + +[FreeBSDChina Wiki](https://wiki.freebsdchina.org/software/t/tmux) + +[Archlinux Wiki](https://wiki.archlinux.org/index.php/Tmux_(简体中文)) + +[Tmux 快速教程](http://blog.jeswang.org/blog/2013/06/24/tmux-kuai-su-jiao-cheng) + +[如何在 tmux 状态栏中显示 CPU / 内存占用的百分比](https://stackoverflow.com/questions/11558907/is-there-a-better-way-to-display-cpu-usage-in-tmux) + +[管理复杂 tmux 会话的工具 - tmuxinator](https://github.com/tmuxinator/tmuxinator) diff --git a/zh-tw/python-tw.html.markdown b/zh-tw/python-tw.html.markdown new file mode 100644 index 00000000..553181d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/zh-tw/python-tw.html.markdown @@ -0,0 +1,727 @@ +--- +language: python +contributors: + - ["Louie Dinh", "http://ldinh.ca"] + - ["Amin Bandali", "http://aminbandali.com"] + - ["Andre Polykanine", "https://github.com/Oire"] + - ["evuez", "http://github.com/evuez"] +translators: + - ["Michael Yeh", "https://hinet60613.github.io/"] +filename: learnpython-tw.py +lang: zh-tw +--- + +Python是在1990年代早期由Guido Van Rossum創建的。它是現在最流行的程式語言之一。我愛上Python是因為他極為清晰的語法，甚至可以說它就是可執行的虛擬碼。 + +非常歡迎各位給我們任何回饋！ 你可以在[@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) 或 louiedinh [at] [google's email service]聯絡到我。 + +註： 本篇文章適用的版本為Python 2.7，但大部分的Python 2.X版本應該都適用。 Python 2.7將會在2020年停止維護，因此建議您可以從Python 3開始學Python。 +Python 3.X可以看這篇[Python 3 教學 (英文)](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/python3/). + +讓程式碼同時支援Python 2.7和3.X是可以做到的，只要引入 + [`__future__` imports](https://docs.python.org/2/library/__future__.html) 模組. + `__future__` 模組允許你撰寫可以在Python 2上執行的Python 3程式碼，詳細訊息請參考Python 3 教學。 + +```python + +# 單行註解從井字號開始 + +""" 多行字串可以用三個雙引號 + 包住，不過通常這種寫法會 + 被拿來當作多行註解 +""" + +#################################################### +## 1. 原始型別與運算元 +#################################################### + +# 你可以使用數字 +3 # => 3 + +# 還有四則運算 +1 + 1 # => 2 +8 - 1 # => 7 +10 * 2 # => 20 +35 / 5 # => 7 + +# 除法比較麻煩，除以整數時會自動捨去小數位。 +5 / 2 # => 2 + +# 要做精確的除法，我們需要浮點數 +2.0 # 浮點數 +11.0 / 4.0 # => 2.75 精確多了！ + +# 整數除法的無條件捨去對正數或負數都適用 +5 // 3 # => 1 +5.0 // 3.0 # => 1.0 # 浮點數的整數也適用 +-5 // 3 # => -2 +-5.0 // 3.0 # => -2.0 + +# 我們可以用除法模組(參考第六節:模組)，讓 +# 單一斜線代表普通除法，而非無條件捨去 +from __future__ import division +11/4 # => 2.75 ...普通除法 +11//4 # => 2 ...無條件捨去 + +# 取餘數 +7 % 3 # => 1 + +# 指數 (x的y次方) +2**4 # => 16 + +# 用括號改變運算順序 +(1 + 3) * 2 # => 8 + +# 布林運算 +# 注意 "and" 和 "or" 要用小寫 +True and False #=> False +False or True #=> True + +# 用整數與布林值做運算 +0 and 2 #=> 0 +-5 or 0 #=> -5 +0 == False #=> True +2 == True #=> False +1 == True #=> True + +# 用not取反向 +not True # => False +not False # => True + +# 等於判斷是用 == +1 == 1 # => True +2 == 1 # => False + +# 不等於判斷是用 != +1 != 1 # => False +2 != 1 # => True + +# 更多比較 +1 < 10 # => True +1 > 10 # => False +2 <= 2 # => True +2 >= 2 # => True + +# 比較是可以串接的 +1 < 2 < 3 # => True +2 < 3 < 2 # => False + +# 字串用單引號 ' 或雙引號 " 建立 +"This is a string." +'This is also a string.' + +# 字串相加會被串接再一起 +"Hello " + "world!" # => "Hello world!" +# 不用加號也可以做字串相加 +"Hello " "world!" # => "Hello world!" + +# ... 也可以做相乘 +"Hello" * 3 # => "HelloHelloHello" + +# 字串可以被視為字元的陣列 +"This is a string"[0] # => 'T' + +# 字串的格式化可以用百分之符號 % +# 儘管在Python 3.1後這個功能被廢棄了，並且在 +# 之後的版本會被移除，但還是可以了解一下 +x = 'apple' +y = 'lemon' +z = "The items in the basket are %s and %s" % (x,y) + +# 新的格式化方式是使用format函式 +# 這個方式也是較為推薦的 +"{} is a {}".format("This", "placeholder") +"{0} can be {1}".format("strings", "formatted") +# 你也可以用關鍵字，如果你不想數你是要用第幾個變數的話 +"{name} wants to eat {food}".format(name="Bob", food="lasagna") + +# 無(None) 是一個物件 +None # => None + +# 不要用等於符號 "==" 對 無(None)做比較 +# 用 "is" +"etc" is None # => False +None is None # => True + +# 'is' 運算元是用來識別物件的。對原始型別來說或許沒什麼用， +# 但對物件來說是很有用的。 + +# 任何物件都可以被當作布林值使用 +# 以下的值會被視為是False : +# - 無(None) +# - 任何型別的零 (例如: 0, 0L, 0.0, 0j) +# - 空序列 (例如: '', (), []) +# - 空容器 (例如: {}, set()) +# - 自定義型別的實體，且滿足某些條件 +# 請參考文件: https://docs.python.org/2/reference/datamodel.html#object.__nonzero__ +# +# 其餘的值都會被視為True (用bool()函式讓他們回傳布林值). +bool(0) # => False +bool("") # => False + + +#################################################### +## 2. 變數與集合 +#################################################### + +# Python的輸出很方便 +print "I'm Python. Nice to meet you!" # => I'm Python. Nice to meet you! + +# 從命令列獲得值也很方便 +input_string_var = raw_input("Enter some data: ") # 資料會被視為字串存進變數 +input_var = input("Enter some data: ") # 輸入的資料會被當作Python程式碼執行 +# 注意: 請謹慎使用input()函式 +# 註: 在Python 3中，input()已被棄用，raw_input()已被更名為input() + +# 使用變數前不需要先宣告 +some_var = 5 # 方便好用 +lower_case_with_underscores +some_var # => 5 + +# 對沒有被賦值的變數取值會造成例外 +# 請參考錯誤流程部分做例外處理 +some_other_var # 造成 NameError + +# if可以當判斷式使用 +# 相當於C語言中的二元判斷式 +"yahoo!" if 3 > 2 else 2 # => "yahoo!" + +# 串列型態可以儲存集合 +li = [] +# 你可以預先填好串列內容 +other_li = [4, 5, 6] + +# 用append()在串列後新增東西 +li.append(1) # 此時 li 內容為 [1] +li.append(2) # 此時 li 內容為 [1, 2] +li.append(4) # 此時 li 內容為 [1, 2, 4] +li.append(3) # 此時 li 內容為 [1, 2, 4, 3] +# 用pop()移除串列尾端的元素 +li.pop() # => 3 ，此時 li 內容為 [1, 2, 4] +# 然後再塞回去 +li.append(3) # 此時 li 內容再次為 [1, 2, 4, 3] + +# 你可以像存取陣列一樣的存取串列 +li[0] # => 1 +# 用等號 = 給串列中特定索引的元素賦值 +li[0] = 42 +li[0] # => 42 +li[0] = 1 # 註: 將其設定回原本的值 +# 用 -1 索引值查看串列最後一個元素 +li[-1] # => 3 + +# 存取超過範圍會產生IndexError +li[4] # Raises an IndexError + +# 你可以用切片語法來存取特定範圍的值 +# (相當於數學中的左閉右開區間，即包含最左邊界，但不包含右邊界) +li[1:3] # => [2, 4] +# 略過開頭元素 +li[2:] # => [4, 3] +# 略過結尾元素 +li[:3] # => [1, 2, 4] +# 每隔兩個元素取值 +li[::2] # =>[1, 4] +# 串列反轉 +li[::-1] # => [3, 4, 2, 1] +# 你可以任意組合來達到你想要的效果 +# li[開始索引:結束索引:間隔] + +# 用 "del" 從串列中移除任意元素 +del li[2] # 現在 li 內容為 [1, 2, 3] + +# 你可以做串列相加 +li + other_li # => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] +# 註: li 及 other_li 沒有被更動 + +# 用 "extend()" 做串列串接 +li.extend(other_li) # 現在 li 內容為 [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] + +# 移除特定值的第一次出現 +li.remove(2) # 現在 li 內容為 [1, 3, 4, 5, 6] +li.remove(2) # 2 不在串列中，造成 ValueError + +# 在特定位置插入值 +li.insert(1, 2) # 現在 li 內容再次回復為 [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] + +# 取得特定值在串列中第一次出現的位置 +li.index(2) # => 1 +li.index(7) # 7 不在串列中，造成 ValueError + +# 用 "in" 檢查特定值是否出現在串列中 +1 in li # => True + +# 用 "len()" 取得串列長度 +len(li) # => 6 + + +# 元組(Tuple，以下仍用原文)類似於串列，但是它是不可改變的 +tup = (1, 2, 3) +tup[0] # => 1 +tup[0] = 3 # 產生TypeError + +# 能對串列做的東西都可以對tuple做 +len(tup) # => 3 +tup + (4, 5, 6) # => (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) +tup[:2] # => (1, 2) +2 in tup # => True + +# 你可以把tuple拆開並分別將值存入不同變數 +a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) # a 現在是 1, b 現在是 2, c 現在是 3 +d, e, f = 4, 5, 6 # 也可以不寫括號 +# 如果不加括號，預設會產生tuple +g = 4, 5, 6 # => (4, 5, 6) +# 你看，交換兩個值很簡單吧 +e, d = d, e # 此時 d 的值為 5 且 e 的值為 4 + + +# 字典(Dictionary)用來儲存映射關係 +empty_dict = {} +# 你可以對字典做初始化 +filled_dict = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3} + +# 用 [] 取值 +filled_dict["one"] # => 1 + +# 用 "keys()" 將所有的Key輸出到一個List中 +filled_dict.keys() # => ["three", "two", "one"] +# 註: 字典裡key的排序是不固定的 +# 你的執行結果可能與上面不同 +# 譯註: 只能保證所有的key都有出現，但不保證順序 + +# 用 "values()" 將所有的Value輸出到一個List中 +filled_dict.values() # => [3, 2, 1] +# 註: 同上，不保證順序 + +# 用 "in" 來檢查指定的Key是否在字典中 +"one" in filled_dict # => True +1 in filled_dict # => False + +# 查詢不存在的Key會造成KeyError +filled_dict["four"] # KeyError + +# 用 "get()" 來避免KeyError +# 若指定的Key不存在的話會得到None +filled_dict.get("one") # => 1 +filled_dict.get("four") # => None +# "get()" 函式支援預設值，當找不到指定的值時，會回傳指定的預設值 +filled_dict.get("one", 4) # => 1 +filled_dict.get("four", 4) # => 4 +# 注意此時 filled_dict.get("four") 仍然為 None +# (get()此時並沒有產生出任何的值) + +# 像操作list一樣，對指定的Key賦值 +filled_dict["four"] = 4 # 此時 filled_dict["four"] => 4 + +# "setdefault()" 只在指定的Key不存在時才會將值插入dictionary +filled_dict.setdefault("five", 5) # filled_dict["five"] 被指定為 5 +filled_dict.setdefault("five", 6) # filled_dict["five"] 仍保持 5 + + +# 集合(Set)被用來儲存...集合。 +# 跟串列(List)有點像，但集合內不會有重複的元素 +empty_set = set() +# 初始化 "set()" 並給定一些值 +some_set = set([1, 2, 2, 3, 4]) # 現在 some_set 為 set([1, 2, 3, 4])，注意重複的元素只有一個會被存入 + +# 一樣，不保證順序，就算真的有照順序排也只是你運氣好 +another_set = set([4, 3, 2, 2, 1]) # another_set 現在為 set([1, 2, 3, 4]) + +# 從 Python 2.7 開始，可以使用大括號 {} 來宣告Set +filled_set = {1, 2, 2, 3, 4} # => {1, 2, 3, 4} + +# 加入更多元素進入Set +filled_set.add(5) # filled_set is now {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} + +# 用 & 來對兩個集合取交集 +other_set = {3, 4, 5, 6} +filled_set & other_set # => {3, 4, 5} + +# 用 | 來對兩個集合取聯集 +filled_set | other_set # => {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} + +# 用 - 來將第二個集合內有的元素移出第一個集合 +{1, 2, 3, 4} - {2, 3, 5} # => {1, 4} + +# 用 ^ 來對兩個集合取差集 +{1, 2, 3, 4} ^ {2, 3, 5} # => {1, 4, 5} + +# 檢查左邊是否為右邊的母集 +{1, 2} >= {1, 2, 3} # => False + +# 檢查左邊是否為右邊的子集 +{1, 2} <= {1, 2, 3} # => True + +# 用 in 來檢查某元素是否存在於集合內 +2 in filled_set # => True +10 in filled_set # => False + + +#################################################### +## 3. 控制流程 +#################################################### + +# 首先，先宣告一個變數 +some_var = 5 + +# 這邊是 if 判斷式。注意，縮排對Python是很重要的。 +# 下面應該會印出 "some_var is smaller than 10" +if some_var > 10: + print "some_var is totally bigger than 10." +elif some_var < 10: # elif 可有可無 + print "some_var is smaller than 10." +else: # else 也可有可無 + print "some_var is indeed 10." + + +""" +For 迴圈會遞迴整的List +下面的程式碼會輸出: + dog is a mammal + cat is a mammal + mouse is a mammal +""" +for animal in ["dog", "cat", "mouse"]: + # 你可以用{0}來組合0出格式化字串 (見上面.) + print "{0} is a mammal".format(animal) + +""" +"range(number)" 回傳一個包含從0到給定值的數字List， +下面的程式碼會輸出: + 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 +""" +for i in range(4): + print i + +""" +"range(lower, upper)" 回傳一個包含從給定的下限 +到給定的上限的數字List +下面的程式碼會輸出: + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 +""" +for i in range(4, 8): + print i + +""" +While迴圈會執行到條件不成立為止 +下面的程式碼會輸出: + 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 +""" +x = 0 +while x < 4: + print x + x += 1 # x = x + 1 的簡寫 + +# 用try/except處理例外 + +# 適用Python 2.6及以上版本 +try: + # 用 "raise" 來發起例外 + raise IndexError("This is an index error") +except IndexError as e: + pass # 毫無反應，就只是個什麼都沒做的pass。通常這邊會讓你做對例外的處理 +except (TypeError, NameError): + pass # 有需要的話，多種例外可以一起處理 +else: # else 可有可無，但必須寫在所有的except後 + print "All good!" # 只有在try的時候沒有產生任何except才會被執行 +finally: # 不管什麼情況下一定會被執行 + print "We can clean up resources here" + +# 除了try/finally以外，你可以用 with 來簡單的處理清理動作 +with open("myfile.txt") as f: + for line in f: + print line + +#################################################### +## 4. 函式 +#################################################### + +# 用 "def" 來建立新函式 +def add(x, y): + print "x is {0} and y is {1}".format(x, y) + return x + y # 用 "return" 來回傳值 + +# 用參數來呼叫函式 +add(5, 6) # => 輸出 "x is 5 and y is 6" 並回傳 11 + +# 你也可以寫上參數名稱來呼叫函式 +add(y=6, x=5) # 這種狀況下，兩個參數的順序並不影響執行 + + +# 你可以定義接受多個變數的函式，用*來表示參數tuple +def varargs(*args): + return args + +varargs(1, 2, 3) # => (1, 2, 3) + + +# 你可以定義接受多個變數的函式，用**來表示參數dictionary +def keyword_args(**kwargs): + return kwargs + +# 呼叫看看會發生什麼事吧 +keyword_args(big="foot", loch="ness") # => {"big": "foot", "loch": "ness"} + + +# 如果你想要，你也可以兩個同時用 +def all_the_args(*args, **kwargs): + print args + print kwargs +""" +all_the_args(1, 2, a=3, b=4) prints: + (1, 2) + {"a": 3, "b": 4} +""" + +# 呼叫函式時，你可以做反向的操作 +# 用 * 將變數展開為順序排序的變數 +# 用 ** 將變數展開為Keyword排序的變數 +args = (1, 2, 3, 4) +kwargs = {"a": 3, "b": 4} +all_the_args(*args) # 等同於 foo(1, 2, 3, 4) +all_the_args(**kwargs) # 等同於 foo(a=3, b=4) +all_the_args(*args, **kwargs) # 等同於 foo(1, 2, 3, 4, a=3, b=4) + +# 你可以把args跟kwargs傳到下一個函式內 +# 分別用 * 跟 ** 將它展開就可以了 +def pass_all_the_args(*args, **kwargs): + all_the_args(*args, **kwargs) + print varargs(*args) + print keyword_args(**kwargs) + +# 函式範圍 +x = 5 + +def set_x(num): + # 區域變數 x 和全域變數 x 不是同一個東西 + x = num # => 43 + print x # => 43 + +def set_global_x(num): + global x + print x # => 5 + x = num # 全域變數 x 在set_global_x(6)被設定為 6 + print x # => 6 + +set_x(43) +set_global_x(6) + +# Python有一級函式 +def create_adder(x): + def adder(y): + return x + y + return adder + +add_10 = create_adder(10) +add_10(3) # => 13 + +# 也有匿名函式 +(lambda x: x > 2)(3) # => True +(lambda x, y: x ** 2 + y ** 2)(2, 1) # => 5 + +# 還有內建的高階函式 +map(add_10, [1, 2, 3]) # => [11, 12, 13] +map(max, [1, 2, 3], [4, 2, 1]) # => [4, 2, 3] + +filter(lambda x: x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) # => [6, 7] + +# 我們可以用List列表的方式對map和filter等高階函式做更有趣的應用 +[add_10(i) for i in [1, 2, 3]] # => [11, 12, 13] +[x for x in [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] if x > 5] # => [6, 7] + + +#################################################### +## 5. 類別 +#################################################### + +# 我們可以由object繼承出一個新的類別 +class Human(object): + + # 類別的參數，被所有這個類別的實體所共用 + species = "H. sapiens" + + # 基礎建構函式，當class被實體化的時候會被呼叫 + # 注意前後的雙底線 + # 代表此物件或屬性雖然在使用者控制的命名空間內，但是被python使用 + def __init__(self, name): + # 將函式引入的參數 name 指定給實體的 name 參數 + self.name = name + + # 初始化屬性 + self.age = 0 + + + # 一個實體的方法(method)。 所有的method都以self為第一個參數 + def say(self, msg): + return "{0}: {1}".format(self.name, msg) + + # 一個類別方法會被所有的實體所共用 + # 他們會以類別為第一參數的方式被呼叫 + @classmethod + def get_species(cls): + return cls.species + + # 靜態方法 + @staticmethod + def grunt(): + return "*grunt*" + + # 屬性就像是用getter取值一樣 + # 它將方法 age() 轉為同名的、只能讀取的屬性 + @property + def age(self): + return self._age + + # 這樣寫的話可以讓屬性被寫入新的值 + @age.setter + def age(self, age): + self._age = age + + # 這樣寫的話允許屬性被刪除 + @age.deleter + def age(self): + del self._age + + +# 將類別實體化 +i = Human(name="Ian") +print i.say("hi") # prints out "Ian: hi" + +j = Human("Joel") +print j.say("hello") # prints out "Joel: hello" + +# 呼叫類別方法 +i.get_species() # => "H. sapiens" + +# 更改共用的屬性 +Human.species = "H. neanderthalensis" +i.get_species() # => "H. neanderthalensis" +j.get_species() # => "H. neanderthalensis" + +# 呼叫靜態方法 +Human.grunt() # => "*grunt*" + +# 更新屬性 +i.age = 42 + +# 取得屬性 +i.age # => 42 + +# 移除屬性 +del i.age +i.age # => raises an AttributeError + + +#################################################### +## 6. 模組 +#################################################### + +# 你可以引入模組來做使用 +import math +print math.sqrt(16) # => 4 + # math.sqrt()為取根號 + +# 你可以只從模組取出特定幾個函式 +from math import ceil, floor +print ceil(3.7) # => 4.0 +print floor(3.7) # => 3.0 + +# 你可以將所有的函式從模組中引入 +# 注意：不建議這麼做 +from math import * + +# 你可以用 as 簡寫模組名稱 +import math as m +math.sqrt(16) == m.sqrt(16) # => True +# 你也可以測試函示是否相等 +from math import sqrt +math.sqrt == m.sqrt == sqrt # => True + +# Python的模組就只是一般的Python檔。 +# 你可以自己的模組自己寫、自己的模組自己引入 +# 模組的名稱和檔案名稱一樣 + +# 你可以用dir()來查看有哪些可用函式和屬性 +import math +dir(math) + + +#################################################### +## 7. 進階 +#################################################### + +# 產生器(Generator)可以讓你寫更懶惰的程式碼 +def double_numbers(iterable): + for i in iterable: + yield i + i + +# 產生器可以讓你即時的產生值 +# 不是全部產生完之後再一次回傳，產生器會在每一個遞迴時 +# 產生值。 這也意味著大於15的值不會在double_numbers中產生。 +# 這邊，xrange()做的事情和range()一樣 +# 建立一個 1-900000000 的List會消耗很多時間和記憶體空間 +# xrange() 建立一個產生器物件，而不是如range()建立整個List +# 我們用底線來避免可能和python的關鍵字重複的名稱 +xrange_ = xrange(1, 900000000) + +# 下面的程式碼會把所有的值乘以兩倍，直到出現大於30的值 +for i in double_numbers(xrange_): + print i + if i >= 30: + break + + +# 裝飾子 +# 在這個範例中，beg會綁在say上 +# Beg會呼叫say。 如果say_please為True的話，它會更改回傳的訊息 +from functools import wraps + + +def beg(target_function): + @wraps(target_function) + def wrapper(*args, **kwargs): + msg, say_please = target_function(*args, **kwargs) + if say_please: + return "{} {}".format(msg, "Please! I am poor :(") + return msg + + return wrapper + + +@beg +def say(say_please=False): + msg = "Can you buy me a beer?" + return msg, say_please + + +print say() # Can you buy me a beer? +print say(say_please=True) # Can you buy me a beer? Please! I am poor :( +``` + +## 準備好學更多了嗎? + +### 線上免費資源 + +* [Automate the Boring Stuff with Python](https://automatetheboringstuff.com) +* [Learn Python The Hard Way](http://learnpythonthehardway.org/book/) +* [Dive Into Python](http://www.diveintopython.net/) +* [The Official Docs](http://docs.python.org/2/) +* [Hitchhiker's Guide to Python](http://docs.python-guide.org/en/latest/) +* [Python Module of the Week](http://pymotw.com/2/) +* [A Crash Course in Python for Scientists](http://nbviewer.ipython.org/5920182) +* [First Steps With Python](https://realpython.com/learn/python-first-steps/) + +### 或買本書? + +* [Programming Python](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596158106/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0596158106&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20) +* [Dive Into Python](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1441413022/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1441413022&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20) +* [Python Essential Reference](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0672329786/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0672329786&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20) |